Quadratic equation

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about algebraic equations of degree two and their solutions. For equations of degree
four, see Quartic equation. For functions defined by a polynomial of degree two, see Quadratic
function. For the case of more than one variable, see Conic section and Quadratic form.

The quadratic formula for the roots of the general quadratic equation

In algebra, a quadratic equation (from the Latin quadratus for "square") is any equation having the
form

where x represents an unknown, and a, b, and c represent known numbers such that a is not
equal to 0. If a = 0, then the equation is linear, not quadratic. The numbers a, b, and c are
the coefficients of the equation, and may be distinguished by calling them, respectively,
the quadratic coefficient, the linear coefficient and the constant or free term.
[1]

Because the quadratic equation involves only one unknown, it is called "univariate". The
quadratic equation only contains powers of x that are non-negative integers, and therefore it is
a polynomial equation, and in particular it is a second degree polynomial equation since the
greatest power is two.
Quadratic equations can be solved by a process known in American English as factoring and in
other varieties of English as factorising, by completing the square, by using the quadratic
formula, or by graphing. Solutions to problems equivalent to the quadratic equation were known
as early as 2000 BC.

Contents
[hide]

 1Solving the quadratic equation

o 1.1Factoring by inspection
o 1.2Completing the square
o 1.3Quadratic formula and its derivation
o 1.4Reduced quadratic equation
o 1.5Discriminant
o 1.6Geometric interpretation
o 1.7Quadratic factorization
o 1.8Graphing for real roots
o 1.9Avoiding loss of significance
 2Examples and applications
 3History
 4Advanced topics
o 4.1Alternative methods of root calculation
 4.1.1Vieta's formulas
 4.1.2Trigonometric solution
 4.1.3Solution for complex roots in polar coordinates
 4.1.4Geometric solution
o 4.2Generalization of quadratic equation
  4.2.1Characteristic 2
 5See also
 6References
 7External links

Solving the quadratic equation[edit]

Figure 1. Plots of quadratic function y = ax2 + bx + c, varying each coefficient separately while the other coefficients are fixed (at

values a = 1, b = 0, c = 0)

A quadratic equation with real or complex coefficients has two solutions, called roots. These two
solutions may or may not be distinct, and they may or may not be real.
Factoring by inspection[edit]
It may be possible to express a quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 as a product (px + q)(rx + s) = 0. In
some cases, it is possible, by simple inspection, to determine values of p, q, r, and s that make
the two forms equivalent to one another. If the quadratic equation is written in the second form,
then the "Zero Factor Property" states that the quadratic equation is satisfied if px + q =
0 or rx + s = 0. Solving these two linear equations provides the roots of the quadratic.
For most students, factoring by inspection is the first method of solving quadratic equations to
which they are exposed. If one is given a quadratic equation in the form x2 + bx + c = 0, the
[2]:202–207

sought factorization has the form (x + q)(x + s), and one has to find two numbers q and s that add
up to b and whose product is c (this is sometimes called "Vieta's rule" and is related to Vieta's [3]

formulas). As an example, x2 + 5x + 6 factors as (x + 3)(x + 2). The more general case where a does
not equal 1 can require a considerable effort in trial and error guess-and-check, assuming that it
can be factored at all by inspection.
Except for special cases such as where b = 0 or c = 0, factoring by inspection only works for
quadratic equations that have rational roots. This means that the great majority of quadratic
equations that arise in practical applications cannot be solved by factoring by inspection. [2]:207

Completing the square[edit]

Main article: Completing the square
 Figure 2. For the quadratic function y = x2 − x − 2, the points where the graph crosses the x-axis, x = −1and x = 2, are the solutions of the
quadratic equation x2 − x − 2 = 0.

