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Vibration & Shopck Isolation PDF
Vibration & Shopck Isolation PDF
0 FUNDAMENTALS OF VIBRATION
1.1 What is Vibration?
Mechanical vibration is a form of motion oscillation. it occurs in all forms of machinery and equipment. It is what you feel when
you put your hand on the hood of a car, the engine of which is running, or on the base of an electric motor when the motor is
running. Perhaps the simplest illustration of a mechanical vibration is a vertical spring with weight, as shown in Figure 1. In this
position, the deflection of the spring from its free state is just sufficient to counterbalance the weight W. This deflection is called
the static deflection of the spring. The position in which the spring is at rest is #1. The spring is then slowly extended to position
#2, and released. The subsequent motion of the weight as a function of time, when there is negligible resistance to the motion, is
wavy and repetitive as shown in the graph. It exhibits many of the basic characteristics of mechanical vibrations. The maximum
displacement from the rest or mean position is called the AMPLITUDE of the vibration. The vibratory motion repeats itself at
regular intervals (A1, A2, A3). The interval of time within which the motion sequence repeats itself is called a CYCLE or PERIOD.
The number of cycles executed in a unit time (for example, during one second or during one minute), is known as the
FREQUENCY. In a high-speed oscillation the frequency is high and conversely. When, as in Figure 1, the spring-weight system is
not driven by an outside source, the vibration is a FREE VIBRATION and the frequency is called the NATURAL FREQUENCY of the
system.
In general, vibratory motion may or may not be repetitive and its shape as a function of time may be simple or complex.
Typical vibrations, which are repetitive and continuous, are those of the base or housing of an electric motor, household fans,
vacuum cleaners and sewing machines, for example. Vibrations of short duration and variable intensity are frequently Initiated by
a sudden impact or shock load; for example, rocket equipment upon takeoff, equipment subject to impact and drop tests, a
package falling from a height, or a lading in a freight car.
In many machines, the vibration is not part of its regular or intended operation and function, but rather it cannot be avoided.
The task of vibration isolation is to control this unwanted vibration so that its adverse effects are kept within acceptable limits.
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1.2 What Causes Vibration?
The basic cause is already evident in the simple mass-spring system of Figure 1. it is an UNBALANCED FORCE, or system of
forces (in Figure 1 it is the spring force acting on the weight) acting on or through an ELASTIC OR RESILIENT MATERIAL (in
Figure 1, this is the spring). The unbalanced force may be due to mass unbalance, such as in an eccentrically mounted rotor, or it
may be due to the variable inertia forces in machinery, which does not move uniformly, e.g. crank-and-connecting-rod motion,
linkages, cam-follower systems. In the latter, the speeds and directions of motion of machine parts are continuously changing,
e.g. the needle motion in a household sewing machine, bucket motions in earth-moving machinery, etc. Force unbalance can
arise also from electric, hydraulic and acoustic sources, e.g. transformer hum, water hammer, a loudspeaker, etc.
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although in general these may or may not be part of the isolator. The damping, or energy-dissipating effect of an isolator may be
negligible or substantial depending on the application. The main purpose of isolator damping is to reduce or to attenuate the
vibrations as rapidly as possible. Damping is particularly important at certain speeds, which cause a condition known as
RESONANCE. This occurs when the natural frequency of the equipment with isolator coincides with the frequency of the source of
the vibration. For example, if an electric motor runs at 3600 RPM, then an isolator-equipment natural frequency of 3600 cycles
per minute corresponds to a condition of resonance. If a machine operates near resonance, or has to pass through a resonant
speed in order to attain operating speed, damping is important in preventing the buildup of vibration to an unsatisfactory level.
In summary, then, a good vibration mount functions as a time delay, temporary energy absorber and possibly to some extent
as an energy dissipator, or damper. The engineering design of a vibration mount consists in identifying the characteristics of the
source of the vibration, the mechanical characteristics of the equipment and the determination of the mount characteristics, in
order to achieve a specified degree of vibration reduction.
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(b) What Causes Noise?
A common cause is the impact or vibration of a solid material, which sets air In motion; for example, a hammer striking a nail, or
a vibrating equipment panel. In machinery, in particular, there are many commonly found sources of noise. These are usually
associated with the operating frequency of machine motions, e.g. the RPM of an electric motor or of gears, the rate of tooth
engagement in gear teeth, the frequencies associated with reciprocating machinery, etc. It is possible also that vibrations may be
generated in one part of the equipment, but may set up noise and vibration in another part of the equipment, such as doors,
panels, chassis, flexible lines, printed-circuit boards etc.
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VIBRATORY MOTION - An oscillating motion; for example, that of the weight W, in Figure 1.
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION - A form of vibratory motion. The motion as a function of the time is of the form X = a sin ωt, where
a, ω are constants. The maximum displacement, a, from the mean position (X = 0) is the amplitude; the frequency (rate at which
motion repeats itself) is ω/2π cycles/sec, where has the dimensions of reciprocal time, e.g. reciprocal seconds. The motion is also
called harmonic or sinusoidal motion.
AMPLITUDE - Figure 2 shows a vibrating motion, which repeats itself every T seconds. The maximum values of the displacement,
x, from the reference position (x = 0) are called amplitudes. These are (a1, a2. . .). The largest of these is called the peak
amplitude.
Figure 2
FREQUENCY - Rate at which motion repeats itself per unit time. If the motion repeats itself every T seconds, the frequency is 1/T
cycles per second.
PERIOD, CYCLE The interval of time within which the motion repeats itself. In Figure 2, this is T seconds. The term cycle tends to
refer also to the sequence of events within one period.
STEADY-STATE MOTION - A periodic motion of a mechanical system, e.g. a continuously vibrating pendulum of constant
amplitude.
TRANSIENT MOTION - A motion which changes with time in a non-periodic manner; often the motion declines (attenuates) to a
negligible value after a finite period of time (e.g. impact effects which decay with time, etc.).
PERIODIC AND NON-PERIODIC MOTIONS - A motion, which repeats itself is periodic; a motion, which does not repeat itself, is
non-periodic.
HARMONICS - Any motion can be considered as made up of a series of simple harmonic motions of different frequencies and
amplitudes. The lowest-frequency component is usually called the fundamental frequency; higher frequency components are
called harmonics or super-harmonics. Their frequencies are exact multiples of the fundamental frequency. Sometimes,
components of the frequencies of which are a fraction of driving frequency are significant (e.g. the "half-frequency" whirl of
rotating shafts, etc.). Such components are called subharmonics.
PULSE - Usually a displacement-time or force-time function describing an input into a dynamical system.
PULSE SHAPE - The shape of the time-displacement or force-displacement curve of a pulse. Typically, this might be a square
wave, a rectangular pulse, or a half sine-wave pulse. In general, however, the shape can be an arbitrary function of the time.
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SHOCK MOTION - A motion in which there is a sharp, nearly sudden change in velocity, e.g. a hammer blow on a nail, a package
falling to ground from a height, etc. its mathematical idealization is that of a motion in which the velocity changes suddenly. The
mathematical idealization of a sudden velocity change often represents a close approximation to the real dynamic behavior of the
system.
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with displacement (e.g. as in a rubber pad), the spring is called a hard spring. If it decreases with displacement (e.g. as in a
Belleville spring), the spring is called a soft spring.
ENERGY STORAGE - This is the area under the force-deflection curve of the spring. It represents the strain energy stored in the
spring (Units: in-lbs, or ft-lbs, etc.).
PRELOAD - A spring used in equipment may or may not have a rest (on the shelf) position in which it has its natural, free, or
unstretched length. If its rest-position length is not its free length, the spring is in tension or compression. The amount of this
tension or compression is called the preload. When measured in force units, it is a preload force; when measured in deflection
from free position, it is a preload deflection.
