Career Theories

Table of the Contents:

A. Overview of Career Theories e. Social Cognitive Theory- Lent, Brown and Hackett
B. Why Study Theory? i. 3 Building Blocks of SCCT
a. Four Disciplines Where the Career Theory Came ii. SCCT’s Performance Model
C. Career Theories iii.SCCT’s Choice Model
a. Holland Theory of Vocational Type iv. SCCT’s Interests Model
i. Common Themes f. Ginzberg, Ginsburg, Axelrad and Herma Theory
ii. 6 Holland Types i. 4 factors influencing one’s vocational choice
iii. Advantages of Holland Types for Career ii. 3 stages of developmental path to career choice
Counselling
iv. Disadvantage of Holland Types for School
Counselling
b. Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory
i. Self-Efficacy
ii. Four Most Influential Sources where Self-
Efficacy is Derived
iii. Self Esteem VS. Self-Efficacy
iv. How Self-Efficacy Affects Human Function
v. Efficacy VS. Outcome Expectation
c. Super’s Developmental Self-Concept Theory
i. Stages
ii. Development Tasks
iii. Implications of Super’s Developmental Self-
Concept Theory for Career Counselling
d. Parson’s Trait and Factor Theory
i. Seven stages for a career counsellor to work
through with clients
Overview of Career Development Theories
Career Developmentis a “continuous lifelong process of
developmental experiences that focuses on seeking, obtaining and
processing information about self, occupational and educational
alternatives, life styles and role options” (Hansen, 1976).
 This career development process is where an individual
fashions a work identity.
 It is imperative when educating our young people that our
school systems assist and consider the significance of this
responsibility for our youth and their future.
 The influences on and outcomes of career development are
one aspect of socialization as part of a broader process of
human development.
Why Study Theory?
Theories and research describing career behavior provide the
“conceptual glue” for as well as describe where, when and for what
purpose career counseling, career education, career guidance and
other career interventions should be implemented.
The process of career development theory comes from four
disciplines:
 Differential Psychology- interested in work and occupations 
Personality- view individuals as an organizer of their own
experiences
 Sociology- focus on occupational mobility
 Developmental Psychology- concerned with the “life course”
“Theory is a picture, an image, a description, a representation of
reality. It is not reality itself. It is a way we can think about some part
of reality so that we can comprehend it” (Krumboltz)
Holland Theory of Vocational Types
This approach gives explicit attention to behavioral style or
personality types as the major influence in career choice
development. This is described as structurally interactive.
Common Themes:
 Occupation choice is an expression of personality and not
random
 Members of an occupational group have similar
personalities
 People in each group will respond to situations an problems
similarly
 Occupational achievement, stability and satisfaction depends
on congruence between one’s personality and job
environment
6 Holland Types
 Realistic - work with hands, machines, tools, active,
practical, adventurous
 High traits - practical, masculine, stable
 Low traits - sensitive, feminine, stable
 Occupations - construction, farming, architecture,
truck driving, mail carrier
 Investigative – thought, analytical approaches, explore,
knowledge, ideas, not social
 High traits – scholarly, intellectual, critical
 Low traits – powerful, ambitious, adventurous
  Occupations – biologist, chemist, dentist, rderly
veterinarian, programmer  High traits – stable, efficient, dependable,
 Artistic – literary, musical, artistic activities, emotional, controlled
creative, open  Low traits – intellectual, adventurous, creative
 High traits – expressive, creative, spontaneous  Occupations – bank teller, clerk typist, cashier, data
 Low traits – orderly, efficient, conventional, social, entry
masculine
 Occupations – artist, musician, poet, interior
designer, writer
 Social – train, inform, educate, help, supportive, avoid
technical skills, empathy, relationships
 High traits – cooperative, friendly, humanistic Advantages of Holland Types for Career Counseling Types
 Low traits – ambitious, creative, strong,
 Occupations – social work, counseling, police  are intuitively appealing and easily shared with students.
officer, LPN  Helps students get oriented to the worlds of work that isn’t
 Enterprising – verbally skilled, persuasive, direct, leader, overwhelming.
dominant  Provides helpful way of understanding varied work
 High traits – ambitious, adventurous, energetic environments.