The process of completing the square makes use of the algebraic identity

which represents a well-defined algorithm that can be used to solve any quadratic
equation. Starting with a quadratic equation in standard form, ax2 + bx + c = 0
[2]:207

1. Divide each side by a, the coefficient of the squared term.

2. Subtract the constant term c/a from both sides.
3. Add the square of one-half of b/a, the coefficient of x, to both sides. This "completes
the square", converting the left side into a perfect square.
4. Write the left side as a square and simplify the right side if necessary.
5. Produce two linear equations by equating the square root of the left side with the
positive and negative square roots of the right side.
6. Solve the two linear equations.
We illustrate use of this algorithm by solving 2x2 + 4x − 4 = 0
The plus-minus symbol "±" indicates that both x = −1 + √3 and x = −1
− √3 are solutions of the quadratic equation. [4]

Quadratic formula and its derivation[edit]

Main article: Quadratic formula
Completing the square can be used to derive a general formula for
solving quadratic equations, called the quadratic
formula. The mathematical proof will now be briefly
[5]

summarized. It can easily be seen, by polynomial expansion, that

[6]

the following equation is equivalent to the quadratic equation:

Taking the square root of both sides, and isolating x, gives:

Some sources, particularly older ones, use alternative

parameterizations of the quadratic equation such as ax2 +
2bx + c = 0 or ax2 − 2bx + c = 0 , where b has a magnitude one
[7]

half of the more common one, possibly with opposite sign.

These result in slightly different forms for the solution, but
are otherwise equivalent.
A number of alternative derivations can be found in the
literature. These proofs are simpler than the standard
completing the square method, represent interesting
applications of other frequently used techniques in algebra,
or offer insight into other areas of mathematics.
A lesser known quadratic formula, as used in Muller's
method, and which can be found from Vieta's formulas,
provides the same roots via the equation:

One property of this form is that it yields one valid root

when a = 0, while the other root contains division by
zero, because when a = 0, the quadratic equation
becomes a linear equation, which has one root. By
contrast, in this case the more common formula has a
division by zero for one root and an indeterminate
form 0/0 for the other root. On the other hand, when c =
0, the more common formula yields two correct roots
whereas this form yields the zero root and an
indeterminate form 0/0.
In numerical computation, computing with numbers
close to zero may lead to large rounding errors.
Therefore it is worthwhile to mix the two formulas: [citation

needed]
where if and otherwise.
Reduced quadratic equation[edit]
It is sometimes convenient to reduce a quadratic
equation so that its leading coefficient is one. This
is done by dividing both sides by a, which is
always possible since a is non-zero. This produces
the reduced quadratic equation: [8]

where p = b/a and q = c/a. This monic

equation has the same solutions as the
original.
The quadratic formula for the solutions of the
reduced quadratic equation, written in terms of
its coefficients, is:

or equivalently:

Discriminant[edit]

Figure 3. Discriminant signs

In the quadratic formula, the

expression underneath the square
root sign is called the discriminant of
the quadratic equation, and is often
represented using an upper case D or
an upper case Greek delta: [9]

A quadratic equation
with real coefficients can have
either one or two distinct real
 roots, or two distinct complex
roots. In this case the discriminant
determines the number and
nature of the roots. There are
three cases:

 If the discriminant is positive,

then there are two distinct
roots

both of which are real numbers. For quadratic equations with rational coefficients, if the
discriminant is a square number, then the roots are rational—in other cases they may
be quadratic irrationals.

 If the discriminant is
zero, then there is
exactly one real root

sometimes called a repeated or double root.

 If the
discriminant
is negative,
then there
are no real
roots. Rather,
there are two
distinct (non-
real) complex
roots[10]

which are complex conjugates of each other. In these expressions i is the imaginary unit.
Thus the
roots are
distinct if
and only
if the
discrimin
ant is
non-zero,
and the
roots are
real if
and only
if the
discrimin
ant is
non-
negative.
Geome
tric
interpr
etation[
edit]

Graph

of y = ax
2
+ bx +
c,
where a

and the

discrimin

ant b2 −
4ac are

positive,

with

 Ro

ots

an

y-

int

er

ce

pt

in

re

d
 Ve

rte

an

axi

of

sy

etr

in

blu

 Fo

cu

an

dir

ect

rix

in

pin

k
Visualisa

tion of

the

complex

roots

of y = ax
2
+ bx +
c: the

parabola

is rotated

180°

about its

vertex

(orange).