ELASTIC MODULUS (E) AND SHEAR MODULUS (G) - These are material properties, which characterize material compliance in
tension or in compression (E) and in shear (G). They are defined as the ratio of stress to strain, where strain refers to the change
in length (or deformation) per unit length. E involves tensile or compressive stress and G involves shear stress. Units: lbs/in². In
many practical applications, E and G can be regarded as constants, within a limit of material stress known as the proportional
limit. Metals loaded below the proportional limit are examples. Rubber and plastics, however, usually have no well defined
proportional limit.
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LUMPED-AND DISTRIBUTED-PARAMETER SYSTEMS - In a lumped-parameter system, the mass-, elastic- and damping properties
are separated or lumped into distinct components each of which has only mass or only elasticity or only damping, but not more
than one of these per component. In a distributed-parameter system, a component may have combined mass and elasticity and
damping, distributed continuously through the component. The latter models tend to be more realistic, but more difficult to
analyze.
DEGREE OF FREEDOM - This is the number of independent quantities (dimensions), which must be known in order to be able to
draw the mechanical system in any one position, the fixed dimensions of the system being known. The simple mass-spring
system of Figure 1 has one degree of freedom; a mechanical differential, for example, has two degrees of freedom; a rigid body
moving freely in space has 6 degrees of freedom.
FORCE AND MOTION EXCITATION - If a force is applied to a dynamical system, it usually is a source of vibration (e.g. centrifugal
force due to an unbalanced rotor). The vibrations are then said to be due to force excitation. If, on the other hand, the foundation
(or other part) of a machine is subject to a forced motion (vibration or shock), the resulting machine vibration is said to be due to
motion excitation, e.g. an earthquake actuating a seismograph.
FREE VIBRATION - If the weight in Figure 1 is moved out of its equilibrium position, and released, the system will vibrate without
the action of any external forces. Such an oscillation is called a free vibration.
FORCED VIBRATION - if an external force is applied to the weight in Figure 1, which causes it to vibrate (e.g. a force varying
harmonically with time, say), the resulting motion of the spring-mass system is called a forced vibration. If the base, which
supports the spring, undergoes a forced motion, which in turn causes the weight to vibrate, the vibration is also forced.
RANDOM VIBRATION - Equipment may be caused to vibrate by applied forces or motions, the frequency (or frequency
components) of which vary in a random manner with time (e.g. wind gusts on a missile). The resulting vibration is called random.
NATURAL FREQUENCY - When mechanical equipment vibrates freely, the resulting number of oscillations per unit time is called
the frequency (cycles/sec). According to whether the system is free without damping, or free with damping, the frequency is
called the free-undamped natural frequency or the free-damped natural frequency. The natural frequency is a function of the
mass distribution and compliance of the system. For a simple mass-spring system (Figure 1), which represents a reasonable
approximation to many real mechanical systems, the natural frequency is equal to radians per second,
where k is the spring constant, lbs/in; W is the weight, lbs; g is the gravitational constant, 386 in/sec²; and xst is the static
deflection of the spring, in. Thus, flexible systems tend to have low natural frequencies and rigid systems tend to have high
natural frequencies. At the same time, the natural frequency can be changed by altering the compliance and mass distribution of
the system. The simple expressions for natural frequency just given, yield the natural-frequency curve of the basic vibration chart
given in Par. 4, Case A. In the chart they are plotted on a logarithmic scale and the frequency is given in cycles per minute,
rather than in radians per second. A system may have more than one natural frequency, in which case the lowest of these is
often the most significant. In general, the number of natural frequencies is equal to the degree of freedom of the system.
FORCING FREQUENCY - The number of oscillations per unit time of an external force or displacement, applied to a vibrating
system.
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RESONANCE - Displacement and stress levels tend to build up greatly when the forcing frequency coincides with a natural
frequency. This condition is known as resonance.
NORMAL MODES - A system having more than one degree of freedom has several distinct or independent types of displacements
with the following characteristics: If set vibrating in one such displacement, the motion will remain of this type. Such types of
displacements are called normal modes.
FREQUENCY RATIO - The ratio of two frequencies, usually forcing frequency to natural frequency.
TRANSMISSION RATIO, TRANSMISSIBILITY - There are several transmission ratios. Usually these refer to the ratios of the
maximum values of an applied force or a forced motion to the maximum values of the transmitted force or displacement; the
ratio is expressed as transmitted/applied force or displacement. The direction of transmission can be from equipment to base or
vice versa. The transmission ratio is used as a factor of merit in the design of vibration mounts. For well insulated systems, its
value is substantially less than unity. [Exception: The value of TDl, eq. (B-1), Par.4, however, is slightly more than unity.]
TRANSIENTS AND STEADY-STATE COMPONENTS - Equipment vibration frequently consists of two parts: a temporary vibration,
often set up by startup or impact conditions, called a transient; and a permanent, periodic vibration, called a steady-state
component.
LINEAR SYSTEMS - Those in which the response under two different external force systems is the algebraic sum of the response
to each force system separately. Mathematically, the equations of motion are called linear and the resultant motion is obtainable
by superposition.
NOISE - When the frequency of vibration is in the range of about 100-18000 cycles/sec, the motion is generally accompanied by
audible sound (assuming equipment is not in a vacuum). Objectionable sound (in contrast to music, for example) is called noise.
Frequency in the audible range is sensed in human hearing as pitch, i.e. low-pitch sounds corresponding to low frequencies and
conversely. Table 3 illustrates frequencies of typical sound sources.
WAVE PHENOMENA - Elastic and acoustic waves travel through materials at characteristic speeds. Mechanical phenomena
(stresses, vibrations, sound, etc.) associated with these waves are called wave phenomena.
From: "How to Specify Audible Noise" by E.A. Harris and N.E. Levine, Machine Design, Nov 9, 1961. p. 174.
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3.0 VIBRATION MOUNTS AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS, INCLUDING RUBBER
3.1 Types of Vibration Mounts
Vibration mounts and shock mounts are units or components consisting of a resilient material, usually rubber, mounted in a
supporting frame, usually metal, which can be bolted or screwed into the equipment, which is to be protected.
Typical mounts and their basic characteristics are given in Table 4.
For all of these mounts the product pages of the SDP catalog include:
1. The load recommended as a maximum for each mounting.
2. The minimum forced frequency of vibration of the mechanism that will be absorbed effectively by the mounting when
supporting each of the various minimum loads indicated.
3. (For bumpers and wear pads) maximum constant force that can safely be applied.
4. (For bumpers and wear pads) maximum total force that can safely be withstood occasionally.
Also included are curves for each type of mounting, plotted to show the amount of static deflection resulting from various loads.
A typical mount is cylindrical mount #10Z2-330-B (Catalog p.706). The load-deflection curves in compression and shear are
nearly linear. The maximum recommended loads are 260 lbs in compression and 140 lbs in shear. Curves showing natural
frequency vs. supported weight are given for load in shear and load in compression. For example, when the mount supports
between 90 lbs and 260 lbs in compression, the minimum forced frequency, which will be absorbed effectively by the mount is
2500 cycles per minute.
Although rubber is practically incompressible, it is said to be stressed in compression when it supports a load as shown in
Figure 3. Note that the steel plates are being forced together to squeeze, or stress the rubber in compression.
Rubber, bonded to metal plates and stressed either in shear or in compression, can be used to eliminate sliding friction,
abrasion and wear between parts moving in relation to one another.
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(b) Loads in Two Planes
Some mountings are designed to be used with the rubber stressed only in compression or only in shear. Many mountings,
however, are designed to absorb vibrations through both compression and shear. In such cases, vibrations arrive at the mounting
in two planes.
Whether a mounting is designed to be used with the rubber in compression or in shear can be detrmined from load-deflection
curves and data supplied in this catalog.
