SOURCES OF INTERNAL HEAT

 Accretion is the gradual addition of

new material. When the Earth first
accreted, it probably wasn’t spherical.
HEAT was generated and retained.
 Accretionary Heat
o Gravity attracts planetesimals to
the proto-earth
o Planetesimals accelerate on their
journey, gaining kinetic energy
1
𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2
o They strike the proto-earth at high
speed
o Their kinetic energy is converted
to thermal energy (heat)
o Soon after it formed, each planet was partially heated by countless planetesimals crashing into
it. This was material left over from the formation of the solar system, and the kinetic energy of
the impactors was transformed into thermal energy when they collided. This explains why we
find meteorites from undifferentiated asteroids that have been thermally altered — the
asteroid they came from was not large enough to completely melt, but impacts melted portions
of the surface.

 Radioactive Decay
o The natural disintegration of certain isotopes to form new nuclei
o Time for nuclei to decay given by a “half-life”
o Radioactive decay is an important source of the Earth’s internal heat
o Heat is the ultimate source of the energy that drives geological activity on any planet. The
internal heat of the Earth, fuelled by radioactivity, is the "engine" that drives the geological
activity of the planet. Volcanoes, for example, erupt because the heat inside the Earth melts
rock and creates supplies of molten magma; the magma is less dense than surrounding rock, so
it tends to rise to the surface. Earthquakes are also caused by pressure associated with the
movements of molten rock. Without radioactivity, the Earth’s interior would have cooled long
ago. Volcanoes would be extinct, and there would be no earthquakes. Earth would be
geologically dead.
o Radioactivity is one of the main sources of heat inside the Earth. How do radioactive minerals
inside the planet produce heat? Imagine an atom
of a radioactive element buried inside Earth.
When the atom breaks down during the process
of radioactive decay, it shoots subatomic
particles and photons of energy outward into the
neighbouring material. Just as fragments of an
exploding billiard ball might set neighbouring
balls into motion, the "exploding" atom’s debris
hits other atoms and increases their motions.
Temperature is a measure of particles’ speed, so

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 increased motion results in a higher Short-lived Isotopes
temperature. Radioactive material is 26Al ® 26Mg + Energy + … (t 6
1/2 = 0.72 x 10 yrs)
therefore an energy source, and it heats the 129I ® 129Xe + Energy + … (t 6
1/2 = 16 x 10 yrs)
interior of the planet in which it’s trapped. Long-lived Isotopes
o In general, planets produce heat according to 40K ® 40Ar + Energy + … (t 6
1/2 = 1270 x 10 yrs)
their size. Radioactive atoms decay in the 232Th (t 6
1/2 = 1400 x 10 yrs)
interior, and conduction and convection 235U (t 6
1/2 = 704 x 10 yrs)
transport this heat from the interior to the 238U (t 6
1/2 = 4470 x 10 yrs)
surface. Bigger planets have more gravity,
and the pressure due to gravity helps to create a molten interior that can drive geological
activity. Also, the bigger the planet, the longer it takes internal heat to reach the surface.
There’s no mystery here — if you pull a large rock and a small rock out of a campfire, the small
one will cool off quickly, while the big one will stay warm longer. Planets are the same.
o The simple idea of internal heat scaling with size tells us a lot about planetary evolution, since
the geological activity on planets is driven by heat from the interior. A small planetary body
cools off very quickly, and its interior produces little heat because there is less radioactive
material. So the surface of a small planet will show countless crater scars from impacts that
happened throughout geological time.
o The rate and mode of heat transfer from the center of the planet to the surface controls the
rate of geological activity on the surface. If the planet is small and has cooled off, the center is
not much warmer than the surface, and the heat can be carried outward by conduction.
However, if a planet is large and has a lot of energy from radioactive decay, the center is going
to be much hotter than the surface. The strong temperature difference between the center and
surface induces convection in the mantle, which is a sluggish mass movement of the hot,
slightly plastic material.
o To have significant internal heat, a planet must be large enough to have sufficient radioactive
material, and large enough to provide some insulation to retain that heat. So small asteroids,
for example, don’t have enough internal heat to be geologically active. However, there is also
an energy source that has affected all planets, regardless of their size.
 Other Sources of Internal Heat
o Residual heat from the formation of the core
𝐺𝑀𝑟
o Gravitational Settling: 𝐸 = (Gravitational potential energy)
𝑟
o A 1-kg ball of iron, settling from the surface to the center of the earth produces enough energy
to heat a 10-kg piece of rock (granite) to 750°C, where it would begin to melt.
Heat capacity of granite = 840 J per kg K
 Loss of Internal Heat
o All celestial bodies lose heat: Asteroids > Moon > Mars > Earth
o There are three main mechanisms: Conduction, Convection, and Radiation
o Conduction is the transfer of heat without movement of material. The geotherm is the
description of how the temperature of the earth increases with depth.
o Convection
Heating at the bottom: Increases temperature and decreases density. Less dense hot water
rises, displacing the cooler, denser water at the top. Denser, cool water descends, where it is
heated.
o The core is almost
completely Fe/Ni alloy. The
outer core is liquid, while the
inner core is solid.
Convection of the outer,
liquid core gives rise to the
Earth’s magnetic field

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 THE DIFFERENTIATED EARTH
 The Crust
o Continental Crust: 35 - 40 km, Less Dense
o Oceanic Crust: 7 - 10 km, More Dense
 The Mantle

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 PARTIAL MELTING AND THE ORIGIN OF MAGMA
 Evidence from the study of earthquake waves has shown that Earth’s crust and mantle are
composed primarily of solid, not molten, rock. Although the outer core is liquid, this iron-rich
material is very dense and remains deep within Earth. So where does magma come from?
 Partial Melting
o Recall that igneous rocks are composed of a mixture of minerals. Since these minerals have
different melting points, igneous rocks tend to melt over a temperature range of at least 200°C.
o As rock begins to melt, the minerals with the lowest melting temperatures are the first to melt.
If melting continues, minerals with higher melting points begin to melt, and the composition of
the melt steadily approaches the overall composition of the rock from which it was derived.
o Most often, however, melting is not complete. The incomplete melting of rocks is known as
partial melting, a process that produces most magma.
o Also, because the molten material is less dense that the remaining solids, when enough of the
melt collects, it rises toward Earth’s surface.
 Generating Magma from Solid Rock
o Although the rate of temperature change varies considerably from place to place, it averages
about 25°C per kilometre in the upper crust. This increase in temperature with depth is known
as the geothermal gradient.
o When a typical geothermal gradient is compared to the melting point curve for the mantle rock
peridotite, the temperature at which peridotite melts is higher than the geothermal gradient.
Thus, under normal conditions, the mantle is
solid. However, tectonic processes exist that
trigger melting by reducing the melting point
(temperature) of mantle rock.
 Decrease in Pressure (Decompression Melting)
o Pressure which also increases with depth
influences the melting temperatures of rocks.
o Melting, which is accompanied by an increase in
volume, occurs at progressively higher
temperatures with increased depth.
o This is the result of the steady increase in
confining pressure exerted by the weight of
overlying rocks.
o Conversely, reducing confining pressure lowers a rock’s melting temperature. When confining
pressure drops sufficiently, decompression melting is triggered.
 Addition of Water
o Water causes rock to melt at lower temperatures.
o The introduction of water to generate magma occurs mainly at convergent plate boundaries
where cool slabs of oceanic
lithosphere descend into the
mantle (diagram on the next
slide).
o At a depth of about 100 km (60
miles), the addition of water
lowers the melting temperature of
mantle rock sufficiently to trigger
partial melting. Partial melting of
the mantle rock peridotite
generates hot basaltic magmas
with temperatures that may
exceed 1250°C (2300°F).

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 Temperature Increase (Melting
Crustal Rocks)
o When enough mantle-derived
basaltic magma forms, it
buoyantly rises toward the
surface.
o The hot basaltic magma may heat
the overlying crustal rocks
sufficiently to generate a
secondary, silica-rich magma.
o If these low-density silica-rich
magmas reach the surface, they tend to produce explosive eruptions that we associate with
convergent plate boundaries.

METAMORPHISM AND METAMORPHIC ROCKS

 Rock Environments
 Metamorphic Environments
What is Metamorphism?
o Changes rock via temperatures and/or pressures unlike those in which it initially formed
o All metamorphic rocks have a parent
rock (the rock from which it formed)
o Parent rocks can be igneous,
sedimentary, or other metamorphic
rocks.
Metamorphic Grade
o Change occurring during
metamorphism
o Progresses from low grade (low
temperatures and pressures) to high
grade (high temperatures and
pressures)
o During metamorphism, the rock must
remain essentially solid
What Drives Metamorphism?
o Heat is the most important agent
o Two sources of heat:
 Geothermal gradient: an increase
in temperature with depth (about
25o C per kilometer)
 Contact metamorphism: rising
mantle plumes
o Confining Pressure: Forces are applied
equally in all directions. Causes the
spaces between mineral grains to
close.
o Differential Stress: Forces are unequal
in different directions
o Compressional stress: Rocks are
squeezed as if in a vice. Shortened in
one direction and elongated in the
other direction.

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o Chemically Active Fluids: Enhances migration of ions. Aids in recrystallization of existing minerals
Metamorphic Textures
o Foilated: Rock or slaty cleavage. Split into thin slabs. Low-grade metamorphism.
 Schistosity: Platy minerals (mica) are visible. Exhibit a planar or layered structure. Rocks having
this texture are referred to as schist.
 Gneissic texture: High-grade metamorphism, segregation of minerals into light and dark bands.
Metamorphic rocks with this texture are called gneiss. Gneiss does not split as easily as slates
and schists.

 Common Foliated Metamorphic Rocks:

 Slate: Very fine-grained. Excellent rock cleavage. Most often generated from low-grade
metamorphism of shale, mudstone, or siltstone.
 Phyllite: Degree of metamorphism between slate and schist. Platy minerals are larger than
slate but not large enough to see with the unaided eye. Glossy sheen and wavy surfaces.
Exhibits rock cleavage.
 Schist: Medium- to coarse-grained. Parent
rock is shale that has undergone medium- to
high-grade metamorphism. The term schist
describes the texture. Platy minerals (mainly
micas) predominate. Can also contain

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 porphyroblasts
 Gneiss: Medium- to coarse-grained
metamorphic rock with a banded
appearance. The result of high-grade
metamorphism. Composed of light-
colored, feldspar-rich layers with
bands of dark ferromagnesian
minerals.
o Non-Foliated: composed of minerals that lack
layering/foliation.
 Porphyroblastic textures: Large grains
(porphyroblasts) surrounded by a fine-
grained matrix of other minerals.
 Common Non-Foliated Metamorphic
Rocks
 Marble: Crystalline rock from
limestone or dolostone parent rock.
Main mineral is calcite. Calcite is
relatively soft (3 on the Mohs scale)
and is used as a decorative and
monument stone. Impurities in the
parent rocks provide a variety of
colors.
 Quartzite: Formed from a parent rock
of quartz-rich sandstone. Quartz
grains are fused together. Pure quartzite is white. Iron oxide may produce reddish or pink
stains. Dark minerals may
produce green or gray stains.

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Contact Metamorphism
o Hydrothermal Metamorphism: Chemical alteration caused by hot, ion-rich fluids circulating
through pore spaces and rock fractures. Typically occurs along the axes of mid-ocean ridges
o Burial Metamorphism: Associated with very thick sedimentary strata in a subsiding basin. Gulf of
Mexico is an example
o Subduction Zone Metamorphism: Sediments and oceanic crust are subducted fast enough that
pressure increases before temperature
o Regional Metamorphism: Creates the most metamorphic rock. Associated with mountain building
and the collision of continental blocks.
o Impact Metamorphism: Occurs when
meteorites strike Earth’s surface. Product of
these impacts are fused fragmented rock plus
glass-rich ejecta that resemble volcanic
bombs called impactiles.

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o Migmatites: Rocks that have been
partially melted. Represent the
highest grades of metamorphism.
Transitional to igneous rocks.

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