Its x-

intercept

s are

rotated

90°

around

their

mid-

point,
 and the

Cartesia

n plane

is

interpret

ed as the

complex

plane

(green).[1

1]

The
function f(
x)
= ax2 + bx
+ c is
the quadr
atic
function. [12

]
The
graph of
any
quadratic
function
has the
same
general
shape,
which is
called
a parabol
a. The
location
and size
of the
parabola,
and how
it opens,
depend
on the
values
of a, b,
and c. As
shown in
Figure 1,
if a > 0,
the
parabola
has a
minimum
point and
opens
upward.
If a < 0,
the
parabola
has a
maximum
point and
opens
downwar
d. The
extreme
point of
the
parabola,
whether
minimum
or
maximum
,
correspo
nds to
its vertex.
The x-
coordinat
e of the
vertex
will be
located

at ,
and
the y-
coordinat
e of the
vertex
may be
found by
substituti
ng this x-
value into
the
function.
The y-
intercept i
s located
at the
point (0, c
).
The
solutions
of the
quadratic
equation
ax2 + bx + c
=
0 corresp
ond to
the roots
of the
function f(
x)
= ax2 + bx
+ c, since
they are
the
values
of x for
which f(x)
= 0. As
shown in
Figure 2,
if a, b,
and c are
real
numbers
and
the doma
in of f is
the set of
real
numbers,
then the
roots
of f are
exactly
the x-
coordinat
es of the
points
where
the graph
touches
the x-
axis. As
shown in
Figure 3,
if the
discrimin
ant is
positive,
the graph
touches
the x-
axis at
two
points; if
zero, the
graph
touches
at one
point;
and if
negative,
the graph
does not
touch
the x-
axis.
Quadra
tic
factoriz
ation[e
dit]
The term

is a
factor
of the
polyn
omial

if
a
n
d
o
n
l
y
if
r
i
s
a
r
o
o
t
o
f
t
h
e
q
u
a
d
r
a
ti
c
e
q
u
a
ti
o
n

I
t

f
o
l
l
o
w
s

f
r
o
m

t
h
e

q
u
a
d
r
a
t
i
c

f
o
r
m
u
l
a

t
h
a
t

I
n

t
h
e

s
p
e
c
i
a
l

c
a
s
e

b
2

4
a
c

w
h
e
r
e

t
h
e

q
u
a
d
r
a
t
i
c

h
a
s

o
n
l
y

o
n
e

d
i
s
t
i
n
c
t

r
o
o
t

(
i
.
e
.

t
h
e

d
i
s
c
r
i
m
i
n
a
n
t

i
s

z
e
r
o
)
,

t
h
e

q
u
a
d
r
a
t
i
c

p
o
l
y
n
o
m
i
a
l

c
a
n

b
e

f
a
c
t
o
r
e
d

a
s

G
r
a
p
h
i
n
g

f
o
r

r
e
a
l

r
o
o
t
s
[
e
d
i
t
]

i
g

o
n

r
a

2
x
2

4
x

u
g

i
c

e
d

x
c

r
 a

F
o
r

m
o
s
t

o
f

t
h
e

2
0
t
h

c
e
n
t
u
r
y
,

g
r
a
p
h
i
n
g

w
a
s

r
a
r
e
l
y

m
e
n
t
i
o
n
e
d

a
s

m
e
t
h
o
d

f
o
r

s
o
l
v
i
n
g

q
u
a
d
r
a
t
i
c

e
q
u
a
t
i
o
n
s

i
n

h
i
g
h
s
c
h
o
o
l

o
r

c
o
l
l
e
g
e

a
l
g
e
b
r
a

t
e
x
t
s
.

