GPS Basic

Course
GPS Basic Course

Page 1-1
 GPS Basic Course

Section 2

• Definition
• The Real Earth (The Geoid)
• The Ellipsoid
• World Geodetic System (WGS84)
• Height System

Page 1-2
 GPS Basic Course

Definition

Geodesy :- Geo - Earth desy - The study of

the earth
Geodesy is the science of the measurement and
mapping of the earth’s surface
(F.R Helmert (1880

Page 1-3
 GPS Basic Course

(The Real Earth (The Geoid

• Equipotential surface that
best equates to mean sea Topography
level
• Physical Definition that is a
complicated surface N. America Europe

• Described by an infinite
number of parameters
• Can be sensed by
instruments

S. America Africa

Page 1-4
 GPS Basic Course

The Ellipsoid
• An ellipse is a mathematical
figure which is defined by a
– Semi-Major Axis (a)
– Semi-Minor Axis (b)
• It is a simple geometrical b
surface
• Cannot be sensed by
instruments a

Page 1-5
 GPS Basic Course

The Ellipsoid and Geoid

N
Topography

N. America Europe

O1

S. America Africa

Page 1-6
 GPS Basic Course

The Ellipsoid and Geoid

• Which ellipsoid to choose ? N N
Topography

N. America Europe

O1

O2

S. America Africa

Page 1-7
 GPS Basic Course

The Ellipsoid and Geoid

• The World Geodetic System N
Topography
– WGS 1984
• The best mean fit to the Earth

N. America Europe

S. America Africa

Page 1-8
 GPS Basic Course

(World Geodetic System (WGS84

• Origin coincides with Earth’s
center of mass
• X and Y axis are perpendicular to Z

each other in the equatorial plane

• Z axis is at right angles to the X,Y
P
plane and coincides with the
Earth’s rotational axis h
γ
Y
ϕ
λ

X
Page 1-9
 GPS Basic Course

(World Geodetic System (WGS84

• The prime orientation (X) is
Greenwich Meridian
• Positions and Coordinate Z

differences are obtained in the

WGS 84 Coordinate System
P
– Latitude, Longitude Ellipsoid
height h
– Geocentric X,Y,Z coordinates
γ
Y
ϕ
λ

X
Page 1-10
 GPS Basic Course

Heighting
• Heights determined using GPS are
referenced to the WGS 84 Ellipsoid
– Ellipsoid Heights are heights above
the ellipsoid
P Topography

Ellipsoidal heighth = Ellipsoid

Page 1-11
 GPS Basic Course

Heighting
• The Geoid is that equipotential surface (equal
gravity) that best equates to Mean Sea Level
• The geoid undulates due to
the effects of Topography
P
– Topology, geology etc.
h
• Orthometric heights are
H
referenced to a Datum which
is typically M.S.L Geoid
• M.S.L approximates the Geoid

H = Height above Geoid

(Orthometric Height)~ Ellipsoid

Page 1-12
 GPS Basic Course

Heighting
• The height difference between
ellipsoid and geoid is called the
geoidal undulation
• To obtain orthometric heights, the
P Topography
geoidal undulation must be
h
accounted for
H
Geoid
N

N = Geoidal Separation Ellipsoid

Page 1-13
 GPS Basic Course

Heighting
• The geoidal undulation may be positive or negative.

Ellipsoidal heighth =
P Topography
H = Height above Geoid h
(Orthometric Height)~ H
Geoid
N = Geoidal Separation N

hh == H
H ++ N
N
Ellipsoid

Page 1-14
 GPS Basic Course

Projections – The Basics

•A projection is a flat
representation of a 3-D
surface.
•The secret of a good
projection is to minimize
the distortion. A distance
or angle measured on the
projection should be very
close to the same distance
or angle measured in the
real world.
•Users should specify their
projection.
Page 1-15
 GPS Basic Course

Projections - Types

Mercator Transverse Lambert – 1 Lambert – 2

Mercator
Cylindrical Conical Conical
Cylindrical
Great for Great for east- Great for east-
east-to-west Great for north- to-west areas to-west areas
areas around to-south areas. along a
Covers a wider
the equator. common
The projection north-to-south
latitude
for UTM range with less
distortion
Page 1-16
 GPS Basic Course

Projections - Distortion

A good projection minimizes the “distortion” of distances and angles

when measured in the real world and on your chart.

Page 1-17
GPS Basic Course

Secondly: GPS Basic Theory

Page 2-1
 GPS Basic Course

Index - Section 1

• Traditionally • Initial Phase Ambiguity

• Why GPS ?
• GPS General Characteristics
• Phase Observations
GPS System Components
• Outline Principle : Range
• Outline Principle : Position
• GPS Signal Structure
• Range Determination form
Code Observations
• Resolving the Ambiguity
• Range Determination form
• Selective Availability
• Error Sources
• Dilution of Precision
• Errors Reduction
• Differencing Techniques
• Linear Combinations

Page2-2
 GPS Basic Course

Traditionally
• GPS has many advantages over Traditional Terrestrial
Surveying Techniques

• These traditional techniques rely on the visibility between the

survey instrument and a target
– If an obstructions exists, it must be traversed around

• Typically distance measurement is limited to 5 Km

• Weather can limit operations, e.g. fog, rain etc

Page 2-3
 GPS Basic Course

?Why GPS
•Weather Independent
•Does not require line of sights
•Gives high Geodetic Accuracy
•Can be operated day and night
•Quicker and requires less
Manpower
–Economical advantages
•Common Coordinate System
•Wide Range of Applications
•Competitively Priced

Line of sight is not necessary

Page 2-3
 GPS Basic Course

GPS General Characteristics

• Developed by the US Department of Defense
• Provides
– Accurate Navigation
• 5 - 15 m
– Worldwide Coverage
– 24 hour access
– Common Coordinate System
• Designed to replace existing
navigation systems
• Accessible by Civil and Military

Page 2-5
 GPS Basic Course

GPS System
Components Space
SpaceSegment
Segment
NAVSTAR
NAVSTAR: :NAVigation
NAVigation
Satellite
SatelliteTime
Timeand
andRanging
Ranging
Satellites
Satellites24
24
Km 20200
Km 20200

Control
ControlSegment
Segment
User Master
MasterStation
Station11
UserSegment
Segment Monitoring
Receive
ReceiveSatellite
SatelliteSignal
Signal MonitoringStations
Stations55 `

Page 2-6
 GPS Basic Course

Control Segment
• Master Control Station
– Responsible for collecting tracking data
from the monitoring stations and
calculating satellite orbits and clock
parameters
• 5 Monitoring Stations
– Responsible for measuring pseudorange
data. This orbital tracking network is used
to determine the broadcast ephemeris
and satellite clock modeling
– Ground Control Stations
– Responsible for upload of information to
the satellites

Page 2-7
 GPS Basic Course

Space Segment
• 24 Satellites
– 4 satellites in 6 Orbital
Planes inclined at 55
Degrees
• 20200 Km above the Earth
• 12 Hourly orbits
– In view for 4-5 hours
• Designed to last 7.5 years
• Different Classifications
– Block 1, 2, 2A, 2R & 2 F

55
Equator

Page 2-8
 GPS Basic Course

User Segment
• The most visible segment
• GPS receivers are found in
many locations and
applications

Page 2-9
Knowing Where the Satellites Are - Ephemeris
Space Segment

Current ephemeris
is transmitted to
users

Monitor stations
• Diego Garcia
• Ascension Island
• Kwajalein
• Hawaii

GPS Control
Colorado Springs

Page 2-3
Trilateration From Satellites

• By measuring distance from several satellites you

can calculate your position

Satellite Ranging
Measuring the distance from a satellite
• Done by measuring travel time of radio signals
• Done by measuring the phase of radio signals

Measure how long it takes the GPS signal to get to us

• Multiply that time by 300,000 km/sec
– Time (sec) x 300,000 = km
• Multiply that phase by the carrier wavelngth.
Page 2-3
 GPS Basic Course

Outline Principle : Range

lX l
X

ll

lll
Xll

Xl

lV
V
Vl
ll
Vl l
Vl

Page 2-10
 GPS Basic Course

Outline Principle : Range

lX l
X

ll

lll
Xll

Xl

lV
V
Vl
ll
Vl l
Vl

Page 2-11
 GPS Basic Course

Outline Principle : Range

lX l
X

ll

lll
Xll

Xl

lV
V
Vl
ll
Vl l
Vl

Page 2-12
 GPS Basic Course

Outline Principle : Range

lX l
X

ll

lll
Xll

Xl

lV
V
Vl
ll
Vl l
Vl

Range = Time Taken x Speed of Light

Page 2-13
 GPS Basic Course

Outline Principle : Position

R1

We are somewhere on a sphere of

radius, R1

Page 2-14
 GPS Basic Course

Outline Principle : Position

R1

R2

Spheres intersect as a circle 2

Page 2-15
 GPS Basic Course

Outline Principle : Position

R1
R3
R2

Spheres intersect at a point 3

Ranges to resolve for Latitude, Longitude and Height 3

Page 2-16
 GPS Basic Course

Outline Principle : Position

• The satellites are like “Orbiting Control Stations”
Stations

• Ranges (distances) are measured to each satellite using

time dependent codes

• Typically GPS receivers use inexpensive clocks. They are

much less accurate than the clocks on board the satellites

• A radio wave travels at the speed of light

• (Distance = Velocity x Time)
– Consider an error in the receiver clock
• 1/10 second error = 30,000 Km error
second error = 300 m error 1/1,000,000 •

Page 2-17
 GPS Basic Course

Outline Principle : Position

Ranges to resolve for Latitude, Longitude, Height & Time 4

It is similar in principle to a resection problem

Page 2-18
 GPS Basic Course

GPS Signal Structure

Each GPS satellite transmits a number of signals •
The signal comprises two carrier waves (L1 and L2) and two •
codes (C/A on L1 and P or Y on both L1 and L2) as well as a
satellite orbit message
Fundamental
Fundamental
Frequency
Frequency
10.23
10.23MHz
MHz 10 ÷

L1
L1 C/A
C/ACode
Code PP(Y)-Code
(Y)-Code
x 154 1575.42
1575.42 MHz 1.023MHz
MHz 1.023 MHz 10.23
10.23MHz
MHz

x 120 L2 PP(Y)-Code
L2 (Y)-Code
1227.60
1227.60MHz
MHz 10.23
10.23MHz
MHz

BPS
BPS50
50 (Satellite
(SatelliteMessage
Message(Almanac
(Almanac&&Ephemeris
Ephemeris

Page 2-20
 GPS Basic Course

Range Determination from Code Observations

• Pseudoranges (Code)
Received Code
– Each satellite sends a unique signal
from Satellite
which repeats itself approx. 1 msec
– Receiver compares self generated
signal with received signal Generated
– From the time difference (dT) a range Code from
observation can be determined Receiver
– Receiver clock needs to be
synchronized with the satellite clock ∆T

(D = V (∆T

ρ i (t ( = R(t ( + c(dt − dT ( + λ i N i − Ii (t ( + T + ε ϕ
Page 2-21
 GPS Basic Course

Range Determination from Phase Observations

• Phase Observations
– Wavelength of the signal is 19 cm on L1 Received Satellite
and 24 cm on L2 Phase
– Receiver compares self-generated phase
with received phase
– Number of wavelengths is not known at the Generated
time the receiver is switched on (carrier Phase from
phase ambiguity) Receiver
– As long as you track the satellite, the
change in distance can be observed (the
carrier phase ambiguity remains constant) ∆T

D=c
∆T + λN

λ iϕ i (t ( = R(t ( + c(dt − dT ( + λ i N i − Ii (t ( + T + ε ϕ
Page 2-24
 GPS Basic Course

Autonomous Navigation

Accuracy 5 - 20 m

A receiver in autonomous mode provides navigation and

positioning accuracy of about 5 to 20m

Page 2-25
 GPS Basic Course

Autonomous Navigation

Accuracy 5 - 20m

A receiver in autonomous mode provides navigation and

positioning accuracy of about 5 to 20m

Page 2-26
 GPS Basic Course

Point Positioning

Ranges to resolve for Latitude, Longitude, Height & Time 4

It is similar in principle to a resection problem

Page 2-27
 GPS Basic Course

(Selective Availability (SA 100m

30m
• In theory a point position can be
accurate to 5 - 20m based on the
C/A Code

P = True Position

Page 2-28
 GPS Basic Course

(Selective Availability (SA 100m

30m
• In theory a point position can be
accurate to 5 - 20m based on the
C/A Code

• The USDoD degrades the accuracy

of the broadcast information P
– Dither the Satellite Clocks
– Satellite Orbital Information
• This is known as Selective
Availability (100m (95%+/-
• Positional accuracy 100m (95%) P = True Position
• Nowadays, for competition &
political reasons SA is off

Page 2-29
 GPS Basic Course

Autonomous Navigation
Under S.A.

Accuracy 10- 100 m

A receiver in autonomous mode provides navigation and

positioning accuracy of about 10 to 100 m due to the effects of
Selective Availability
Page 2-30
 GPS Basic Course

Error Sources

• Satellite errors • Observation errors

– Orbit uncertainty – Ionospheric Delay
– Satellite Clock Model – Tropspheric Delay

• Receiver errors • Station errors

– Receiver Clock – Station Coordinates
– Receiver noise – Multipath

Page 2-31
 Metres

100
400

200
300

0
GPS Basic Course

Satellite Clock

Recvr Noise

Multipath
User Equivalent Range Errors

Tropospheric

Page 2-32
Ephemeris

Ionospheric

Recvr Clock
GPS Basic Course

How Does One Can Reduce

The Errors of GPS?

Page 2-33
GPS Basic Course

Firstly: Differencing Techniques

B
A

Page 3-16
Single-Difference Observation

• Remove the effect of the satellite clock offset.

• Reduce the effect of the satellite orbital error depending on the distance
between stations.
• The atmospheric delay is significantly reduced especially with short
baselines and can be neglected.
∆ (roh( j
AB = ∆ R (t ( + c(dt − dt ( + ∆ I (t ( + ∆ T + ε
j
AB B A
j
AB
j
AB
j
∆ ϕ AB

Page 2-34
Double-Difference Observation

• Remove the effect of the receiver & satellite clock offset.

• Remove the correlated part of satellite orbital error.
• Remove the correlated part of the atmospheric delay.
λ∇ ∆ϕ ABjk (t ( = ∇ ∆R ABjk (t ( + λ ∇ ∆N ABjk − ∇ ∆I ABjk (t ( + ∇ ∆T ABjk + ε ∇jk∆ϕ AB

Page2-35
Trible - Difference Observation

• Remove the effect of the clock offsets.

• Remove the ambiguity bias.
• Remove the correlated part of satellite orbital error.
• Remove the correlated part of the atmospheric delay.
λ δ∇ ∆ ϕ ABjk ( t 12 ) δ ∇ ∆ R ABjk (t 12 ( − δ ∇ ∆ I AjkB ( t12 ) + δ ∇ ∆ T ABjk ( t12 ) + δ ∇ ∆ ε δjk∇ ∆ ϕ ( t12 )
AB

Page 2-36
 GPS Basic Course

:Secondly
Linear Combinations of GPS Observables

Page 2-25
 Linear Combinations

• The actual GPS observables are the carrier phases and the
code observations. Some other artificial observations
can be created from the actual observation by linearly
combining them. The main applied linear combinations
formula is described by:

φa ,b =aφ1 +bφ2
• The corresponding frequency is:

f a ,b =a f 1 +b f2
• The corresponding wavelength is:

λ a ,b =
a
1
b
+
λ 1 λ
2

Page 2-37
Linear Combinations

• The frequency-dependent biases such as the ionospheric delay

and the multipath will be affected by these combinations. The
linear combinations have no effect on the frequency-
independent biases such as the tropospheric delay, the clock
and the ephemeris errors.
• The linear combinations will alter the ionospheric delay by a
ratio depending on the integers a, b. The ionospheric delay
can be written as:
a f 1∆Ion 1 +b f 2 ∆Ion
∆Ion a ,b = 2
a f 1 +b f 2
• The ratio between the ionospheric delay in the linear
combination and in L1 observations will be:
f 1 [b f 1 + a f2 ]
ψ =
f 2 [a f 1 +b f2 ]
io
n

Page 2-38
 Linear Combinations

The most common linear combinations are summarised

in the following table:

Signal a b λ a,b (m) ψ ion

• L1 1 0 0.190 1.00
• L2 0 1 0.244 1.65
• Wide-lane 1 -1 0.862 -1.28
• Narrow-lane 1 1 0.107 1.28
• Ionosphere-free 77 -60 0.006 0.00
• low iono. effect 5 -4 0.101 -0.07
• Very long wavelength -7 9 14.65 350.35

Page 2-39
 GPS Basic Course

Ionosphere
Troposphere
Orbit

Thirdly: Modeling GPS Biases

Page 2-3
 Ionospere Delay: Atmospheric Corrections

• The ionosphere is extending from Ionosphere

about 50 to 1000 kilometres. Troposphere
• the sun's radiation ionises gas
molecules which then lose an electron.
• These free electrons influence the
propagation of microwave signals.
• The refractive index of Microwaves is a
function of frequency f and the density
of free electrons Ne
• The sign will depend on whether the
range (+) or the phase (–) refractive
index is required. A.N e
n =1 ±
• the "phase velocity" is actually f2
increased, or "advanced", and the & c
ranging codes is decreased (the so- v =
called "group velocity") . n
Page 2-3
Ionoospheric Delay
Ionosphere
The factors influence the magnitude Troposphere
of the TEC including:
•the latitude of the receiver,
•the season,
•the time of day
•the level of solar activity .
MAGNITUDE:
•Extreme at zenith 30m.
•Extreme at horizon 3 times zenith value.
•Extreme in day 5-10 times night value.
•Use IONOSPHERE PREDICTION MODELS -- TEC
broadcast model generally <50% accuracy, may d ion = 40 .28 * 2
be useful for point positioning users. f
•Use DUAL-FREQUENCY receivers -- form
"ionosphere-free" L1/L2 data combination

Page 2-3
Tropospheric Delay

• The tropoosphere is extending from Ionosphere

the earth to 50 kilometres. Troposphere
• It is a function of the satellite
elevation angle and the altitude of the
receiver, and is dependent on the
atmospheric pressure, temperature,
and water vapour pressure .
• The tropospheric refractivity can be
partitioned into the two components,
one for the dry part of the
atmosphere and the other for the wet
part
• About 90% of the magnitude of the d trop = d dry + d wet
tropospheric delay arises from the
dry component, and the remaining d tro = MFd d dtro (90 ( + MFw d wtro (90 (
10% from the wet component.
• There are several mapping functions
Page 2-3
Tropospheric Delay
• The magnitude of the tropospheric Ionosphere
delay is the same for both L1 and L2 Troposphere
observations, and for pseudo-range.
• The tropospheric delay can be
predicted using values of temperature,
pressure, and humidity.
• Such models can account for
approximately 90% of the delay
(corresponding mainly to the dry part),
however the remaining 10% (largely due
to the wet part)
• Neglecting to apply tropospheric
refraction results in an absolute scale
error. (1m leads to 0.4 ppm scale effect)
d trop = d dry + d wet
• Any uncertainty in modelling the
differential tropospheric refraction bias
results mostly in a degradation of the
height component in the solution.
 Orbit & Sat. clock biases can be fixed by IGS

The total IGS tracking network by late 2000 (248 stations)

http://igscb.jpl.nasa.gov/products/
Orbit & Sat. clock biases can be fixed by IGS

False position

True position

•Predicted Orbit 0.5 m (Real-Time) &

Satellite clock 150 nanosecond.
•UltraRapid 0.25 m (Real-Time) &
Satellite clock 5 nanosecond
•Rapid 0.05 m (17 hours later) &
Satellite clock 0.2 nanosecond
•Final < 0.05 m (13 days) &
Satellite clock 0.1 nanosecond

http://igscb.jpl.nasa.gov/products/
Page 2-3
 GPS Basic Course

(Dilution of Precision (DOP

• A description of purely geometrical contribution to the
uncertainty in a position fix
• It is an indicator as to the geometrical strength of the satellites
being tracked at the time of measurement
Good GDOP
– GDOP (Geometrical)
• Includes Lat, Lon, Height & Time
– PDOP (Positional)
• Includes Lat, Lon & Height
– HDOP (Horizontal)
• Includes Lat & Lon
– VDOP (Vertical)
• Includes Height only

Page 2-40
 GPS Basic Course

(Dilution of Precision (DOP

• A description of purely geometrical contribution to the
uncertainty in a position fix
• It is an indicator as to the geometrical strength of the satellites
being tracked at the time of measurement
Poor DOP
– GDOP (Geometrical)
• Includes Lat, Lon, Height & Time
– PDOP (Positional)
• Includes Lat, Lon & Height
– HDOP (Horizontal)
• Includes Lat & Lon
– VDOP (Vertical)
• Includes Height only

Page 2-41
GPS Basic Course

Different GPS Operation

Types and Applications

Page 3-1
 GPS Basic Course

Initial Phase Ambiguity

• Initial phase Ambiguity must be determined to use carrier
phase data as distance measurements over time

(Time (0 (Time (i

Ambiguity

Ambiguity

Phase Measurement
Counted Cycles

Phase Measurement

Page 2-22
 GPS Basic Course

Resolving the Ambiguity

• The effect of resolving the ambiguity is shown below
• Note that once the ambiguities are resolved, the accuracy of
the measurement does not significantly improve with time
(Accuracy (m

1.00
Ambiguities
Not resolved

0.10

Ambiguities
Resolved
0.01

(Time (mins
120 0
Static
5 2 0
Rapid Static

Page 2-23
GPS Basic Course

Using GPS for Surveying

• All GPS Surveying is carried out using differential techniques.
That is to say a baseline is measured from a fixed point, (a
reference station) to a unknown point (a rover station).

• This is undertaken using one of two methods

• Post Processing
– The raw GPS data from the satellites is recorded and
processed in the office using software

• Real Time
– The processing of the data is carried out as you work
giving an instantaneous and accurate position
Page 3-2
GPS Basic Course

(Static (STS
• The classical method for long lines and the highest accuracy
5mm + 0.1ppm baseline r.m.s
– Classical GPS baseline measurement, where each line is
observed for at least one hour
– The observation time is proportional to the length of the line
– Standard method for lines over 20 Km

• Applications
– Geodetic control over large areas
– National and continental networks
– Monitoring tectonic movement
– Network adjustments for highest accuracy

Page 3-3
GPS Basic Course

(Rapid Static (STS

• Short observation time for baselines up to 20 km. Accuracy
5-10mm +0.1ppm

• Applications
– Control Surveys, GIS city inventories, detail surveys.
Replace traversing and local triangulation. Any job where
many points have to be surveyed
Advantages
– Easy, quick, efficient
– Ideal for short range survey

Page 3-4
GPS Basic Course

(Kinematic (KIS
• Stop Mode
– The rover must first initialize

Page 3-8
GPS Basic Course

(Kinematic (KIS
• Moving Mode
– The rover must first initialize
– Once enough data is collected to resolve the
ambiguities the user can now move the receiver
– Lock must be maintained on a minimum of 4
satellites at all times
– Rover records data at a specific time interval
– If lock is lost, the system must re-initialized

28
20

20

27:
18:

18:

24:

26:
14:

16:

30:
22:
12:

14:

16:
12:
:

:
:

10
10

10
10

10
10

10
10

10
10

10
10
10

10
10
10

:
:

: 23
:

:
:

:
: 23
:
: 23

: 23
: 23

:
: 23
: 23
23

23
23

23

23

23
23

23
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Page 3-9
GPS Basic Course

(Ambiguity Resolution On The Fly (KOF

• Moving Mode
– This technique does not require a static initialization
– While moving, once the rover is continuously tracking
a minimum of 5 satellites on the L1 & L2 for a period
of time the ambiguities can be resolved
12:
10
: 23

Page 3-10
GPS Basic Course

(Ambiguity Resolution On The Fly (KOF

• Moving Mode
– This technique does not require a static initialization;
– While moving, once the rover is continuously tracking
a minimum of 5 satellites on the L1 & L2 for a period
of time the ambiguities can be resolved.
14:

16:
12:

10
10
10

:
: 23
: 23

23

Page 3-11
GPS Basic Course

(Ambiguity Resolution On The Fly (KOF

• Moving Mode
– If traveling under an obstruction and loss of lock occurs,

18:
14:

16:
12:

10
10
10
10

:
:
: 23
: 23

23
23

Page 3-12
GPS Basic Course

(Ambiguity Resolution On The Fly (KOF

• Moving Mode
– If traveling under an obstruction and loss of lock occurs,
– Ambiguity resolution will re-occur once 5 satellites on L1 &
L2 are acquired and tracking is consistent for a short period
of time

18:

24:
22:
14:

16:
12:

10

10
10
10
10
10

: 23
: 23
:
: 23
: 23

23
23

Page 3-13
GPS Basic Course

(Ambiguity Resolution On The Fly (KOF

• Moving Mode
– If traveling under an obstruction and loss of lock occurs,
– Ambiguity resolution will re-occur once 5 satellites on L1 &
L2 are acquired and tracking is consistent for a short period
of time
– This technique allows positions to be determined up to the
point that the min. satellites were re-acquired

20

27:
18:

24:

26:
22:
14:

16:
12:

10
10
10

10
10
10
10
10
10

: 23
:
:

:
: 23
: 23
:
: 23
: 23

23

23
23
23

Page 3-14
GPS Basic Course

(Ambiguity Resolution On The Fly (KOF

• Moving Mode
– If traveling under an obstruction and loss of lock occurs,
– Ambiguity resolution will re-occur once 5 satellites on L1 &
L2 are acquired and tracking is consistent for a short period
of time
– This technique allows positions to be determined up to the
point that the min. satellites were re-acquired

28
27:
18:

24:

26:

30:
22:
14:

16:
12:

:
10
10
10

10
10

10
10
10
10
10

:
: 23
:

:
: 23
: 23
:
: 23
: 23

23
23

23
23
23

Page 3-15
GPS Basic Course

Real-Time
Differential GPS
Concept
GPS Basic Course

Concept of Real Time

• Real Time Code, Real Time Phase
– No post processing required
– Results are instantly available
– Can operate in two modes
• RTK
• RT-DGPS

B
A

Page 3-16
 REAL-TIME
REAL-TIMECode
CodeDGPS
DGPS

Rover
Reference
Page 3-17
 GPS Basic Course

Differential Positioning
• It is possible to determine the
position of Rover ‘B’ in relation
to Reference ‘A’ provided
– The coordinates of the
Reference Station (A)
are known
– Satellites are tracked
simultaneously
• Differential Positioning
– eliminates errors in the Baseline Vector
sat. and receiver clocks A B
– minimizes atmospheric
delays
– Accuracy 0.5 cm - 5 m

Page 3-18
 DGPS in Photogrammetry

Differential Positioning
• If using the Code only
part of the signal,
accuracy’s in the range
of 0.5 - 5 m can be
achieved
• This is typically referred
to as DGPS

or
ect
neV
li
ase
B

Page 3-19
REAL-TIME KINEMATIC “RTK” SURVEYING
Disadvantages:
- Needs a radio modem (data link(;
- Radio contact can be interrupted by obstructions such as
hills, valleys buildings etc.

Advantages:
•Coordinates in real time in the field (WGS84 or local
coordinates(;
•Quality control - you know in the field that the ambiguities
are resolved and that the results are correct;
•No post processing;
•One person system;
•Several rovers can use one reference station;
•All high precision applications (Land, Marine& Aviation(.

Page 3-19
 GPS Basic Course

Differential Positioning
• If using Phase or Code &
Phase accuracy is in the
order of 5 - 10 mm + 1ppm

Baseline Vector
A B

Page 3-20
 GPS Basic Course

Differential Positioning
• If using the Code and
Phase part of the
signal, accuracy’s in
the order of 5 - 10 mm
+ 1ppm can be
achieved

or
ect
neV
li
ase
B

Page 2-3
 GPS Basic Course

Summary of GPS Positioning

• Point Positioning Methods using stand alone receivers
provide 10 - 100 m accuracy
– Dependent on SA
– 1 Epoch solution

• Differential Positioning Methods using 2 receivers,

simultaneously tracking a minimum of 4 satellites (preferably
5) will yield 0.5 cm to 5 m accuracy with respect to a
Reference Station

• Remember
– Differential Techniques using Code will give meter accuracy
– Differential Techniques using Phase will give centimeter
accuracy
Page 3-21
 Real Time GPS

Real Time Phase (RTK)

• The Action takes Initialization Moving Part
Rapid Static Move continuously to determine trajectories,
place at the Rover SR9400, SR399, SR9500 recording automatically at predetermined intervals.

Unit. The System

can be initialized.
This normally
takes about 1 min. SR9400,
Known Point
SR399, SR9500
Initializing on a
known point takes Move quickly from point to point

15 sec.
• Then the moving On the fly
part can begin. SR399, SR9500

This is where
points and assoc.
information can be Positions to centimeter level accuracy

recorded

Page 2-3
 Real Time GPS

Quality Assurance
• Blunder Detection
– Base Station Coordinates
– Heights of Instrumentation
– Transformation (if used)
– Vector determination

• Vector Confirmation

Page 2-3
 Real Time GPS

Dilution of Precision (DOP)

• Operating in RTK mode
– Recommended to use a minimum
of 5 Satellites and a GDOP of 8 or
less. (Once integers are fixed)

• Operating in Code only mode

– Recommended to use a minimum
of 5 satellites with a GDOP of 6 or
less.

Page 2-3
 Real Time GPS

Understanding the CQ
• The coordinate Quality Indicator (CQ) is a 3-Dimensional
estimator of the accuracy of a point derived in Real Time.

• GPS results normally yield Horizontal accuracy's 2-3 times

better than the Vertical

• Coordinate Quality indicator………. 0.03 m

• Vertical accuracy……………………. 0.03 m
• Horizontal accuracy………………… 0.01 m

Page 2-3
 Real Time GPS

Recording Quality Control Data

• Mode of Operation
• Navigation (0), Differential Code (1),
• Differential Float (3), Differential Phase (4)
• GDOP, PDOP, HDOP, VDOP
• Antenna Height
• Number of satellites used in solution
• Number of epochs on a point
• Length of interval between epochs
• Receiver Serial Type and Serial Number

Page 2-3
 Real Time GPS

Features…..Stakeout
• Orientation.
– To North, to a point, last point, to a line

Target
Position
•Stakeout a point by
Azimuth and Distance
Offset

Present Position
Distance

Target
Position
ce
•Stakeout a point in orthogonal Azimuth
Dis
tan

mode (Distance and Offset)

Present Position

Page 2-3
 Real Time GPS Surveying

Features…..Stakeout Line to be Staked

• Stakeout Lines
– Auto Increment and Defined Line
Offset

O
ffs
• Stakeout Hidden Points

et
– East/North/Height

t
en
em
n
io

cr
at

In
• Minimum Key Strokes
St

Start Point

Page 2-3
 Real Time GPS

Features…..Applications
• COGO (Coordinate Geometry)
– Inverse, Traverse, Intersections
– Arcs, Station Offset
Well Head

Crossline
Distance

Source Line

Inline Distance

Page 2-3
 Real Time GPS

Features…..Auto Record
• Continuous Recording
– By Distance
– By Time
– Targeting available during
continuous tracking 23
23
23

23
23

23
:
:
:

:
:

:
10
10
10
10
10

10
:
:18
:16
:14
:12

:22
20

Page 2-3
 Real Time GPS

Features…..Coordinate Conversion
• Getting into Local Coordinate
Z
Systems
• Choose from one of two methods
• Classical
– Compute it in the field
– Download it from the
appropriate software.
Y

Page 2-3
 Real Time GPS

Limitations
• GPS is not always the correct tool
– Obstructions
• Multipath
• Loss of lock

Page 2-3
 GPS Applications (Photogrammetry)

Use of GPS in Airborne Surveying

• Ground Control Determination

• Flight Management and

Camera Control

• Determination of Perspective
Centers

• Orientation of non-imaging
sensors

Page 3-22
 GPS Applications (Photogrammetry)

Ground Control Determination

• Ground Control
– Survey techniques identical to
cadastral or other applications
– High Accuracy
– Faster than conventional
techniques
– No direct line of sight
necessary
– 3-D Ground Control Points
– Ground units may be used as
reference receivers for
airborne operations

Page 3-23
 GPS Applications (Photogrammetry)

Flight Navigation and Camera Control

• Flight Navigation
– Guidance from airport to
project area
– Optimum flight path between
flight lines
• Camera Control
– Shutter release at predefined
positions
– Annotation of position on the
image
– Side lap control

Page 3-24
 GPS Applications (Photogrammetry)

Positions at Camera Events

Camera
• GPS measurements are taken at regular intervals
Event
or epochs
– for kinematic applications, usually 1 sec
• The camera is triggered as required
– Camera firing is not coincidental with GPS epoch
– Controlled by operator or flight management GPS
system Position
• Camera positions are interpolated from GPS
results
– Correct time of camera event is critical
– Must be accurate relative to GPS measurement time
– Use the same time source for both GPS and
trapping the camera event. This is an important role
of the ‘event catcher’
Page 3-25
 GPS Applications (Photogrammetry)

Aircraft System Components

Antenna
Pilot
Display

ACU30

28v DC

Operator
Terminal

NSF3 RC30

Page 3-26
 GPS Applications (Photogrammetry)

Data Processing Flow

Airborne Transfer Reference Data and
Data Airborne Data to PC

Reference Process GPS data to

generate epoch positions
Data

Compute camera positions from

GPS epochs and actual times of camera events
Camera
Event Epoch
Positions Positions

Local Aero
Transform to Local Coordinates Triangulation
Coordinate System
Page 3-27