By bonding or adhering metal plates to both sides of a slab of rubber, it is possible to make what is known as a sandwich. If
one of these plates is fixed in a vertical position and a load supported on the other plate, the rubber will allow the loaded plate to
move downward, or deflect, a certain distance. Since the relative movement is that of the blades of a pair of shears, it is said that
the rubber is deflected or stressed in shear and such mountings are called shear sandwiches. These are shown in Figure 4. The
second of these illustrates what is known as a club sandwich, incorporating two parallel walls of rubber stressed in shear.
Ordinarily the two outer plates are subjected to lateral pressure of limited amount; however, this does not appreciably alter the
action in shear.
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Figure 5 Electric Motor and
V-belt Drive. Motor mounts
take up load due to rotor
unbalance (F1.direction
rotates in vertical plane),
motor weight (F2), output
torque (1) and lateral force
(F3).
Ordinarily, club-sandwich type mountings might be installed with their longest axes at right angles to the rotor. In this position,
the rubber would move in shear for every direction of the vibration.
Bolt tension, however, might make it necessary to install the mountings with their longest axes parallel to the rotor. In this
case, the movement of the rubber in shear would absorb only the vertical component of the vibration. The horizontal component
of the vibration would cause the rubber to move in compression. See Figure 5.
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3.3 Properties and Characteristics of Rubber and Rubber Mountings
(a) Rubber-to-Metal Bond
Rubber when stressed in shear, is usually bonded to steel. The bond has certain limits beyond which it should not be stressed.
For instance, in commercial practice the bond between rubber and metal of a shear mounting is stressed from 25 to 70 lbs per
square inch, depending on the service. These values for bond stress are obtained by dividing the load in pounds by the area, in
square inches, of metal bonded to the rubber, Using the bond area either of the supporting metal or of the floating metal,
whichever is the smaller.
The minimum bond strength of the catalog mountings is guaranteed as follows:
200 lbs/in² for rubber having hardness up to 50 durometer;
250 lbs/in² for rubber of 50 durometer and higher.
Higher minimum bond strengths can be furnished by request where needed.
The bond strength in a well-designed mount is usually so high that in the event of failure the rubber breaks in a region, other
than at the bond interface.
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with increasing hardness from 0 to 100. In this catalog, a "30 durometer" rubber refers to a rubber compound which gives a
reading of 30 on the durometer (Type A).
A relationship connecting durometer hardness with the elastic modulus can at best be only approximate. The modulus is an
integrated property of the whole volume of the rubber body, whereas the durometer reading is a property of a small region in
and near the rubber surface, namely the local surface hardness. The durometer readings of rubber samples with the same elastic
moodulus may vary by 5 to 6 points at room temperature. The durometer is a useful means of roughly determining the modulus.
In the production of rubber mountings, where. identical rubber pieces are being cured, the durometer may serve as a fair control
on the modulus. However, it is to be remembered that the durometer reading is often a function of the size of the rubber piece
and of its surface irregularities. Durometer hardness does not indicate the utility or stamina of a rubber compound.
(d) Temperature
The temperature at which rubber mountings are used is important as extremes affect their service life. Generally, operating
tempertures of rubber mounting do not exceed 140ºF. However, the catalog mountings can be used at temperatures up to 170ºF
without seriously affecting their service performance. If used at higher temperatures, the load-carrying capacity and the service
life will decrease.
(e) Stability
The stability of a resiliently supported mechanism is greatest when the mountings are in a horizontal plane passing through the
center of gravity of the mechanism and when the mountings are as far from the center of gravity as is practicable. However, the
operation of
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most machines does not require that the mountings be placed at the level of the center of gravity.
Machinery to be insulated is often driven by belts. To maintain stability and relative position between the drive and driven
units, it is advisable to place both on a common base and resiliently support this base. Where this is not practical, the mountings
must be so arranged so that they will not affect the belt tension.
*The logarithmic decrement given here represents the negative of the power to which 10 must be raised in order to obtain the
ratio of any two consecutive amplitudes (on the same side of zero deflection) as unexcited vibration dies out. For instance, if the
logarithmic decrement is 0.2. the ratio of one amplitude to the preceding one is =
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TABLE 7 HOW TO IDENTIFY CAUSES OF VIBRATION
Frequency
Vibration Cause Comparative Amplitude* Remarks
(Cycles/min)
Unbalance Proportional to unbalance; 1 x rpm Most common cause of vibration.
largest in radial direction
Mechanical Depends on looseness Strobe light is the best tool to identify a faulty belt.
looseness
2 x rpm Cause is electrical if vibration amplitude crops off
Drive belts Erratic or pulsing instantly when power is turned off.
*This is a subjective relationship that depends upon other factors such as machine type and operating frequency.
In machine elements such as gears, the frequencies of vibrations could be the gear speeds, or the frequency of tooth
engagement, or the frequency with which two given teeth come into contact, or the frequency of a machining error introduced
through a gear-cutting process, such as hobbing, for example. In adition there are the natural frequencies of the gear-drive
system. Thus any given situation may require careful study (see, e.g., N.F. Riegler, Mach. Des, July 10, 1969, pp.115-119.)
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In cam-driven systems, the natural frequencies may correspond to the cam speed, or to higher frequencies associated with the
harmonics of the acceleration-time function of the follower displacement.
A vibration source may be external or internal. The external sources represent applied external forces or motions, such as floor
motions, motor drives, impacts, wind gusts and the like. The internal sources include those mentioned above. It is desirable to
identify the frequency, and direction of motion and point of application of all external or internal vibration-generating forces. if
the amplitudes are available, so much the better.
These quantities can be measured, or computed. Vibration-measuring equipment may be portable or permanently installed for
monitoring purposes. Portable vibration measuring instruments can be battery-powered and can be used for measuring
displacement, velocity and acceleration at frequencies ranging from very low up to (at least) the limit of the audible range
(3,100,000 cycles/min). Typically such vibration meters involves an accelerometer, the output of which is integrated
electronically to indicate velocity and displacement in addition to acceleration. See, for example, "Vibration testing instrument
selection" by W. Tustin, Machine Design, May 29, 1969, pp.116-124. Vibration and Sound Analyzers are also available.
Having identified the sources of vibration, it is then necessary to specify, the degree to which this must be isolated or
Insulated. In the following guideline this is determined by the relationship between the natural frequency and the forced
frequency to be insulated.
Thus let the ratio of forced frequency to natural frequency be called the insulation ratio (this ratio is also called the frequency
ratio).
Where vibration must be almost entirely eliminated, the insulation ratio should be 4 or more, thus requiring relatively large static
deflections, which usually means more costly mountings. Satisfactory results are usually obtained where the ratio is 2.5 or
slightly greater. It is important to note that there are cases where, due to extraordinary resilience of the supporting floor or
foundation, an insulation ratio considerably higher than 2.5 will be required. For instance, a light wooden floor in a frame building
is considerably more resilient than a concrete floor in a building of steel structure and would require a higher insulation ratio to
compensate for the lack of resilience in the supporting structure. The mathematical determination of the degree of vibration
absorption is given later in Par. 4. Having defined the vibration environment, it is necessary to specify the mechanical
characteristics of the vibrating system.
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4.2 Mechanical System Characteristics
The following concerns the characteristics usually needed for vibration analysis:
MASS - this is weight divided by the gravitational constant (g = 386 in/sec²). Determine by finding weight of part. Either by
direct weighing, or by computation of product of volume and density.
CENTER OF GRAVITY - Can be obtained by computation or experiment. The experiment is suggested by the definition of the C.G.
as the point of support at which the body will be in equilibrium. For example, a plane body, or one of constant thickness, can be
supported on a peg; when in equilibrium, a vertical line drawn through the peg will pass through the center of gravity. If this
experiment is repeated with a different peg location relative to the body, the center of gravity will be the point of intersection of
two lines. Similar experiments, though somewhat more difficult to devise, can be conducted for three-dimensional bodies.