S
t
u
d
e
n
t
s

l
e
a
r
n
e
d

t
o
s
o
l
v
e

q
u
a
d
r
a
t
i
c

e
q
u
a
t
i
o
n
s

b
y

f
a
c
t
o
r
i
n
g
,

c
o
m
p
l
e
t
i
n
g

t
h
e

s
q
u
a
r
e
,

a
n
d

a
p
p
l
y
i
n
g

t
h
e

q
u
a
d
r
a
t
i
c

f
o
r
m
u
l
a
.

R
e
c
e
n
t
l
y
,

g
r
a
p
h
i
n
g

c
a
l
c
u
l
a
t
o
r
s

h
a
v
e

b
e
c
o
m
e

c
o
m
m
o
n

i
n

s
c
h
o
o
l
s

a
n
d

g
r
a
p
h
i
c
a
l

m
e
t
h
o
d
s

h
a
v
e

s
t
a
r
t
e
d

t
o

a
p
p
e
a
r

i
n

t
e
x
t
b
o
o
k
s
,

b
u
t

t
h
e
y

a
r
e

g
e
n
e
r
a
l
l
y

n
o
t

h
i
g
h
l
y

e
m
p
h
a
s
i
z
e
d
.
[
1
3
]

B
e
i
n
g

a
b
l
e

t
o

u
s
e

g
r
a
p
h
i
n
g

c
a
l
c
u
l
a
t
o
r

t
o

s
o
l
v
e

a
q
u
a
d
r
a
t
i
c

e
q
u
a
t
i
o
n

r
e
q
u
i
r
e
s

t
h
e

a
b
i
l
i
t
y

t
o

p
r
o
d
u
c
e

a
g
r
a
p
h

o
f

f
(
x
)
,

t
h
e

a
b
i
l
i
t
y

t
o

s
c
a
l
e

t
h
e

g
r
a
p
h

a
p
p
r
o
p
r
i
a
t
e
l
y

t
o

t
h
e

d
i
m
e
n
s
i
o
n
s

o
f

t
h
e

g
r
a
p
h
i
n
g

s
u
r
f
a
c
e
,
a
n
d

t
h
e

r
e
c
o
g
n
i
t
i
o
n

t
h
a
t

w
h
e
n

f
(
x
)

0
,

i
s

s
o
l
u
t
i
o
n

t
o

t
h
e

e
q
u
a
t
i
o
n
.

T
h
e

s
k
i
l
l
s

r
e
q
u
i
r
e
d

t
o

s
o
l
v
e

q
u
a
d
r
a
t
i
c

e
q
u
a
t
i
o
n

o
n

c
a
l
c
u
l
a
t
o
r

a
r
e

i
n

f
a
c
t

a
p
p
l
i
c
a
b
l
e

t
o

f
i
n
d
i
n
g

t
h
e

r
e
a
l

r
o
o
t
s

o
f

a
n
y

a
r
b
i
t
r
a
r
y

f
u
n
c
t
i
o
n
.
S
i
n
c
e

a
n

a
r
b
i
t
r
a
r
y

f
u
n
c
t
i
o
n

m
a
y

c
r
o
s
s

t
h
e

x
-
a
x
i
s

a
t
m
u
l
t
i
p
l
e

p
o
i
n
t
s
,

g
r
a
p
h
i
n
g

c
a
l
c
u
l
a
t
o
r
s

g
e
n
e
r
a
l
l
y

r
e
q
u
i
r
e

o
n
e

t
o

i
d
e
n
t
i
f
y

t
h
e

d
e
s
i
r
e
d

r
o
o
t

b
y

p
o
s
i
t
i
o
n
i
n
g

a
c
u
r
s
o
r

a
t

"
g
u
e
s
s
e
d
"

v
a
l
u
e

f
o
r

t
h
e

r
o
o
t
.