 Low traits – intellectual, creative, feminine
Disadvantages of Holland Types for School Counseling Theory
 Occupations – lawyer, business executive,
politician, TV producer  doesn’t provide insights into how one develops a type or
 Conventional – rules and routines, provide order or direct guidance for working with student.
structure, great self control, respect power and status,
p Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory
u
The concept of self efficacy is the focal point of Albert Bandura’s
n
social cognitive theory.
c
t By means of the self system, individuals exercise control over their
u thoughts, feelings, and actions. Among the beliefs with which an
a individual evaluates the control over his/her actions and
l,
o
environment, self-efficacy beliefs are the most influential predictor
of human behavior.
The level and strength of self-efficacy will determine:
 whether coping behavior will be initiated
 how much effort will result
 how long the effort will be sustained in the face of obstacles.
Self-Efficacy - the belief in one’s capabilities to organize and execute
the courses of action required to produce given attainments- is
constructed on the basis of:
Four most influential sources where self-efficacy is derived:
 Personal Performance - Accomplishments-previous successes or
failures (most influential)
 Vicarious Experience - Watching others, modeling, mentoring
 Verbal Persuasion - Verbal encouragement or discouragement
 Physiological and Emotional Factors - Perceptions of stress
reactions in the body
Self Esteem VS. Self Efficacy.
 Self esteem relates to a person’s sense of self worth.
 Self efficacy relates to a person’s perception of their ability to
reach a goal.
How Self Efficacy Affects Human Function
 Choices regarding behavior-People will be more inclined to
take on a task if they believe they can succeed. People
generally avoid tasks where their self efficacy is low, but
engage when it is high.
 Motivation- People with higher self efficacy in a task are
likely to expend more effort and persist longer than with low
efficacy. On the other hand, low self efficacy may provide an
incentive to learn more and prepare better than a person with
higher self efficacy.
 Thought Patterns and Responses- Low self efficacy can lead
people to believe tasks are harder than they actually are. This
leads to poor planning and stress. A person with higher self
efficacy will attribute a failure to external factors, whereas a
person with lower self efficacy will attribute it to low ability.
(Example: Math Test)
 The Destiny Idea- Bandura successfully showed that people
with differing self-efficacy perceive the world in
fundamentally different ways. People with a high self
efficacy are generally of the opinion that they are in control
of their own lives: that their own actions and decisions shape
their lives. On the other hand, people with low self-efficacy
may see their lives as somewhat out of their hands and with
fate.
Efficacy vs. Outcome Expectations
Bandura distinguishes between outcome expectancy and and
efficacy expectancy.
Outcome expectation refers to the person’s estimate that a given
behavior will lead to particular outcomes.
 Efficacy expectation is an estimate that one can successfully
execute the behavior required to produce the outcomes sought.
The relationship among goals, self-efficacy, and outcome
expectations is complex and occurs within the framework of:
Bandura’s Triadic Reciprocal Model of Causality – these factors
are all affecting each other simultaneously
 personal attributes
 external environmental factors
 overt behaviour
Super’s Developmental Self-Concept Theory
Vocational development is the process of developing and
implementing a self-concept.
As the self-concept becomes more realistic and stable, so does
vocational choice and behavior. People choose occupations that
permit them to express their self-concepts. Work satisfaction is
related to the degree that they’ve been able to implement their
selfconcepts.
Career Maturity - Similarity between one’s actual vocational
behavior and what is expected for that stage of development. Career
maturity includes readiness to cope with developmental tasks at a
given stage. It is both affective and cognitive.
Stages Growth
(Birth to mid teens) - Major developmental tasks are to develop a
self-concept and to move from play to work orientation.
Sub stages :
 Fantasy (4-10 years old) - needs dominate career
fantasies and little reality orientation.
 Interest (11-12 years old) - identifies likes/dislikes as
basis for career choices
 Capacity (13-14 years old) - more reality incorporated;
can relate own skills to specific requirements of jobs.
(Vocationalizing the self concept)
Exploration (Mid teens through early 20’s) - major tasks are to
develop a realistic selfconcept and implement a vocational
preference though role tryouts and exploration; there is a gradual
narrowing of choices leading to implementation of a preference.
Preferences become CHOICES when acted upon.
Sub Stages:
 Tentative (15-17 years old) - tentative choices incorporating
needs, interests, abilities are tried out in fantasy,
coursework, part time work, volunteer, shadowing.
