ASL734 –

Dynamics of the
Atmosphere
Lecture - 2
 Viscous Force
Frictional force acts between the surfaces of a fluid

Viscous force is a dissipative force that results in slowing

the motion of air in the absence of other forces
Viscous force per unit area or shear stress
𝜕𝑢
𝜏=𝜇 𝜇 − Viscosity coef1icient
𝜕𝑧

𝜕𝜏45 𝛿𝑧 𝜕𝜏45 𝛿𝑧 𝜕F𝑢 𝜕F𝑢 𝜕F𝑢

𝐹45 = 𝜏45 + 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦 − 𝜏45 − 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦 𝐹D5 = 𝜐 + +
𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑥 F 𝜕𝑦 F 𝜕𝑧 F
𝜕F𝑣 𝜕F𝑣 𝜕F𝑣
;<=> ? ;AB ;AB 𝐹DG = 𝜐 + +
𝐹45 = 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧 = =𝜈 𝜕𝑥 F 𝜕𝑦 F 𝜕𝑧 F
;4 @ ;4 A ;4 A

? 𝜕F𝑤 𝜕F𝑤 𝜕F𝑤

𝜈= is called kinematic viscosity coefficient ν = 1.46 × 10−5m 2s −1 𝐹D4 = 𝜐 + +
@ 𝜕𝑥 F 𝜕𝑦 F 𝜕𝑧 F
Gravitational Force
If M is mass of earth and m is the mass of element of
atmosphere

Fg GM r
= g* = − 2 ( )
m r r
r =a+z

Where a is the radius of earth and z height above surface

GM r
At sea level, g*
0
= − 2 ( )
a r
The equations of motion of air (any fluid) in a
Cartesian non-rotating frame
𝐷𝑈 1
= 𝑃𝐺𝐹 + 𝑔 + 𝑉𝐹 + 𝐶𝑜𝐹
𝐷𝑡 𝑚

𝐷𝑢 1 𝜕𝑝
=− + 𝜈∇F 𝑢
𝐷𝑡 𝜌 𝜕𝑥

𝐷𝑣 1 𝜕𝑝
=− + 𝜈∇F 𝑣
𝐷𝑡 𝜌 𝜕𝑦

𝐷𝑤 1 𝜕𝑝
=− − 𝑔 + 𝜈∇F 𝑤
𝐷𝑧 𝜌 𝜕𝑧

PGF Gravity Viscous

Centrifugal Force
To an observer in inertial frame,
the direction of the object keeps
on changing

𝛿𝑽 = 𝑽 𝛿𝜃
𝐷𝜃
𝐷𝑽 𝐷𝜃 −𝒓 𝑽 = 𝜔𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 =𝜔
𝐷𝑡
𝛿𝑡 → 0, = |𝑽|
𝐷𝑡 𝐷𝑡 𝑟

Viewed from fixed coordinates, the motion is 𝐷𝑽 F

𝑽F
= −𝜔 𝑟 = −
one of uniform acceleration directed towards 𝐷𝑡 𝑟
the axis of rotation at a rate equal to the
square of angular velocity times distance Centripetal acceleration
from the axis of rotation
To an observer rotating with the frame, the
object is stationary. But there is still a force
acting on the object, namely the pull of the
string

In order to apply Newton’s second law to

describe the motion relative to this rotating
coordinate system, we must add an additional
apparent force, called Centrifugal Force. The
Centrifugal Force is just equal and opposite to
Centripetal Acceleration
 Ω=7.2921 x 10-5 rad s-1
Apparent Gravity
An object at rest on earth’s surface will
experience both gravitational force (g*)
and centrifugal force (Ω2R)

These two forces together forms an

‘apparent gravity force’, g = g*+ Ω2R

True gravity (g*) is perpendicular to

sphere. g is perpendicular to a
geopotential surface
Coriolis Force

Source:http://www.theozonehole.com/coriolis.htm
 Coriolis Force
u 2
Absolute Angular momentum = (Ω + )R
R
An object of unit mass undergoes a small displacement in the
meridional (Y) direction
Absolute angular momentum should be conserved in the
absence of a torque (such as pressure gradient) in X direction