(
S
o
m
e

g
r
a
p
h
i
n
g

c
a
l
c
u
l
a
t
o
r
s

r
e
q
u
i
r
e

b
r
a
c
k
e
t
i
n
g

t
h
e

r
o
o
t

o
n

b
o
t
h
s
i
d
e
s

o
f

t
h
e

z
e
r
o
.
)

T
h
e

c
a
l
c
u
l
a
t
o
r

t
h
e
n

p
r
o
c
e
e
d
s
,

b
y
a
n

i
t
e
r
a
t
i
v
e

a
l
g
o
r
i
t
h
m
,

t
o

r
e
f
i
n
e

t
h
e

e
s
t
i
m
a
t
e
d

p
o
s
i
t
i
o
n

o
f

t
h
e

r
o
o
t

t
o

t
h
e

l
i
m
i
t

o
f

c
a
l
c
u
l
a
t
o
r

a
c
c
u
r
a
c
y
.
A
v
o
i
d
i
n
g

l
o
s
s

o
f

s
i
g
n
i
f
i
c
a
n
c
e
[
e
d
i
t
]
A
l
t
h
o
u
g
h

t
h
e

q
u
a
d
r
a
t
i
c

f
o
r
m
u
l
a

p
r
o
v
i
d
e
s

a
n

e
x
a
c
t

s
o
l
u
t
i
o
n
,

t
h
e

r
e
s
u
l
t

i
s

n
o
t

e
x
a
c
t

i
f

r
e
a
l

n
u
m
b
e
r
s

a
r
e

a
p
p
r
o
x
i
m
a
t
e
d

d
u
r
i
n
g

t
h
e

c
o
m
p
u
t
a
t
i
o
n
,

a
s

u
s
u
a
l

i
n

n
u
m
e
r
i
c
a
l

a
n
a
l
y
s
i
s
,

w
h
e
r
e

r
e
a
l

n
u
m
b
e
r
s

a
r
e

a
p
p
r
o
x
i
m
a
t
e
d

b
y

f
l
o
a
t
i
n
g

p
o
i
n
t

n
u
m
b
e
r
s

(
c
a
l
l
e
d

"
r
e
a
l
s
"

i
n

m
a
n
y

p
r
o
g
r
a
m
m
i
n
g

l
a
n
g
u
a
g
e
s
)
.

I
n

t
h
i
s

c
o
n
t
e
x
t
,

t
h
e

q
u
a
d
r
a
t
i
c

f
o
r
m
u
l
a

i
s

n
o
t

c
o
m
p
l
e
t
e
l
y

s
t
a
b
l
e
.
T
h
i
s

o
c
c
u
r
s

w
h
e
n

t
h
e

r
o
o
t
s

h
a
v
e

d
i
f
f
e
r
e
n
t

o
r
d
e
r

o
f

m
a
g
n
i
t
u
d
e
,

o
r
,

e
q
u
i
v
a
l
e
n
t
l
y
,

w
h
e
n

b
2

a
n
d

b
2

4
a
c

a
r
e

c
l
o
s
e

i
n

m
a
g
n
i
t
u
d
e
.

I
n

t
h
i
s

c
a
s
e
,

t
h
e

s
u
b
t
r
a
c
t
i
o
n

o
f

t
w
o

n
e
a
r
l
y

e
q
u
a
l

n
u
m
b
e
r
s

w
i
l
l

c
a
u
s
e

l
o
s
s

o
f

s
i
g
n
i
f
i
c
a
n
c
e

o
r

c
a
t
a
s
t
r
o
p
h
i
c

c
a
n
c
e
l
l
a
t
i
o
n

i
n

t
h
e
s
m
a
l
l
e
r

r
o
o
t
.

T
o

a
v
o
i
d

t
h
i
s
,

t
h
e

r
o
o
t

t
h
a
t

i
s

s
m
a
l
l
e
r

i
n

m
a
g
n
i
t
u
d
e
,

r
,

c
a
n

b
e

c
o
m
p
u
t
e
d

a
s

w
h
e
r
e

i
s

t
h
e

r
o
o
t

t
h
a
t

i
s

b
i
g
g
e
r

i
n

m
a
g
n
i
t
u
d
e
.
A

s
e
c
o
n
d

f
o
r
m

o
f
c
a
n
c
e
l
l
a
t
i
o
n

c
a
n

o
c
c
u
r

b
e
t
w
e
e
n

t
h
e

t
e
r
m
s

b
2

a
n
d

4
a
c

o
f
t
h
e

d
i
s
c
r
i
m
i
n
a
n
t
,

t
h
a
t

i
s

w
h
e
n

t
h
e

t
w
o

r
o
o
t
s

a
r
e

v
e
r
y

c
l
o
s
e
.