May identify field and level of work at this sub stage.
 Crystallization of Preference (18-21 years old) - General
preference is converted into specific choice. Reality
dominates as one enters the job market or training after high
school. Choosing a college major or field of training.
 Specifying a Vocational Preference (early 20’s) - trial/little
commitment; first job is tried out as life’s work but the
implemented choice is provisional and person may cycle
back through crystallizing and specifying if not appropriate.
Establishment (mid 20’s through mid 40’s) - major tasks are to find
secure niche in one’s field and advance within it.
Sub Stages :
 Trial and Stabilization (25-30 years old) - process of settling
down, if unsatisfactory may make 1-2 more changes before
the right job is found.
 Advancement (30-40 years old) - efforts directed at securing
one’s position, acquiring seniority, developing skills,
demonstrating superior performance, resume building
actions.
Maintenance (40’s through early 60’s) - Major task is to preserve
one’s gains and develop non-occupational roles for things one
always wanted to do; Little new ground is broken, one continues
established work patterns. One faces competition from younger
workers. Could be a plateau.
Disengagement or Decline (Late 60’s through retirement) - Tasks are
deceleration of the career, gradual disengagement from world of
work and retirement. One is challenged to find other sources of
satisfaction. May shift to part time to suit declining capacities.
Development Tasks
Implications of Super’s Theory for Career Counseling
 Identify the career development stage and set goals for mastery of
the tasks unique to each stage.
 Help student clarify self-concept because any task that enhances
self-knowledge will increase vocational maturity. Then help them
relate their self-knowledge to occupational information
 Expose students to a wider range of careers because occupational
options narrow over time. Consider lifestyle implications and
consider the vocational and advocational relevance of subjects
studied in school.
 Direct work experiences are vital. Try on roles in real worlds of
work.
Supers developmental view of career development in the context
of the self allows for changes over time. This is very appropriate in
the 21st Century workplace.

Crystallization Forming a general vocational goal

Specification Move from tentative to specific preference

Implementation Complete training, enter employment

Stabilization Confirm choice through work experience

Consolidation Advance in career

Parson’s Trait and Factor Theory
Frank Parsons developed the idea of matching careers to talents, skills
and personality.People perform best when they are in jobs best
suited to their abilities
Frank Parsons is regarded as the founder of the vocational guidance
movement. He developed the talent-matching approach, which was
later developed into the Trait and Factor Theory of Occupational
Choice. At the centre of Parsons' theory is the concept of matching.
Parsons states that occupational decision making occurs when people
have achieved:
 an accurate understanding of their individual traits (aptitudes,
interests, personal abilities)
 a knowledge of jobs and the labour market
 rational and objective judgement about the relationship between
their individual traits, and the labour market.
This three-part theory still governs most current practice.
 The trait and factor theory operates under the premise that it is
possible to measure both individual talents and the attributes
required in particular jobs.
 It also assumes that people may be matched to an occupation
that's a good fit.
 Parsons suggests that when individuals are in jobs best suited
to their abilities they perform best and their productivity is
highest.
In his book, 'Choosing a Vocation', Parsons maintains that personal
counsel is fundamental to the career search. In particular, he notes
seven stages for a career counsellor to work through with clients:
1. Personal data: create a statement of key facts about the person,
remembering to include every fact that has bearing on the
vocational problem.
2. Self-analysis: a self-examination is done in private and under the
instruction of the counsellor. Every tendency and interest that
might impact on the choice of a life work should be recorded.
3. The client’s own choice and decision: this may show itself in the
first two stages. The counsellor must bear in mind that the choice
of vocation should be made by the client, with the counsellor
acting as guide.
4. Counsellor’s analysis: the counsellor tests the client’s decision to
see if it is in line with the “main quest”.
5. Outlook on the vocational field: the counsellor should be familiar
with industrial knowledge such as lists and classifications of
industries and vocations, in addition to locations of training and
apprenticeships.
6. Induction and advice: a broad-minded attitude coupled with
logical and clear reasoning are critical at this stage.
7. General helpfulness: the counsellor helps the client to fit into the
chosen work, and to reflect on the decision.
Social Cognitive Theory- Lent, Brown and Hackett
environmental supports to pursue these activities.