Ω is constant
So, u will change to conserve angular momentum
u 2 u + δu
(Ω + )R = (Ω + )(R + δR)2
R R + δR R = a cos ϕ
u Where a is the radius of
Solving for δu and neglecting 2 order differentials δu = − 2ΩδR − δR
nd
R earth, and φ latitude
Du u Dy uv For a meridional displacement,
= (2Ω sin ϕ + tan ϕ) = 2Ωv sin ϕ + tan ϕ δR = − sin ϕδy
Dt a Dt a
 Du u Dy uv
= (2Ω sin ϕ + tan ϕ) = 2Ωv sin ϕ + tan ϕ
Dt a Dt a

For a vertical displacement, δR = cos ϕδz

Du u Dz uw
= − (2Ω cos ϕ + ) = −2Ωw cos ϕ −
Dt a Dt a
Zonal components of Coriolis Force for meridional and vertical displacements
Curvature effect that arise from the curvature of earth’s surface
Dv u2 Du
For East-West motion = − 2Ωu sin ϕ − tan ϕ ( )Co = 2Ωv sin ϕ = f v
Dt a Dt
Dw u2 Dv
= 2Ωu cos ϕ + ( )Co = − 2Ωu sin ϕ = − fu
Dt a Dt
In vector form
DV
The Coriolis force causes a moving object in the northern hemisphere to deflect towards right = −fk×V
and that in the southern hemisphere to deflect left of its trajectory Dt
Horizontal momentum equations
Du u v tan ϕ u w 1 ∂p
− + = − + 2Ωv sin ϕ − 2Ωw cos ϕ + Frx
Dt a a ρ ∂x
Dv u 2 tan ϕ u w 1 ∂p
+ + = − − 2Ωu sin ϕ + Fry
Dt a a ρ ∂y
Dw u 2 + v 2 1 ∂p
− = − − g + 2Ωu cos ϕ + Frz
Dt a ρ ∂z
Problems
Q1. Neglecting the latitudinal variation in the radius of earth, calculate the angle
between the gravitational force and gravity vectors as a function of latitude. What
is the maximum value of this angle?

Q2. A train is running smoothly along a curved track at a speed of 50 ms-1. A

passenger standing on a set of scales observes that his weight is 10% greater than
when the train is at rest. The track is banked so that the force acting on the
passenger is normal to the floor of the train. What is the radius of curvature of
the track?
Q1. Neglecting the latitudinal variation in the radius of earth, calculate the angle
between the gravitational force and gravity vectors as a function of latitude. What
is the maximum value of this angle?

Solution:

𝛼
Let 𝜙 be the latitude and 𝛼 the angle between g* and g

From the law of sines, 𝑔 ΩF |𝑅|

= g*
sin 𝜙 sin 𝛼
g
But 𝑅 = 𝑎 cos𝜙 where 𝑎 is the radius of earth
𝜙
iAj klmn opkn iAj klmFn
Thus, sin 𝛼 ≈ 𝛼 = =
q Fq ΩF 𝑅

The maximum which occurs at 45° is 𝛼 = 1.73 ×10wx rad = 0.099°

Q2. A train is running smoothly along a curved track at a speed of 50 ms-1. A
passenger standing on a set of scales observes that his weight is 10% greater than
when the train is at rest. The track is banked so that the force acting on the
passenger is normal to the floor of the train. What is the radius of curvature of
the track?

Solution: Weight measured by the scales (1.1 mg) is the vector sum of the forces of
}BA
gravity (mg) and the centrifugal force owing to the curvature of the tracks D
where r is the radius of curvature.
F
F F
𝑚𝑢F
1.1 𝑚𝑔 = 𝑚𝑔 +
𝑟
BA
Thus 𝑟 = = 556 m
q ~.F•