T
h
i
s

c
a
n

l
e
a
d

t
o

l
o
s
s

o
f

u
p

t
o

h
a
l
f

o
f

c
o
r
r
e
c
t

s
i
g
n
i
f
i
c
a
n
t

f
i
g
u
r
e
s

i
n

t
h
e

r
o
o
t
s
.
[
7
]
[
1
4
]

E
x
a
m
p
l
e
s

a
n
d

a
p
p
l
i
c
a
t
i
o
n
s
[
e
d
i
t
]

r
a

o
l

s
a

e
r

n
c

h
f

e
a

c
o

a
i

s
o

b
e

r
e

e
 h

T
h
e

g
o
l
d
e
n

r
a
t
i
o

i
s

f
o
u
n
d

a
s

t
h
e

s
o
l
u
t
i
o
n

o
f

t
h
e

q
u
a
d
r
a
t
i
c

e
q
u
a
t
i
o
n

T
h
e

e
q
u
a
t
i
o
n
s

o
f

t
h
e

c
i
r
c
l
e

a
n
d

t
h
e

o
t
h
e
r

c
o
n
i
c
s
e
c
t
i
o
n
s
—
e
l
l
i
p
s
e
s
,

p
a
r
a
b
o
l
a
s
,

a
n
d

h
y
p
e
r
b
o
l
a
s
—
a
r
e

q
u
a
d
r
a
t
i
c

e
q
u
a
t
i
o
n
s

i
n

t
w
o

v
a
r
i
a
b
l
e
s
.
G
i
v
e
n

t
h
e

c
o
s
i
n
e

o
r
s
i
n
e

o
f

a
n

a
n
g
l
e
,

f
i
n
d
i
n
g

t
h
e

c
o
s
i
n
e

o
r

s
i
n
e

o
f

t
h
e

a
n
g
l
e

t
h
a
t

i
s

h
a
l
f

a
s

l
a
r
g
e

i
n
v
o
l
v
e
s

s
o
l
v
i
n
g

q
u
a
d
r
a
t
i
c

e
q
u
a
t
i
o
n
.
T
h
e

p
r
o
c
e
s
s

o
f

s
i
m
p
l
i
f
y
i
n
g

e
x
p
r
e
s
s
i
o
n
s

i
n
v
o
l
v
i
n
g

t
h
e

s
q
u
a
r
e

r
o
o
t

o
f

a
n

e
x
p
r
e
s
s
i
o
n

i
n
v
o
l
v
i
n
g

t
h
e

s
q
u
a
r
e

r
o
o
t

o
f

a
n
o
t
h
e
r

e
x
p
r
e
s
s
i
o
n

i
n
v
o
l
v
e
s

f
i
n
d
i
n
g
t
h
e

t
w
o

s
o
l
u
t
i
o
n
s

o
f

q
u
a
d
r
a
t
i
c

e
q
u
a
t
i
o
n
.
D
e
s
c
a
r
t
e
s
'
t
h
e
o
r
e
m

s
t
a
t
e
s

t
h
a
t

f
o
r

e
v
e
r
y

f
o
u
r

k
i
s
s
i
n
g

(
m
u
t
u
a
l
l
y
t
a
n
g
e
n
t
)

c
i
r
c
l
e
s
,

t
h
e
i
r

r
a
d
i
i

s
a
t
i
s
f
y

p
a
r
t
i
c
u
l
a
r

q
u
a
d
r
a
t
i
c

e
q
u
a
t
i
o
n
.
T
h
e

e
q
u
a
t
i
o
n

g
i
v
e
n

b
y

F
u
s
s
'