Social cognitive career theory (SCCT) is a relatively new
theory that is aimed at explaining three interrelated aspects of
career development: (1) how basic academic and career
interests develop, (2) how educational and career choices are
made, and (3) how academic and career success is obtained.
The theory incorporates a variety of concepts (e.g., interests,
abilities, values, environmental factors) that appear in earlier
career theories and have been found to affect career
development. Developed by Robert W. Lent, Steven D. Brown,
and Gail Hackett in 1994, SCCT is based on Albert Bandura’s
general social cognitive theory, an influential theory of
cognitive and motivational processes that has been extended to
the study of many areas of psychosocial functioning, such as
academic performance, health behavior, and organizational
development.
Three intricately linked variables—self-efficacy beliefs,
outcome expectations, and goals—serve as the basic building
blocks of SCCT. Self-efficacy refers to an individual’s personal
beliefs about his or her capabilities to perform particular
behaviors or courses of action. Unlike global confidence or
self-esteem, self-efficacy beliefs are relatively dynamic (i.e.,
changeable) and are specific to particular activity domains.
People vary in their self-efficacy regarding the behaviors
required in different occupational domains. For example, one
person might feel very confident in being able to accomplish
tasks for successful entry into, and performance in, scientific
fields but feel much less confident about his or her abilities in
social or enterprising fields, such as sales. SCCT assumes that
people are likely to become interested in, choose to pursue, and
perform better at activities at which they have strong self-
efficacy beliefs, as long as they also have necessary skills and
 Self-efficacy beliefs are assumed to derive from four
primary sources of information: personal performance
accomplishments, vicarious experiences (e.g.,
observing similar others), social persuasion, and
physiological and emotional states. Personal
accomplishments (successes and failures with specific
tasks) are assumed to offer a particularly compelling
source of efficacy information, but the nature of the
social models and reinforcing messages to which one is
exposed, and the types of physiological states one
experiences while engaged in particular tasks (e.g., low
levels of anxiety), can all affect one’s self-efficacy
regarding different performance domains.
 Outcome expectations refer to beliefs about the
consequences or outcomes of performing particular
behaviors (e.g., what will happen if I do this?). The
choices that people make about the activities in which
they will engage, and their effort and persistence at
these activities, entail consideration of outcome as well
as self-efficacy beliefs. For example, people are more
likely to choose to engage in an activity to the extent
that they see their involvement as leading to valued,
positive outcomes (e.g., social and self-approval,
tangible rewards, attractive work conditions).
According to SCCT and the larger social cognitive
theory, persons’ engagement in activities, the effort and
persistence they put into them, and their ultimate
success are partly determined by both their self-efficacy
beliefs and outcome expectations.
 Personal goals may be defined as one’s intentions to
engage in a particular activity (e.g., to pursue a given
academic major) or to attain a certain level of
performance (e.g., to receive an A in a particular
course). In SCCT, these two types of goals are,
respectively, referred to as choice goals and
performance goals. By setting goals, people help to
organize and guide their own behavior and to sustain it
in the absence of more immediate positive feedback and
despite inevitable setbacks. Social cognitive theory
posits that goals are importantly tied to both self-
efficacy and outcome expectations: People tend to set
goals that are consistent with their views of their
personal capabilities and of the outcomes they expect to
attain from pursuing a particular course of action.
Success or failure in reaching personal goals, in turn,
becomes important information that helps to alter or
confirm self-efficacy beliefs and outcome expectations.
SCCT’s Interests Model
Self-efficacy, outcome expectations, and goals play key roles
in SCCT’s models of educational and vocational interest
development, choice making, and performance attainment. As
shown in the center of the figure above, interests in career-
relevant activities are seen as the outgrowth of self-efficacy and
outcome expectations. Over the course of childhood and
adolescence, people are exposed, directly and vicariously, to a
variety of occupationally relevant activities in school, at home,
and in their communities. They are also deferentially reinforced
for continuing their engagement, and for developing their
skills, in different activity domains. The types and variety of
activities to which children and adolescents are exposed is
partly a function of the context and culture in which they grow
up. Depending on cultural norms, for example, girls are
typically exposed to and reinforced for engaging in different
types of activities than are boys.
Through continued activity exposure, practice, and feedback,
people refine their skills, develop personal performance
standards, form a sense of their efficacy in particular tasks, and
acquire certain expectations about the outcomes of activity
engagement. People are most likely to develop interest in
activities at which they both feel efficacious and from which
they expect positive outcomes. As people develop interest in an
activity, they are likely to develop goals for sustaining or
increasing their involvement in it. Further activity involvement
leads to subsequent mastery or failure experiences, which, in
turn, help to revise self-efficacy, outcome expectations, and,
ultimately, interests within an ongoing feedback loop.
Interest development may be most fluid up until late
adolescence, the point at which general interests (e.g., in art,
science, social, or mechanical activities) tend to become fairly
stable. At the same time, data on the stability of interests
suggest that interest change does occur for some people during
their post-adolescent years. SCCT posits that such changes,
when they do occur, can be explained by changes in self-
efficacy beliefs and/or outcome expectations—more precisely,
by exposure to potent new learning experiences (e.g.,
parenting, technological advances, job training or restructuring)
that enable people to alter their sense of self-efficacy and
outcome expectations in new occupational and avocational
directions.
In sum, people are likely to form enduring interest in an
activity when they view themselves as competent at performing
it and when they expect the activity to produce valued
outcomes. Conversely, interests are unlikely to develop in
activities for which people doubt their competence and expect
negative outcomes. Furthermore, SCCT posits that for interests
to blossom in areas for which people have talent, their
environments must expose them to the types of direct,
vicarious, and persuasive experiences that can give rise to
robust efficacy beliefs and positive outcome expectations.
Interests are impeded from developing when individuals do not
have the opportunity to form strong self-efficacy and positive
outcome beliefs, regardless of their level of objective talent.
Indeed, findings suggest that perceived capabilities and
outcome expectations form key intervening links between
objective abilities and interests.
SCCT’s Choice Model
SCCT’s model of the career choice process, which builds on
the interests model, is also embedded in the figure above.
Arising largely through self-efficacy and outcome expectations,
career-related interests foster particular educational and
occupational choice goals (e.g., intentions to pursue a particular
career path). Especially to the extent that they are clear,
specific, strongly held, stated publicly, and supported by
significant others, choice goals make it more likely that people
will take actions to achieve their goals (e.g., seek to gain entry
into a particular academic major, training program, or job).
Their subsequent performance attainments (e.g., successes,
failures) provide valuable feedback that can strengthen or
weaken self-efficacy and outcome expectations and, ultimately,
help to revise or confirm choices.
As illustrated in the same figure, SCCT also emphasizes that
choice goals are sometimes influenced more directly and
potently by self-efficacy beliefs, outcome expectations, or
environmental variables than they are by interests. Interests are
expected to exert their greatest impact on academic and
occupational choice under supportive environmental
conditions, which enable people to pursue their interests.
However, many adolescents and adults are not able to follow
their interests either unfettered by obstacles or with the full
support of important others. The choice making of these
persons is constrained by such experiences as economic need,
family pressures, or educational limitations. In such instances,
people may need to compromise their interests and, instead,
make their choices on the basis of such pragmatic
considerations as the type of work that is available to them,
their self-efficacy beliefs (“Can I do this type of work?”), and
outcome expectations (“Will the job pay enough to make it
worthwhile?”). Cultural values (e.g., the degree to which one’s
choices may be guided by elder family members) may also
limit the role of personal interests in career choice.
SCCT posits conditions that increase the probability that
people will be able to pursue their interests as well as
conditions where interests may need to be compromised in
making career-related choices. Collectively labeled
“environmental influences” in the above figure, these
conditions refer to the levels of support (e.g., family financial
and emotional support), barriers (e.g., lack of finances,
inadequate levels of education), and opportunities available to
the individual. Simply put, SCCT hypothesizes that interests
will be a more potent predictor of the types of choices people
make under supportive rather than under more restrictive
environmental conditions. Under the latter conditions, one’s
interests may need to be bypassed or compromised in favor of
more pragmatic, pressing, or culturally acceptable
considerations.
SCCT’s Performance Model
SCCT’s performance model is concerned with predicting and
explaining two primary aspects of performance: the level of
success that people attain in educational and occupational
pursuits and the degree to which they persist in the face of
obstacles. SCCT focuses on the influences of ability, self-
efficacy, outcome expectations, and performance goals on
success and persistence. Ability (as reflected by past
achievement and aptitudes) is assumed to affect performance
via two primary pathways. First, ability influences performance
and persistence directly. For example, students with higher
aptitude in a particular subject tend to do better and persist
longer in that subject than do students with lesser aptitude.
(Ability or aptitude may be thought of as a composite of innate
potential and acquired knowledge.) Second, ability is
hypothesized to influence performance and persistence
indirectly though the intervening paths of self-efficacy and
outcome expectations.
In other words, performance involves both ability and
motivation. SCCT emphasizes the motivational roles of self-
efficacy, outcome expectations, and performance goals.
Specifically, SCCT suggests that self-efficacy and outcome
expectations work in concert with ability, in part by influencing
the types of performance goals that people set for themselves.
Controlling for level of ability, students and workers with
higher self-efficacy and more positive outcome expectations
will be more likely to establish higher performance goals for
themselves (i.e., aim for more challenging attainments), to
organize their skills more effectively, and to persist longer in
the face of setbacks. As a result, they may achieve higher levels
of success than those with lower self-efficacy and less positive
outcome expectations. Thus favorable self-efficacy, outcome
expectations, and goals help people to make the best possible
use of their ability.
with more optimistic self-efficacy beliefs, are likely to set
lower goals for themselves, experience undue performance
anxiety, give up more quickly in the face of obstacles,
challenge themselves less academically, and consequently
experience less academic success.
Social cognitive theory notes that large overestimates of self-
efficacy can also be self-defeating. For example, job trainees
whose self-efficacy drastically overshoots their current skills
are likely to set unrealistically high performance goals and to
take on job tasks that are beyond their current grasp, which
may occasion failure and discouragement. According to
Bandura, self-efficacy beliefs that modestly exceed current
capabilities are probably optimum because they are likely to
lead people to set challenging (but attainable) performance
goals and to engage in activities that stretch their skills and that
further strengthen their self-efficacy and positive outcome
expectations.

It should be emphasized that self-efficacy is seen as

complementing, not substituting for, ability. Indeed, SCCT
does not assume that self-efficacy will compensate for
inadequate task ability. It does, however, predict that the
performance of individuals at the same ability level will be
facilitated by stronger versus weaker self-efficacy beliefs. For
example, academically able adolescents who underestimate
their academic talents, compared to their equally able peers
Ginzberg, Ginsburg, Axelrad and Herma Theory – 1951
Recognizing that vocational choice is influenced by four facts:
 the reality factor,
 the influence of the educational process,
 the emotional factor
 individual values
This theory proposes that it is a development path that leads
to career choice.
Starting in preteen and ending in young adulthood,
individuals pass through three stages: fantasy, tentative and
realistic.
Fantasy
Ginzberg's first milestone in career development takes place
during childhood, from birth to 11 years old. During this stage,
children primarily engage in playful acts, simulating
occupations such as firefighter, police officer, race car driver,
etc. Ginzberg believed children transition from playful
imitiation to work imitation near the end of this stage, i.e. from
simply wearing costumes to acting out the specific duties of a
job.
Tentative
From 11 to 17 years of age, adolescent children are able to
better focus on, and recognize, work requirements. There are
four stages in this period. The first stage is "interest," where
children learn likes and dislikes. The second stage is
"capacity," where the child learns how much her abilities align
with her interests. The third stage, "values," sees the child at 15
become aware of how work may fulfill her values. The final
stage of this period is called "transition," and begins when the
individual assumes responsibility for her own actions, becomes
independent and exercises her freedom of choice.
Realistic
The realistic period begins at age 17 and goes into the early
20s. During this stage, the person establishes alternative paths
in her work life, or a "backup plan." Throughout this three
stage period, she will develop personal values and begin to zero
in on her optimal career choice. The first period of the realistic
stage is "exploration." During this stage, the individual choose
her career path but remains open to other opportunities. The
next stage, "crystallization," is when she becomes more
engrossed in a particular career, committing to one direction
more than she ever has. The third period is "specification," in
which she commits to or develops a preference for a specific
area of her occupation.
Does this theory fit with every adolescent’s career choice
process? No. It has been recognized that issues of gender, race
and social class come into play to open or close doors of
occupational choice.