MOMENTS OF INERTIA - For standard shapes these are tabulated in the handbooks. A few of the more commonly used shapes
are tabulated below. To determine the mass moment of inertia of a body, the cross-sectional area of which is constant, multiply
the area moment of inertia by the product of the length of the body and its density [mass density = (lbs/in3)/g]. Consider, for
example, a rectangular, steel bar, 10" long, 2" wide and 2" high, as shown in Figure 8.
Cross-section Area moment of inertia about axis indicated; if the linear dimensions are in
inches, the units of area moment of inertia are (inches)4.
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The area moment of inertia about axis AA is
bh3 or (2)(2)3 = 1.333in.4
12 12
The mass moment of inertia of the bar about the midplane, M1M2M3M4 (containing axis AA)
= Area Moment x Length of Bar x Mass Density
Gravitational Constant
Assuming a value of 0.281 lbs/in3 for the density of steel and a value of 386 in/sec2 for the gravitational constant, the mass
moment of inertia, in units of in-lb-sec2, is given by
1.333 x 10 x 0.281
386
or 0.00971 in-lb-sec²
The moment of inertia of complicated machine parts can be calculated or determined experimentally. Experimental setups
usually involve a compound-pendulum experiment. The part (rotor, etc.) may be suspended by a knife edge or wire, etc. and
permitted to swing about an axis, which is parallel to the axis about which the mass moment of inertia is desired. See Figure 9.
Let d = distance from center of gravity to point of support (knife edge, or end of wire, etc.)
T = period of pendulum vibration in seconds; (measure several and divide by their number).
W = weight of part, lbs
g = 386 in/sec²
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Then the moment of inertia, l, about an axis through the center of gravity parallel to the swing axis is given by
Similar measurements can be made with the part mounted so as to vibrate as a torsional pendulum (see W.l. Senger, Machine
Design, Nov., Dec., 1944, Jan.-Feb., 1945).
Products of inertia are required more seldom than moments of inertia. Their experimental determination is more difficult. One
way, usable in parts which function as rotors, is to mount the rotor on bearings and permit the rotor to rotate at speed. If the
rotor unbalance is known, the bearing reactions are directly relatable to the products of inertia (see, for example, Housner and
Hudson: "Applied Mechanics/Dynamics, Van Nostrand, 1959, p.224, Ex. 7.68).
If a moment of inertia about an axis through the center of gravity is known, the moment of inertia about a parallel axis, a
distance D from the center of gravity is computed by the Parallel-Axis Theorem:
l(displaced axis) = l(about parallel axis through C.G.) + WD²/g
where W is the weight of the body and g is the gravitational constant.
For geared systems, see below under elastic compliance.
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We give here only the main equations, which occur most frequently:
(a) Circular-Wire Helical Spring in Tension or Compression
k = d4G
8D3N
where k = spring constant lbs/in.
d = wire diameter of spring material, in.
D = mean coil diameter of spring (O.D.-d), in.
N = number of active turns of wire (usually total number less one, or one and one-half turns to allow for end effects).
G = shear modulus of spring material, lbs/in².
(b) Circular Wire Helical Spring in Torsion
k = Ed4 in-lbs/radian
64DN
where the symbols are defined as in (a), above, and
E = elastic modulus (lbs/in²)
Springs also have lateral compliance, which is different from their axial compliance, see AM. Wahl above under "Elastic
Compliance."
(c) Various Beam Configurations
For the most common forms of beams, the deflection formulae are as follows:
Spring constant, k, lbs/in (this is the weight, W, divided by the beam deflection at the weight).
E = elastic modulus of beam material, lbs/in2
l = area moment of inertia of beam cross-sectional area about neutral axis (axis through center of mass of cross-section
parallel to the bending moment vector exerted by W)
= length of beam
Simply-supported beam;
concentrated weight at
middle.
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(e) Springs in Parallel
These combine like electrical resistances in series. This is the case when several springs support a single load, as shown. The
springs are equivalent to a single spring, the spring constant of which is equal to the sum of the spring constants of the
constituent springs. In the above sketch, the spring constant, k, of the single equivalent spring is given by:
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(g) Spring Combinations, Which are Partly in Parallel and Partly in Series
Obtain equivalent spring constants for each set of parallel or series springs separately and then combine. For example, in the
sketch shown on the left, the springs k1 and k2 are equivalent to a single spring, the spring constant of which, ke1, is given by:
The three springs, k3, k4, k5 in parallel are equivalent to a single spring, the spring constant, ke2, of which, is given by
ke2 = k3 + k4 + k5
Now equivalent springs ke1 and ke2 are in series. Hence, the spring constant, k, of the equivalent spring for the entire system, is
given by
where n21, n31 are the gear ratios of shafts 2, 3 to shaft 1 respectively. The moment of inertia, l, of the system referred to the
motor shaft (shaft #1) is given by:
l = (lM + lp1) + n21² (lg2 + lp2) + n31² (lg3 + lL)
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The springs are in parallel and combine accordingly, but because of the gear reductions all spring constants are multiplied by the
square of the gear ratio between the shaft involved and the reference shaft.
In computing the equivalent moment of inertia, l, the moment of inertia at an intermediate shaft is multiplied by the square of
the gear ratio between that shaft and the reference shaft.
4.3 Damping
In the case of viscous damping, it is usually required to make an estimate of the damping ratio (the ratio of damping to critical
damping). In most mechanical systems, this ratio ranges from near zero to about 5%. A convenient way to measure the ratio is
by noting the decay in amplitude of a damped free vibration of the system. The calculation is given in Case A, Par. 4.
In the case of sliding friction (Coulomb damping or static friction), the coefficient of friction is a measure of the resistance to
the sliding motion. Sometimes, it is convenient to work with equivalent viscous damping, rather than with static friction, because
viscous damping gives rise to mathematically linear equations, while static friction does not. In such cases, it is sometimes
possible to compute an equivalent coefficient of viscous damping. In the case of a single-degree-of-freedom system of Case A,
Par.4, subject to a sinusoidally varying force acting vertically on the weight W, and assuming for the time being that the dashpot
is replaced by sliding friction, It is possible to find the equivalent viscous damping coefficient by equating the work done during a
quarter cycle of vibration between the actual system and the equivalent viscously damped system. However, care must be taken
that such equivalence is valid for the purposes of the vibration-mount design. This is not always the case and requires separate
investigation.
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computation, it has been recognized that many mechanical systems can be represented by reasonably simple mathematical
models. Once these models have been analyzed, the results can be tabulated and used with minimum effort. Below, we have
selected 6 mathematical models of vibrating machinery and systems, which we believe will be applicable to a large number of
vibration-isolation problems encountered by the engineer. The basic results are summarized for each case. Solved problems are
given in the subsequent section and illustrate the application of these cases to vibration-mount design.
The quantity (1 - TF) is sometimes called the isolation or insulation and is expressed as a percentage.
The motion amplification of the equipment can be measured by comparing the max. equipment displacement to the static
displacement under the unbalanced force Fmax. This leads to the displacement transmissibility of the equipment, TDE:
(A-1)
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The condition p/ω = 1 is known as resonance when ξ = 0.
When the damping ratio is less than 0.1 (10%) the max value of TF still occurs very nearly when p/ω =1 and the corresponding
value of TF is 1/2ξ very nearly. TF is less than 1 only when p/ω, is greater than 1.41.
The following basic vibration chart, Table 9, gives static deflection vs. frequency and % vibration isolation (1 - TF). It is basic to
all vibration-mount circulations (see problem section).
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TABLE 9
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The following equations are useful in calculating the natural frequency (ω) and the damping ratio (ξ) of the system:
Let xst = static deflection of spring, in.
Ω = natural frequency of system with damping, rad/sec.
ΩN = same in cycles/min.
ωN = natural frequency of system without damping, cycles/min.
ξ = damping ratio of system = c/cc.
an = nth max. amplitude of displacement. x, of equipment (on same side of mean position).
Then: xst = W (in.) (A-4)
K
The sketch below shows a displacement-time curve of a free, damped vibration with successive amplitudes (a1, a2.. .). Equation
(A-6) states that the natural undamped frequency depends only on the static deflection of the system, and this is often readily
measured. The damping ratio, ξ, can be measured by allowing the damped system to vibrate and measuring the rate of decay of
maximum amplitudes. Equation (A-9) then shows how the damping ratio can be determined.
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CASE B: FOUNDATION MOVES WITH SINUSOIDAL DISPLACEMENT
Here we are interested in reducing the displacement transmitted from the base to the equipment. The transmission factors are:
TD = Max. displacement of equipment
Max. displacement of base
TDl = Max. vibration - mount deflection
Max. displacement of base
TD is numerically equal to TF [eg. (A-1), base A].
When the damping ratio is less than about 0.1, the maximum force transmitted to the equipment is given very nearly by
kTDlYmax.
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CASE C: SHOCK MOTION OF BASE (BASE SUDDENLY BROUGHT TO REST OR BASE ACQUIRES SUDDEN VELOCITY)
(C-1)
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CASE D: SUDDEN IMPACT ON EQUIPMENT
Sudden impact, or a sharp blow is characterized by a large force (Fo) acting for a short period of time (to) as shown in the
sketch. For practical purposes, suddenness is taken to mean that to is small in comparison with the natural period of vibration of
the system. The impulse, l is defined as the area under the force-time curve, i.e.
l = Foto lb-secs. (D-1)
The impulse, l, results in a sudden downward velocity V of the equipment, given by
(D-2)
The maximum mount deflection and the maximum equipment acceleration (dmax and amax) can be calculated by substituting V
into equation (C-1) of Case C.
CASE E: SUDDEN IMPACT (VELOCITY CHANGE OF BASE) WITH EQUIPMENT CONTAINING RESILIENT COMPONENT
The results of this are due to RD. Mindlin (Ref. of Case C).
WZ = weight of lightweight component (lbs)
z = displacement of WZ from equilibrium (in)
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kzx = spring constant of component support system (lbs/in)
Czx = damping constant of component support system
W = main equipment weight, (lbs)
x = main-equipment displacement from equilibrium (in)
k = vibration mount spring constant (lbs/in)
c = main equipment damping constant
y = displacement of base (in)
V = velocity of base (in/sec)
The sudden impact considered is that in which the base is either moving and suddenly brought to rest, or is at rest and acquires a
sudden upward velocity. The former, for example, is an approximation of what happens to a package which drops to ground (say)
and remains in contact with the ground. A sudden velocity change, V, of the base is shown in the sketch. Since the equipment
and base are assumed always to remain in contact, we refer to this case as one of inelastic impact. It is also assumed that the
component weight, Wz, is small in comparison with the main equipment weight, W.
In view of this assumption we can neglect the forces exerted on the main equipment by the component support system (but
not the converse). This means that the base-mount-main-equipment system is identical to that of Case C.
In the event Case E represents a system falling from a height h to ground, the velocity V is given by:
V= 2gh in/sec (E-1)
where: g = 386 in/sec²
h = height of fall, inches
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The amplification factor, A0, is defined by R.D. Mindlin as follows:
The term "quasistatic" means that the component deflection is calculated for the condition in which the acceleration pulse is very
slow in comparison with the natural period of vibration of the component.
The following curves (R.D. Mindlin) show plots of the amplification factor against the frequency ratio ω1/ω2 where:
ω1 = = undamped natural frequency of component support system (E-3)
and
ω2 = kg/w = undamped natural frequency of main equipment and vibration mount (E-4)
Various values of the damping of the component support system are considered:
Figure E-1: 1% main equipment damping.
Figure E-2: 5% main equipment damping.
Figure E-3: 10% main equipment damping.
Sometimes the impact involved may be elastic, i.e. there may be rebound of the package. It is then often a fair approximation,
which is on the conservative side, to evaluate the isolator design on the basis of no rebound (inelastic impact) as above.
However, if a more exact analysis is required, see R.D. Mindlin (Ref. Case C).
Figure E-1 Amplification Factors For Linear Damped Cushioning With No Rebound. β2 = 0.01 (From R.D. Mindlin:
Dynamics of Package Cushioning, p.82)
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Figure E-2 Amplification Factors For Linear Damped Cushioning With No Rebound. β2 = 0.05 (From R.D. Mindlin:
Dynamics of Package Cushioning, p.82)
Figure E-3 Amplification Factors For Linear Damped Cushioning With No Rebound. β2 = 0.1 (From R.D. Mindlin:
Dynamics of Package Cushioning, p.83)
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CASE F: EQUIPMENT SUBJECT TO A DISTURBING FORCE AND/OR DISTURBING TORQUES - 4-POINT MOUNTING
The results of this case are due to E.H. Hull: "The Use of Rubber in Vibration Isolation," ASME Transactions (J. Applied Mechanics)
4,3, Sept. 1937, pp.(A-109)-(A-114).
The figure shows equipment, center of gravity C, mounted on 4 supports, which may represent vibration mounts, and acted upon
by a disturbing force, Fy, in the y-direction and/or by torques, Tx, Ty, Tz acting singly or in combination about the x, y, z axes,
which are principal axes through the center of gravity, C.
The four supports are symmetrically disposed relative to the center of gravity, their location defined by distances bx, by, bz
from the axes, as shown. The mass moments of inertia through C about the coordinate axes are lx, lz respectively. As a result of
the external force and torques, the equipment motion is a displacement of C, maximum values of which are denoted (a) by the
coordinates (Cx, Cy, Cz) and (b) by the rotation of the equipment (from equilibrium) about the coordinate axes (θx, θy, θz). This
displacement is generally small relative to the major dimensions of the equipment.
Let M = mass of equipment (equipment weight/g, where g = 386 in/sec²).
ky = total vertical stiffness of the four supports
i.e. 4 times the stiffness of each support, lbs/in
ks = total horizontal or shear stiffness of the four supports,
i.e. 4 times the horizontal stiffness of each support, lbs/in
ω = frequency of sinusoidally applied force and torques (rad/sec)
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Damping is assumed to be negligible.
1. Equipment Displacement
in these equations Fy, Tx, Ty, Tz represent peak values of the corresponding applied force/torques.
2. Undamped Natural Frequencies
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3. Mount Deflections
If, due to any one of the force/torques Fy, Tx, Ty, Tz, the equipment motion is (Cx, Cy, Cz, θx, θy, θz) and if the coordinates of
the point of support of a vibration mounts are (X, Y, Z) in the equilibrium position, then the deflection (∆X, ∆Y, ∆Z) of the mount
from equilibrium due to the applied force/torques is given by:
∆X = Cx - θzY + θyZ
∆Y = Cy - θxZ + θzX (F-15)
∆Z = Cz - θyX + θxY
provided the displacements are small.
However, if the effects of more than one disturbing force/torque are to be combined, the corresponding displacements of the
mount must be combined vectorially and cannot be added algebraically, as in eq. (F-15).
General Comments
1. It is desirable to make sure that the disturbing forces and torques operate at frequencies sufficiently far removed from the
computed natural frequencies, so that resonnance conditions are avoided.
2. The compliance of the vibration mounts in compression and shear should be such that their combined compliance yields
natural frequencies, which are sufficiently lower than the natural frequencies of the system (hopefully at least by a factor of 2.5).
3. The displacements (max. deflections) of the mounts can be calculated from eq. (F-15), for any given single disturbing force or
torque. If several force/torques act simultaneously, vector addition of forces in different directions is required, and eq. (F.15)
cannot be used.
4. The case of a horizontal disturbing force has not been considered, If this is necessary, see C.E. Crede: "Vibration and Shock
Isolation," J. Wiley, 1951.
5. Other things being equal the best arrangement for the mounts is to arrange them so that their resultant force passes through
the center of gravity of the equipment and that its line of action is a principal axis. If there is a resultant torque about the center
of gravity its direction should be about a principal axis through the center of gravity. However, if this arrangement is impractical,
it need not be adhered to.
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some understanding of the vibration phenomenon. Usually the lowest-frequency component predominates and is the most
important component to analyze. It is possible, however, that the vibration-mount design will appear unfeasible on the basis of
an analysis of only the fundamental component, whereas the exact analysis would show that a vibration mount can be useful, i.e.
sometimes an analysis of components of several frequencies may be required. This, however, may be quite difficult. All one can
say, then, is that having a separation of an arbitrary force-time variation into different-frequency components can provide some
insight.
The following represents data on the Fourier series (decomposition into components at different frequencies) of some
representative force-time variations, which are neither sinusoidal nor sudden. Each force is assumed to be a periodic function of
the time.
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To illustrate this approach in a particular case, we consider a commonly found machine motion: the connecting-rod motion, or
slider-crank motion, as in internal-combustion engines. This motion can be shown to have the following Fourier analysis:
In the sketch:
r = crank length, in.
= conn. rod length, in.
θ = crank angle, rad or deg.
x = piston displacement (piston motion in-line with crank pivot) in.
ω = crank speed, assumed constant, rad/sec
a = piston acceleration, in/sec²
where A2, A4, A6 are given as follows [J. Hirschhorn: "Kinematics and Dynamics of Plane Mechanisms," McGraw-Hill, 1962 Table
5-1, page 115]
/r A2 A4 A6
3.0 0.3431 0.0101 0.0003
3.5 0.2918 0.0062 0.0001
4.0 0.2540 0.0041 0.0001
4.5 0.2250 0.0028 -
5.0 0.2020 0.0021 -
Problem No. 1
A metal tumbling unit weighing 200 lbs and driven by a 950 RPM motor is to be mounted for at least 81% vibration isolation
using 4 cylindrical mounts in shear. Select the mounts.
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The load per mounting is (1/4) x 200 lbs = 50 lbs. From the basic vibration chart, Table 9, a forcing frequency of 950 RPM and
81% isolation lead to a point of intersection corresponding to a static deflection of 0.25".
Cylindrical mountA10Z 2-311C, loaded in shear, has a deflection 0.35" at 50 lbs. Since this deflection is in excess of 0.25, the
isolation will be greater than the design minimum; from the basic vibration chart, it is seen to be between 85-90%.
Problem No.2
Consider the tumbling unit of Problem No. 1 and suppose the motor speed were increased to 2500 RPM. What mountings could
be used, allowing loading both in shear and in compression?
From the basic vibration chart, Table 9, for a forcing frequency of 2500 RPM and 81% isolation, we find a static deflection of
about 0.037". Hence we must look for mountings with a load rating not less than 50 lbs and with a corresponding deflection of
not less than 0.037". The following mounts can be considered:
Load in Load in
Compression Shear
A10Z 2-300B (0.10" deflection) A10Z 2-3308 (0.2" deflection)
A10Z 2-317B (0.10") A10Z 2-311C (0.35")
A10Z 2-310B (0.12") A10Z 3-318C (0.20")
A10Z 2-314C (0.05")
Amongst these, the highest percentage of isolation is afforded by the mount with the largest deflection (A10Z 2-311C), provided
such a deflection is permissable.
Problem No.3
A small business machine is to be mounted for 81% vibration isolation. The weight is 25 lbs and there are 4 mounting points.
What additional information is required for the selection of the mounting?
Information which is needed is as follows: frequency of disturbing force; direction and point of application of disturbing force;
space limitations, if any; ambient conditions, if unusual; mass and compliance distribution of machine - if complex (i.e. if other
than case A).
NOTE: In the following problems unless otherwise stated it is assumed that the loads are evenly distributed among the mounts.
Problem No.4
A device contains 4 symmetrically located special-configuration mounts (Finger-Flex) A10R 4-1500A, each mount deflecting just
over 0.13" at 20 lb. load. In order to obtain satisfactory vibration isolation, it is desired to increase the deflection from 0.13" to
0.26", the load remaining the same. How can this be done?
One way is to stack two (identical) mounts in series, each of the mounts being replaced by such a stack.
Problem No.5
A unit which is to be mounted for 81% vibration isolation has a forcing frequency of 950 RPM, weighs 1080 lbs and is to use 6
mounts in shear. A mounting with a female tap is required. Select a mount.
The load per mount is 1080/6 = 180 lbs. At 950 RPM and 81% isolation, the basic vibration chart gives a static deflection of
0.25".
Mount A10Z 3-318C loaded in shear has a deflection of about 0.67" at 180 lbs. This being in excess of 0.25" the degree of
isolation is certainly satisfactory. A female tap is provided on the mounting.
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Problem No. 6
A 275 lb. motor is mounted with cylindrical mounts A10Z 2-311C loaded in shear, at six points, the forcing frequency being 1100
RPM. What is the percentage of vibration isolation attained?
The load mount = 275/6 = 45.8 lbs, assuming mounts to be symmetrically located, so that load is evenly distributed. From the
design information furnished In the catalog, the deflection of the mount at this load value shear is approximately 0.32".
From the basic vibration chart, Table 9, the point of intersection of 0.32" static deflection and forcing frequency of 1100 RPM
gives an isolation percentage of nearly 90%.
Problem No.7
An air conditioner weighs 250 lbs. and is driven by a motor at 1750 RPM. The unit is mounted in shear on 4 style A10Z 2-317B
cylindrical mounts. Is this design satisfactory?
The mounting is not properly installed, because the maximum load rating for this mount, as indicated in the catalog, is 18 lbs in
shear and 50 lbs in compression. The load per mount is 250/4 = 62.5 lbs. Possibly the mount should be installed so that it is
loaded in compression, but even this is not satisfactory, since the load (62.5 lbs) is significantly in excess of the 50 lbs
recommended limit.
Mounts, which have sufficient load capacity, are as follows:
Mount Static Deflection
A10Z 2-310B (Compression) (0.14")
A10Z 2-31 1C (Shear - marginal) (0.40")
A10Z 2-330B (Shear) (0.22")
AI0Z 3-318C (Shear) (0.23")
The choice of mounts depends (amongst other matters) on the degree of isolation desired. With any of the above mounts this will
be in excess of 81%.
Problem No.8
If in the preceeding problem, the air conditioner weighs 350 lbs what is the choice of mounts? The load/mount 350/4 = 87.5 lbs.
The following mounts can be considered:
Mount Static Deflection
A10Z 2-314C (Compression) (0.08")
A10Z 2-31 1C (compression) (0.10")
Al OZ 2-330B (Shear) (0.31")
Al OZ 3-318C (Shear or compression) (0.38"or 0.08")
Problem No.9
A computer weighs 200 lbs. It is to be vibration isolated with 4 mounts. The forcing frequency is 1750 RPM. If the mounts are to
be loaded in compression, what mountings are available and what is the percentage of vibration isolation attained in each case?
The load per mount is 200/4 = 50 lbs. Hence we require mounts with a load capability of at least 50 lbs in compression. For
each mount, the catalog gives curves from which we can find static deflection under a 50-lb load. Going to the basic vibration
chart with this value of static deflection and a forcing frequency for 1750 RPM, the point of intersection defines the percentage of
vibration isolation, which is attained. In this way, the following mounts are amongst the selection which can be made:
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Static deflection % Vibration
Type of Mount Catalog Number at 50 lb compression Isolation
Cylindrical A10Z 2-317B 0.10" 86%
Cylindrical A10Z 2-300B 0.10" 86%
Cylindrical A10Z 2-310B 0.12" 88%
Special
(Finger-Flex) A10R 4-1506B 0.14" Approx.91%
Special
(Finger-Flex) A10R 4-1506C 0.08" Approx. 82%
Problem No. 10
A 4-cylinder engine weighing 370 lbs and operating at 2800 RPM is to be isolated for 81% vibration isolation. Discuss the
selection of mounts.
The lowest frequency to be isolated is 2800 RPM. In general, it is desirable to arrange the mounts so that the resultant of the
loads supported by the mounts passes through the center of gravity. If the mounts are symmetrically arranged, and each mount
carries the same load, this usually means that a line through the axis of the mounts passes through the center of gravity. In this
case we are concerned not only with the translational displacement of the engine as a whole, but also with engine rotation. In
addition, flexible gas lines and the throttle linkage can vibrate and their vibration isolation may pose an additional problem.
At 2800 RPM and 81% vibration isolation, the basic vibration chart gives a static deflection of about 0.032".The load is 370/4 =
92.5 lbs per mount.
Consider channel mount A10Z 5-101 C3 loaded in shear. This has a deflection of about 0.12" in shear, which can accommodate
the rotation of the engine about the torque-roll axis. The mount deflection in compression would serve to accommodate the shock
load in translation.
(A-1)
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when PN > ωN, use - sign in eq. (A-1')
when PN< ωN, use + sign in eq. (A-1')
For good isolation we would like ωN < PN; hence use minus sign.
Solving for (pN/ωN,) from eq. (A-1'), we obtain PN/ωN = 3.91.
But PN = 2000 cycles/min.
Hence, ωN = 510 cycles/min.
From eq. (A-6), of Case A,
Problem No. 12
Data as in problem 11, but damping is estimated at 10 percent of critical. Does this change the mounting specification?
The forcing transmissibility, TF, corresponding to 93% vibration isolation, is 0.07 and the forcing frequency is 2000 cycles per
minute. From Figure A-1, using these values and the curve for 0.1 damping ratio, we find the ratio of forcing to natural frequency
about 5 (this gives a TF of about 0.06).
Hence, ωN = 2000/5 = 400 cycles/min.
From the basic vibration chart. Table 9, this natural frequency corresponds to a static deflection of about 0.22". The load
remains at 20 lbs. per mount. The mount specified for Problem 11 is too stiff. Mount A10Z 2-310B loaded in shear appears to be
satisfactory, with a deflection of about 0.27" at 20 lbs.
From Figure A2, we see that the maximum mount deflection measured from static is less than 0.04 times the static deflection
and hence the motion amplification (over static) is negligible, i.e. max. mount deflection is very nearly 0.27".
This problem could also have been solved by the computer program, or analytically. in the latter case, eq. (A-1) can be solved
for ωN at the value ξ = 0.1, PN = 2000.
In general when the damping is not in excess of 5% of critical and when the ratio of forcing to natural frequency is not less
than 2.5, the transmissibility differs very little from that computed without damping and the motion amplification (compared to
static) is negligible. That is to say, for engineering purposes, we can compute the mount design neglecting damping.
From the curves in Figures A1, A2, we can conclude also that while damping will reduce the amplitudes in displacement, the
force transmissibility above resonance in the presence of damping is greater than that without damping.
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60-90 cycles/sec. and again when it is between 200-400 cycles/sec. the vibration is objectionable. Design a vibration mount for a
3-point suspension with not less than 81% vibration isolation.
In the absence of more information, we may assume that Case A is applicaple with zero damping. If we isolate for the lowest
objectionable forced frequency (60 cps), this would take care of all the troublesome regions.
The forced frequency is 60 x 60 = 3600 cycles/min. From the basic vibration chart, Table 9, an 81 % insulation ratio at a forced
frequency of 3600 corresponds to a static deflection of about 0.017 in. The weight supported by each mounting ranges from
3.5/3 lbs to 5/3 lbs, or from 1.17 to 1.67 lbs.
The natural frequency, if needed, is read off from the chart at about 1450 cycles/min. Hence, the vibration mount specification
is:
0.017" deflection
1.17 lbs to 1.67 lbs supported weight.
Cylindrical mount A10Z 2-1765A loaded in shear is a possibility. Considering the special-configuration (Finger-Flex) mountings,
mount A10R 4-1500A comes to mind.
The deflection of the former at 1.17 lbs is only about 0.008", so that a stack of two is desirable, if space permits. In view of its
construction, the spring rate of this mount increases rapidly with deflection and the special configuration unit would be both more
economical in the use of space and more effective in taking care of overloads, if this should arise.
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= 8.8 in/sec.
Hence, ω = (g) = (386) = 43.8 rad/sec.
(1) (V) (1)(8.8)
∴ ωN = ω x 60 = 418 cycles/mm.
2π
This frequency is sufficiently low so that it is difficult to isolate effectively without undesirably large vibration mount deflections.
This suggests using a cylindrical mount, say, mounted in compression for the vertical (engine) vibrations and having reasonably
large compliance in the horizontal (shear) mode to take care of some of the shock, with a conical bumper to limit excessive
horizontal deflections.
For example, cylindrical mount A10Z 2-300A has a 0.50"deflection at 20 lbs. compressive load, while in shear, the deflection at
16 lbs. is about 0.30", or six times as much. This is an overload, but might still be considered due to the intermittent value of the
load.
The natural frequency in the shear mode based on the 16 lb load is
188 or about 343 cycles/min, which is 18% lower than the 418 cycles/min figure.
0.30
From eq. (C-1), dmax = amax = 1
dst g
and we find dmax = 0.30". (Note that dst is computed as if the weight were supported in shear)
This is too large a maximum deflection. A conical bumber should be used to limit the deflection beyond 0.20", say, alternatively,
a stronger and stiffer mount should be considered, for example A10Z 2-300B, which deflects 0.035" at 18 lbs. in shear. The
insulation ratio in compression is reduced to about 65%; and while the insulation ratio in shear is also reduced, so is the
corresponding maximum deflection. In addition, the conical bumpers should be added. The final choice of mount is a matter of
judgement. Problem No. 15 (Case A)
A single-cylinder gasoline engine belt drives a one-cylinder air compressor. Both units are bolted to a light-gage metal pan,
which is welded to the top of an air-receiver tank, which in turn is mounted to a four-wheel steel-tired dolly. The whole unit
vibrates and walks all over the floor. The engine weighs 100 lbs and turns at 3000 RPM. The compressor weighs 120 lbs and
turns at 1200 RPM. The tank weighs 25 lbs and the dolly weighs 50 lbs. What can be done?
Possibly good rubber tires on the dolly would help. If the tank is mounted to the dolly, total weight,
W = 100 + 120 + 75 = 295 lbs.
The lowest-frequency disturbing force is that due to the air compressor, i.e. 1200 cycles/mm. At 81% vibration isolation (Case
A, ξ = 10), Table 9 gives a static deflection of the isolator of about 0.15". Considering a 4-mount suspension, the load per mount
is 74 lbs.
Cylindrical mount A10Z 2-310B would be a possiblity, loaded in compression. If the dolly continues to move, since it weighs
only 50 lbs., it might require a little softer material than the 40-durometer rubber, in order to effect more isolation, especially
since operation is intermittent and weight limit is exceeded by the 30-durometer mounting.
Next consider mounting the pan that holds the engine and air-compressor unit. The total wieght here is 100 + 120 = 220 lbs.
and with the same static deflection of 0.15, A10Z 2-310A mounting would suffice
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in compression, considering the fact that the chart shows the A10Z 2-310B mounting to deflect 0.12" at 55 lbs. The
lower-durometer mounting (Type A, at 30-durometer) should, therefore, approximate the 0.15" required deflection. Note that the
last letter in the mount identification specifies the durometer hardness of the rubber (A = 30, B = 40, C = 50).
T243
other textile machinery. The basic floor-vibration frequency is that of the industrial sewing machines, which operate between the
range of 1500-5000 RPM. It is desired to vibration isolate the experiment, which weighs 25 lbs, with a four-point mounting at not
less than 81% vibration of displacement. This may be considered as Case B with zero damping.
At 81% displacement isolation, the displacement transmissibility, TD, is 0.19. It is calculated using the same equation as for
TF, i.e. eq: (A-1) of Case A.
whence xst = 0.10" (Same result follows from basic vibration chart).
The isolator specification, therefore, is .010" static deflection at a load of 25/4 = 6.25 lbs. However, the vibration mount must
also be capable of withstanding the max. deflection. This is computed from the transmissibility factor TDI:
TDI = max. isolator deflection/max. displacement of base. According to eq. (B-1) with ξ = 0,
Problem No. 18
Data as in Problem 17, except that system damping is estimated at 10% of critical. Reevaluate the specification of the mount.
In problem 17 we found that the displacement transmissibility corresponding to 81% isolation is TD = 0.19; and that the lowest
forcing frequency, PN = 1500 cycles/min.
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From Figure A1, which applies to TD as well as to TF, we find that the given value of the transmissibility at 0.1 damping ratio
yields a frequency ratio PN/ωN of about 2.7.
Hence, ωN = 1500/2.7 = 550 cycles/min.
At a natural frequency of 550 cycles/min, the basic vibration chart (Table 9) gives a static deflection of about 0.117". The load
per mount, as in Problem 17, is 6.25 lbs.
The ratio of max. mount displacement to max. base displacement at a frequency ratio of 2.7 and at a damping ratio of 0.1 is
computed from eq. (B-1) and is about 1.2, as in Problem 17.
Hence, the isolator specification A10Z 2-316B of Problem 17 remains satisfactory. The problem could also have been solved
with the aid of the computer program.
Consider this as Case D. The impulse, l of eq. (D-1) then is: l = 2.5 lb-secs.
if the pendulum retains a residual velocity VP' just after striking the test object, l would be computed from l = (VP - VP') x mass
of pendulum. The impact results in an essentially sudden velocity change, V, of the equipment, which, according to eq. (D-2) is
given by:
T245
Using a 4-point mounting, the weight supported per mount is 100/4 = 25 lbs.
According to the basic vibration chart (Table 9) at ωN = 764, the static deflection is about 0.062". However, according to eq.
(C-1), the isolator should be capable of withstanding a max. deflection, dmax = 2dst or 0.124 inches (from equilibrium).
For example, vibration mount A10Z 2-330B loaded in shear, appears to be a possible mount with substantial overload capacity.
When dmax exceeds dst, the possibility exists that the mount may be loaded in tension for a short period of time. This
condition is undesirable. However, if this condition is momentary (occurring only very infrequently), and there is no other choice,
the mount may be adequate, especially if there is substantial damping in the system.
T246
In Figure E-3, β2 = main-equipment damping ratio = 0.10
β1 = damping ratio of component - support system = 0.10
Select (try) ω1/ω2 = 2
Then from Figure E-3, we find Ao = 1.50.
Solving for k,
k = 2000 lbs/in.
∴Max. component deflection = 1.50 x 0.004339 √2000 in.
= 0.291 in.
Max. force on component ≈ (kzx) (Max. component deflection)
or (100) (0.291) lbs
or 29.1 lbs.
Hence, g-load on timing device is 29.1/0.0625.
This is 466g and hence, acceptable.
The main equipment mounting is designed according to Case C with
∴dmax/dst = 278.
= 0.0025"
∴dmax = (0.0025) (278) = 0.70"
T247
This corresponds to a max. force on the package of 1390 lbs.
This corresponds to a spring rate of 1000 lbs/in. However, the vibration mount must also be able to withstand the max.
displacement of 0.70".
Consider the rectangular mount A10Z 6-520B. The spring rate in shear is about 800 lbs/in. This mount could be combined with
a bumper to take care of the deflections in excess of 3/4", say. Alternatively, a stiffer rectangular mount, possibly with a
50-durometer rubber, can be considered. See also note at end of preceding problem.
= 87.5 in.-lbs.
For the vertical force transmission to ground, we consider Case A.
W = 70/4 17.5 lbs per mount.
At a forcing frequency of 3600 cycles; min. and with negligible damping (ξ = 0), the basic vibration chart (Table 9)using 81%
vibration isolation, gives a static deflection of about 0.017".
Next we consider the design of the isolator for this excitation. Suppose we consider (try) vibration mount A10Z 2-314C
(cylindrical mount), which approximately matches the required characteristics, assuming mounting so that the vertical load is
taken up in compression:
Using the notation of Case F, the given compliances of this mount lead to
ky (vert. compliance for all 4 mounts) = 4 x 1060 = 4240 lbs/in.
ks (shear compliance for all 4 mounts) = 4 x 175 = 700 lbs/in.
Next, we consider the effect of the torque of 87.5 in-lbs about the motor axis (X-axis).
The numerical values, in the notation of Case F (in addition to those already stated) are:
Tx = 87.5 in-lbs.
M = 70/386 = 0.181 lbs/g.
ω = (2π)(60) = 377 rad/sec.
T248
According to eq. (F-11) and (F-13), the lowest natural frequency, ω4, corresponding to this torque excitation, is given by
ω4 = 57.3 rad/sec.
= 546 cycles/min.
Hence, frequency ratio (forced/natural) = 3600/546 ≅ 6.5, which seems quite adequate. The second natural frequency, ω5,
associated with Tx is about 1910 cycles/min. giving a frequency ratio of about 2.0. According to the guideline in Para 4.1,
Vibration Identification and Specification, Section 1, this represents only a fair ratio as it is not so far removed from resonance. If
the A10Z 2-314C is not satisfactory, a weaker mounting, possibly with 40 or 30 durometer (A10Z 2-314B or A10Z 2-314A), could
be considered. in any event we need to check the mount deflections.
Due to torque about the x-axis there are motion components Cz (translations along the z-axis) of the center of gravity of the
motor and θx (equipment rotation of motor about an axis parallel to the x-axis).
According to eq. (F-4, F-5), these are given by
Cz = (Txbyks)/∆(in.)
θx = {Tx(ks - Mω²)} / ∆(rad),
where
∆ = lx Mω4 - ω² { lxks + kybz²M + ksby²M + kyksbz² }
Substituting the given numerical values into these equations we obtain
∆ = 116.8 x 108
Txbyks = 3.68 x 105
Tx(ks - Mω²) = 2.19 x 106
whence Cz = 3.15 x 105 in., θx = - 1.88 x 10-4 rad
T249
The corresponding deflections of the mounts, the point of support of which has coordinates (X,Y,Z) is calculated from eq. (F-15)
as follows:
These deflections are negligible. The deflection which predominates is the vertical deflection due to Fy.
The static vertical deflection was computed at 0.017". Going back to Case A.
With 0.017" static deflection, ωN = 1450 from Table 9; also PN = 3600. Hence, TDE = 0.195. Assume, for example, that the max.
force is due to a rotor unbalance (eccentricity) of 0.002" and that the rotor weighs 50 lbs., then Fmax = (Rotor mass) (0.002)
(angular speed)² = (50/386) x 0.002 x (377)² = 36.8 lbs.
The design, therefore, appears to be satisfactory. Due to the displacements and the ω5 frequency, however, it is desirable that a
flexible coupling be used between motor and exhaust fan; if necessary, the same style mounting in a 40 or 30 durometer rubber
could be considered.
T250