t
h
e
o
r
e
m
,
g
i
v
i
n
g

t
h
e

r
e
l
a
t
i
o
n

a
m
o
n
g

t
h
e

r
a
d
i
u
s

o
f

b
i
c
e
n
t
r
i
c
q
u
a
d
r
i
l
a
t
e
r
a
l
'
s

i
n
s
c
r
i
b
e
d

c
i
r
c
l
e
,

t
h
e

r
a
d
i
u
s

o
f

i
t
s

c
i
r
c
u
m
s
c
r
i
b
e
d

c
i
r
c
l
e
,

a
n
d

t
h
e

d
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

b
e
t
w
e
e
n

t
h
e

c
e
n
t
e
r
s

o
f

t
h
o
s
e

c
i
r
c
l
e
s
,

c
a
n

b
e

e
x
p
r
e
s
s
e
d

a
s

q
u
a
d
r
a
t
i
c

e
q
u
a
t
i
o
n

f
o
r

w
h
i
c
h

t
h
e

d
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

b
e
t
w
e
e
n

t
h
e

t
w
o

c
i
r
c
l
e
s
'

c
e
n
t
e
r
s

i
n

t
e
r
m
s

o
f

t
h
e
i
r

r
a
d
i
i

i
s

o
n
e

o
f

t
h
e

s
o
l
u
t
i
o
n
s
.

T
h
e

o
t
h
e
r

s
o
l
u
t
i
o
n

o
f

t
h
e

s
a
m
e

e
q
u
a
t
i
o
n

i
n
t
e
r
m
s

o
f

t
h
e

r
e
l
e
v
a
n
t

r
a
d
i
i

g
i
v
e
s

t
h
e

d
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

b
e
t
w
e
e
n

t
h
e

c
i
r
c
u
m
s
c
r
i
b
e
d

c
i
r
c
l
e
'
s

c
e
n
t
e
r

a
n
d

t
h
e

c
e
n
t
e
r

o
f
t
h
e

e
x
c
i
r
c
l
e

o
f

a
n

e
x
-
t
a
n
g
e
n
t
i
a
l

q
u
a
d
r
i
l
a
t
e
r
a
l
.

H
i
s
t
o
r
y
[
e
d
i
t
]
B
a
b
y
l
o
n
i
a
n

m
a
t
h
e
m
a
t
i
c
i
a
n
s
,

a
s

e
a
r
l
y

a
s

2
0
0
0

B
C

(
d
i
s
p
l
a
y
e
d

o
n

O
l
d

B
a
b
y
l
o
n
i
a
n

c
l
a
y

t
a
b
l
e
t
s
)

c
o
u
l
d

s
o
l
v
e

p
r
o
b
l
e
m
s

r
e
l
a
t
i
n
g

t
h
e

a
r
e
a
s

a
n
d

s
i
d
e
s

o
f

r
e
c
t
a
n
g
l
e
s
.

T
h
e
r
e

i
s

e
v
i
d
e
n
c
e

d
a
t
i
n
g

t
h
i
s

a
l
g
o
r
i
t
h
m

a
s

f
a
r

b
a
c
k

a
s

t
h
e

T
h
i
r
d

D
y
n
a
s
t
y

o
f

U
r
.
[
1
5
]

I
n

m
o
d
e
r
n

n
o
t
a
t
i
o
n
,

t
h
e

p
r
o
b
l
e
m
s

t
y
p
i
c
a
l
l
y

i
n
v
o
l
v
e
d

s
o
l
v
i
n
g

p
a
i
r

o
f

s
i
m
u
l
t
a
n
e
o
u
s

e
q
u
a
t
i
o
n
s

o
f

t
h
e

f
o
r
m
:

w
h
i
c
h

a
r
e

e
q
u
i
v
a
l
e
n
t

t
o

t
h
e

e
q
u
a
t
i
o
n
:
[
1
6
]
:
8
6
To illustrate, let us assume we had available seven-place logarithm and trigonometric tables,
and wished to solve the following to six-significant-figure accuracy: