Study material

ATLAS Book list

❑Orient Longman ▪Goh Cheng Leong

❑Study publication – India ▪Physical Geography – by
Geography and world Savinder singh
❑Oxford publication ▪India: comprehensive
geography by D.R. Khullar

All PowerPoint Slides available

at Mrunal.org/Download

Physical Indian World

ATLAS
Geomorphology Physical Asia

Diagram
Climatology Human/ Europe
Economic
Conceptual clarity Oceanography Americas

Schemes of the Geography Lectures Africa

 Meaning and span of Geography
❑Geo= earth and Graphy = study, which
means study of earth Fundamentals of Geography
❑Geography can be divided into two parts: 1. Latitudes
❑Physical geography and Human geography 2. Longitudes
3. Seasons on Earth
4. Time-zones

Two Parts of Geography latitudes

• Latitudes
=angular distance
Physical Human of a place from
the equator
• Landforms • Habitation • All latitudes are
• Atmosphere • Population concentric circles
• Hydrosphere • Agriculture • They are called
parallels as well
• Biosphere • Industries- resources
 Latitudes UPSC Prelims 2001
• Largest latitude – Q. Who among the following was first to state
equator that Earth was spherical?
• Tropics – heat surplus A. Aristotle Correct Answer is A

• Temperate, polar
regions – heat deficit B. Copernicus
• Responsible for C. Ptolemy
pressure system and
planetary wind D. Strabo
system
1. Skip 2. Attempt 3. Mark n Review

Reason for seasons: Tilted Earth

Spherical Earth
1.Tropical Zones
2.Temperate Zones
 Summer and Winter Solstice Question
Variations in length of daytime and
night-time from season to season are
due to UPSC
a) Earth’s rotation on its axis
b) Earth’s revolution around the sun
in an elliptical manner
c) Latitudinal position of the place Prelims
d) Revolution of earth on a tilted 2013
axis

Question Daylight Saving in Temperate regions

Q. Variations in length of daytime
and night-time from season to
season are due to UPSC
a) Earth’s rotation on its axis
b) Earth’s revolution around the sun
in an elliptical manner
c) Latitudinal position of the place Prelims
d) Revolution of earth on a tilted 2013
axis
 Longitudes
• Angular distance of a
• Earth rotates
place from prime
360 °s in 24
meridian
hours
• Also called meridians
• 360/24 = 15°
• 0 degree = Greenwich
• 15° longitude
in UK
• = 1 hour
• 180 degree =
International date line

International Date Line 30th Dec

31st Dec
Morning Morning
Russia Alaska
 International Date Line Indian Standard Time
• IST – 82.5 E Meridian
• IST - 5.5 hours ahead of
GMT, so GMT+5.5

Moving Moving
West East
1 DAY 1 DAY
Lost Gain

Standard time IST

1) Every country selects its standard meridian.
2) Angular distance between standard
meridian of a nation to Greenwich meridian
time (GMT)
❑British launched Chaibagaan time
(1 hr ahead of IST) 150 years ago in Chaibagaan
Assam time zone
❑After independence – rejected
❑2007 DST study – rejected – admin
challenges
❑Jan 2014 CM of Assam – declare
to apply Chaibagaan time
 Russian Time Zones Question
If 12 noon at GMT what is the time at
30 °W? Time
• Difference = 30 ° zones
• 15 ° => 1 hour
• 30 ° => 2 hours
• East (means minus) 12 - 2 = 10
am

Question Exercise
If 12 noon at GMT what is the time at Q. If it is 10.00 am IST, then what
75 °E? Time would be the local time at Shillong
UPSC
• Difference = 75 ° zones on 92 deg E Longitude?
• 15 ° => 1 hour a) 9.38 am
• 75 ° => 5 hours b) 10.38 am
Prelims
• East (means add) 12 +5 = 5 pm c) 10.22 am
d) 9.22 am 1999

Ans. B)
 Exercise Exercise
Q. Through which one of the Q. Which one of the following straits
following groups of countries does is nearest to the International Date
equator pass? UPSC Line? UPSC
a) Brazil, Zambia and Malaysia a) Malacca Strait
b) Columbia, Kenya and Indonesia b) Bering strait
c) Brazil, Sudan and Malaysia Prelims c) Strait of Florida Prelims
d) Venezuela, Ethiopia and 2006 d) Strait of Gibraltar 2008
Indonesia

Exercise Malacca strait

Q. Which of the following cities is
nearest to the equator ?
UPSC
a) Colombo
b) Jakarta
c) Manila
Prelims
d) Singapore
2008
 Strait of Florida Exercise
Q. Consider the following countries:
1. Australia UPSC
2. Namibia
3. Brazil
4. Chile
Prelims
Through which of the above does the
Tropic of Capricorn pass? 2009

Strait of Gibraltar Exercise

a) 1 only
b) 2,3 and 4 UPSC
c) 1,2 and 3
d) 1,2,3,4
Prelims
2009
 1. Longitude
2. Latitude Geomorphology
3. Reason for Seasons
on Earth
4. Time zones

Self Study Geomorphology

❑NCERT Class6: Chapter 2- ❑Origin of the Earth
Longitudes, Latitudes and time- ❑Nebula Theory
zones NCERT Overview
❑Theory of Laplace
❑Map: Greenwich line passes
through which famous cities and
countries of the world?
❑Map: IST line passes through
which famous cities and states
of India?
Origin of earth – Nebular theory of Laplace Geomorphology
1. Density study:
Gaseous cloud of 2. Temperature study Interior of the
H, He – radiation 3. Structural study Earth
–cooling-
Contracting - Direct evidences
• Separation of - Indirect evidences
outer ring – 9
parts => 9
planets

Nebular Theory of Laplace Edward Suess

• Heavier elements • Outer layer
near the core and (continents)– SIAL
lighter at the • Mantle and oceanic
surface crust – SIMA
• Layered structure • Core – Ni +Fe
of earth’s interior
 Seismic wave studies P-waves propagation
❑Seismic waves = mechanical waves = require
medium for propagation
❑Their behaviour changes with changes of
medium
❑2 imp waves: primary P and secondary S waves
❑S waves can travel into only S and G medium
❑P can travel in all 3 mediums
❑But speed is highest in S>L>G

S-wave Propagation Observations

•Asthenosphere –semi-
molten
•Beyond
Asthenosphere-
mantle rocks are
dense
•Outer core –liquid
•The inner core is solid
 Self Study Geomorpho
❑Class11 Chapter3: Interior of ❑Igneous rocks
Earth ❑Metamorphous rocks Rocks in the
NCERT crust
❑Sedimentary rocks

Composition of the interior of the earth Rock cycle

Earth as a whole Earth’s crust
❑Iron (Fe) - highest ▪Oxygen (O2) - highest
❑Oxygen (O2) ▪Silicon (Si)
❑Silicon (Si) ▪Aluminum (Al)
❑Magnesium (Mg) ▪Iron (Fe)
❑Sulphur (S) ▪Calcium (Ca)
❑Nickel (Ni) ▪Magnesium (Mg)
❑Calcium (Ca) ▪Sodium (Na)
❑Aluminum (Al) - lowest ▪Potassium (K) - lowest
 Rock Types Metamorphosed rocks
❑formed due to solidification of
magma (I) or lava (E) Igneous ❑both igneous and sedimentary rocks
❑They don’t have strata or layers Rocks changed under heat or pressure or both
❑Because entire lava is solidified ❑No fossil
❑They are crystalline ❑No stratification
❑They don’t have fossils

Rock Types Examples of metamorphosed rocks

❑formed due to lithification of soil
❑erosion of rocks => deposition of Sedimentary
granules => compaction => rocks Granite gneiss
lithification
❑Always stratified Limestone Marble
❑They may have fossils
Sandstone quartzite
Clay/mudstone slate/ schist
 Question ❑Interior of the earth
Consider the following statements
made about sedimentary rocks:
UPSC
❑Different layers – structure and
1. Sedimentary rocks are formed at composition
earth’s surface by hydrological
system ❑Rocks
2. Formation of sedimentary rocks Prelims ❑Properties of rocks
involves the weathering of pre-
existing rocks 2001
3. Sedimentary rocks contains fossils
4. Sedimentary rocks occur in layers

Question Geological time scale of Earth

Q. Quartzite is metamorphosed from:
a) Limestone UPSC years Eon Era Importance
b) Obsidian
c) Sandstone 4.6 -3.5 Pre- Proterozoic No Life
d) shale billion Cambrian
Prelims
2001 3.5 -2.5 Archean 1st life form
billion
2.5 to 545 Hadean 1st fish
million eveloved
 Geological time scale of the Earth Rodinia break up - Palaeozoic
Years Eon Era Period Epoch Importance

545 ml – Phanerozoic Paleozoic Carbonifero Coal

245 ml us
245 ml-65 Mesozoic Triassic, Reptiles =>
ml Jurassic, Dinosaurs
Cretaceous => extinct

65 ml – Cenozoic tertiary Oiligocene, Birds and

present Pliocene mammals

65000 years quaternary Holocene Human

Rodinia in Pre-Cambrian Mesozoic merger - Pangaea

200 ml years ago – break up of Pangaea Movement of India

165 ml – break up of Gondwana 3 Theories

Continental Sea-floor Plate tectonic

drift spreading theory
 Alfred Wegener
• 1st to propound
movement of 2nd Observation
continents Similarity of Age
• His Continental Drift of the rocks
Theory
• His 4 main
observations

1st Observation 3th Observation

Matching Fossil evidences
Coastlines
zig-saw fit
 Limitation of Continental Drift theory
❑Driving force?
4th observation ❑Gravitational pull of sun and moon
Palaeo-climatic ❑Idea of SIAL and SIMA
evidences
Glacial
evidenced in
Tropical lands

Continental Drift Theory Limitation of Continental Drift theory

❑Super continent - Pangaea
❑Ocean – Panthalasa
❑Continent – SIAL rocks
❑Ocean – SIMA rocks
❑Mid- Mesozoic Pangaea broke up and
drifted apart
 Question Arthur Holmes
What do you understand by theory of
continental drift? Discuss the • Arthur Holmes:
prominent evidences in its support. UPSC
• Convection current
(5) theory
• Convection cells –
force behind drifting of
Mains continents
2013

Question 3 Theories
Q. Which of the following phenomena
might have influenced the evolution
of organisms? UPSC
1. Continental drift
2. Glacial cycles Continental Sea-floor Plate tectonic
Prelims drift spreading theory
Ans. Both
2014
 Sea-floor mapping Sea floor spreading Theory
• During 1940s and ❑1960s Harry Hass and Dietz answered
1950s question regarding ocean mapping using
• Diversity of ocean- convection theory
floor ❑ revealed mystery of mid-oceanic ridge and
• Submarine hills – trenches
guoyts – MOR –
Trench

Ocean floor mapping Mid- Oceanic Ridge

Questions:
1) Ocean crust not
older than mid-
Mesozoic
2) Age increase
away from MOR
3) Sea-mounts
deformed at
trenches
 Mid –Oceanic ridge Trenches

MOR MOR - Trench

❑Rising limb of current breaks the Ocean • At trench Ocean floor
crust destroyed – melted in
❑ Basaltic eruption mantle
• Oceanic crust heavier
❑Accumulation of lava – ridge => MOR
than continental crust
❑New Oceanic crust • Ocean floor act like
❑Divergent limb – expansion of ocean crust conveyor belt
• Ocean floor – cyclic
process – 300 ml yrs
 Mariana trench Diamantine trench

Question Palaeo-magentism
Q. In which one of the following
oceans the Diamantina Trench is • Magnetism of rocks
located? UPSC along MOR
a) Pacific Ocean • Magnetometer -
Magnetic parallel
b) Atlantic Ocean stripes– normal and
Prelims reverse magnetic
c) Indian Ocean 2006 profile
d) Arctic Ocean • 1st Carlsberg ridge –
Indian ocean
Ans. C)
 Palaeo-magentism Question
Q. Between India and East Asia, the
• Vine and mattheus navigation time and distance can be
greatly reduced by which of the UPSC
• Molten lava get polarity
geomagnetic field of following?
that period -Solidify a) Deepening Malacca strait
• Ocean floor – magnetic between Indonesia and Malaysia Prelims
tape b) Opening a new canal across Kra 2011
Isthmus between gulf of Siam and
Andaman sea

Palaeo-magnetism 3 Theories
conclusion
1) Periodic reversal of magnetic field of the
earth
2) Rate of sea-floor spreading decided by age
+ distance between two equal magnetic Continental Sea-floor Plate tectonic
stripes drift spreading theory
❑Atlantic – 1.0 cm/ year
❑Indian – 1.5 cm/year
❑Pacific – 6.0 cm/year
 Continental drift theory
❑Super continent - Pangaea
❑Ocean – Panthalasa
❑During Mid- Mesozoic, Pangaea broke up
Geomorphology and drifted apart
❑Continental crust (SIAL rocks) float over
Oceanic crust (SIMA rocks)
❑Driving force?

3 Theories Continental Drift theory

Zig-saw fit Similarity of rocks

Continental Sea-floor Plate tectonic

drift spreading theory
 Continental drift theory 3 Theories
Fossil evidences Palaeo-climatic evidences

Continental Sea-floor Plate tectonic

drift spreading theory

Convection cells Sea-floor mapping

• Arthur Holmes: • During 1940s
• Convection current and 1950s
theory • Diversity of
• Convection cells – ocean-floor
force behind drifting of • Submarine hills
continents – guoyts – MOR
–Trench
 Ocean floor mapping Mid- Oceanic Ridge
Questions:
1) Ocean crust
not older than
mid-Mesozoic
2) Age increase
away from MOR
3) Sea-mounts
deformed at
trenches

Sea floor spreading Theory MOR – Mid Oceanic Ridge

❑1960s Harry Hass and Dietz answered
question regarding ocean mapping using
convection theory
❑ revealed mystery of mid-oceanic ridge and
trenches
MOR – Mid Oceanic Ridge MOR - Trench
• Rising limb of current • At trench Ocean floor
breaks the Ocean crust destroyed – melted in
• Basaltic eruption mantle
• Accumulation of lava – • Oceanic crust heavier
ridge => MOR than continental crust
• New Oceanic crust • Ocean floor act like
conveyor belt
• Divergent limb –
expansion of ocean • Ocean floor – cyclic
crust process – 300 ml yrs

Trenches Mariana trench

 Question Palaeo-magentism
Q. In which one of the following
oceans the Diamantina Trench is • Magnetism of rocks
located? UPSC along MOR
a) Pacific Ocean • Magnetometer -
Magnetic parallel
b) Atlantic Ocean stripes– normal and
Prelims reverse magnetic
c) Indian Ocean 2006 profile
d) Arctic Ocean • 1st Carlsberg ridge –
Indian ocean
Ans. C)

Diamantine trench Geomagnetism

 Palaeo-magentism 3 Theories
• Vine and mattheus
• Molten lava get polarity
geomagnetic field of
that period -Solidify
• Ocean floor – magnetic
Continental Sea-floor Plate tectonic
tape drift spreading theory

Palaeo-magnetism Plate tectonic Theory

conclusion ❑Unanswered questions –
1) Periodic reversal of magnetic field of the ❑Formation of fold mountains?
earth
❑Reason for earth quake?
2) Rate of sea-floor spreading decided by age
+ distance between two equal magnetic ❑Reason for volcanism on land?
stripes
❑Atlantic – 1.0 cm/ year
❑Indian – 1.5 cm/year
❑Pacific – 6.0 cm/year
 Plate tectonic theory plates
❑Work of many scientists from different • J.T Wilson termed –
discipline ’Plate’ (litho, 100km)
❑Came out in 1960s • 3 types of plates:
❑Based on 2 scientific evidences • Entirely oceanic,
entirely continental and
1) sea-floor spreading both continental and
2) Palaeo-magnetism oceanic
The most latest and accepted theory • 6 major and 20 minor
plates

Plates Plates of the world

• Crust and upper part of
mantle => lithosphere
• Asthenosphere = unique
mechanical rigidity, semi-
molten, plastic
• Lithosphere float over
Asthenosphere
• Lithosphere is not
continuous, broken,
known as plates
 Chemical composition of Interior Burning and Melting of rocks
❑Inner core= Fe, Ni
Olivine
❑Outer core = Fe, Ni + silica
❑Mantle = Olivine
Basalt
❑Oceans = basalt
❑Continents = granite and andesite
Andesite
Granite

Location of
geomorph Plate Interactions
Example Property
rocks Fundamental
Mantle Olivine highly fluid Rocks Divergent Boundary
Heaviest
Oceanic Basalt Fluid
crust Heavy Convergent Boundary
Continental Andesite less mobile
crust Lighter
Continental Granite least mobile Transverse Boundary
crust Lightest
 Divergent Plate Boundary Phases of Divergent continental crust
• Ascending limb of
convection current –
below O /C
• Below ocean – MOR
Nascent
• Below continent – rift Rift valley Ocean
valley, nascent sea sea

Divergent Plate Boundary Phases of Divergent continental crust

Oceanic crust - MOR Continental crust
The Great African rift valley Africa after 10 ml years

Red sea – Nascent sea Knot of Plates

 Knot of plates African lakes

Lakes and Nile river -African rift valley River Nile

 Grand Renaissance dam, Ethiopia Question
Q. Which one of the following lakes
• From 2011 on Blue Nile form an international boundary
• Africa’s largest hydroelectric between Tanzania and Uganda? UPSC
dam a) Chad
• Egypt to lose water share +
hydro electricity from Aswan b) Malawi
• Egypt showed reservation but c) Victoria Prelims
Ethiopia did not pay heed d) Zambezi 2000
• Egypt ready for military
intervention
• British treaties between Ans.
Egypt and Sudan

Locations in Africa Convergent Plate Boundary

• Nubian desert • River Niger
• Eastern desert • Mt. Kilimanjaro
• Namib desert • Katanga plateau O-O O-C C-C
• Lake Victoria • Grain coast
• Lake Malawi • Ivory coast •Island arc •Volcanic •Fold
• Lake Turkana • Gold coast mountains mountains
• Lake chad • Slave coast
• River Congo • Darfur
 O-O convergence Question
Q. Explain the formation of
thousands of islands in Indonesia
and Philippines archipelago? (10) UPSC

Mains
2014

Island Arc Islands of South East Asia

• Islands in S E Asia
• Indo- Austral plate
and Eurasian plate
movement
• Volcano + EQ
 Islands of Indian Ocean O-C convergence

Convergent Plate Boundary Volcanic Mountains

EX.
• Andes , Rockies,
O-O O-C C-C Atlas mountain
• From Andes =>
•Island arc •Volcanic •Fold andesitic rocks
mountains mountains
• Volcano + EQ
 Andes mountain range Rockies mountain range

Location near Andes Grand canyon – Colorado river

❑Atacama desert
❑Bolivian plateau
❑Lake Titicaca
❑Mt. Aconcagua (highest peak)
❑Mt. Cotopaxi
❑Mt. Chimbrazo
❑Lake Maracaibo
 Locations near Rockies Question
Q. why are the world’s fold mountain
❑Columbia -snake plateau systems located along the margins
of continents? UPSC
❑Grand canyon /Colorado plateau
❑Death valley Bring out the association between
global distribution of fold -mountains
❑Great salt lake and earthquakes and volcanoes (10)
❑ Mt.Logan (highest peak of rockies) Mains
❑Mt. Mckinley (highest peak of N. America) in 2014
Alaskan range

Question Convergent Plate Boundary

Q. Where is the volcanic mountain.
Mount. St. Helens is located?
UPSC

a) Chile O-O O-C C-C

b) Japan
c) Philippines Prelims
•Island arc •Volcanic •Fold
d) USA 2005 mountains mountains
Ans. D)
 C-C convergence Himalayan formation
1. O-C convergence 2. C-C convergence

Continental Mountains Karakoram range

• Not located on
coast
• No volcanism
• But powerful EQ

• Ex.
• Himalayas, Alps,
Urals
 Alps mountain range Bosporus strait

Physical map of Europe Cities of Europe

City River
Paris Seine
Frankfurt Rhine
Venice Po
Vienna, Budapest, Danube
Belgrade
Kiev Dniester
Berlin Elbe
 Locations near Alps San Andreas fault
❑Rivers: Rhone, Danube and Po Plate movement San Andreas fault, USA
❑Black forest mountains
❑mountains: Pyrenees, Apennines
❑Islands of Mediterranean sea: Balearic,
Sardinia, Corsica, Sicily, Malta, Cyprus
❑Straits: Bonifacio, Messina, Marmara
❑Sea: Tyrrhenian, Adriatic, Ionian and Aegean

Transform Boundary Meteorite Impact theory

• When two plates slip • Early atmosphere –
pass-off each other thin layer of H, He
• No mountains but • Numerous meteorites
seismic activity attack on earth
• San Andreas fault in • Break the surface
California, USA • Underlying lava
eruption
• First oceanic crust
formed
 3 Theories Landforms on earth

Mountains
Continental Sea-floor Plate tectonic
drift spreading theory Plateaus

Plains

Question Types of mountains

Q. Between India and East Asia, the
navigation time and distance can be
greatly reduced by which of the UPSC
following?
Fold
a) Deepening Malacca strait mountains
between Indonesia and Malaysia Prelims
2011
mountains
b) Opening a new canal across Kra
Isthmus between gulf of Siam and Block
Andaman sea mountains
 Fold mountains Characteristics of Fold mountains
1)Extensive mountain chain
3) Great heights
4) Formed along unstable parts of the earth
5) Sedimentary deposits of marine origin (C-C)

Geomorph Phases of mountain building

❑Mountains created due to
convergent boundaries of both Fold • Pull of descending
1) O-C (Rockies, Andes) mountains limb of convection
2) C-C (Himalayas, Alps) current
• great pressure of
Compressive forces of plates compressive force
❑Youngest mountains on earth exerted by the
❑True mountains convection cells
Geo-syncline Fold mountains of the world
• Elongated, narrow
depression on
continental margins
• Here sediments from
both land and ocean
accumulate
• Under intense
pressure, sediments
of geo-syncline folded

C-C collision List of mountains to locate

• Sediments from 1) Alaska range 9) Hindukush
continental crusts 2) Rockies 10) Kirthar range
of both plates +
3) Andes 11) Kunlun Shan
geo-syncline folded
4) Atlas mountains 12) Urals mountains
• Because of
sediments of geo- 5) Pyrenees 13) Appalachian
syncline – marine 6) Caucasus mountains
origin 7) Taurus 14) Great Dividing
Range
8) Elburz and Zagros
 Importance of mountain building process Block mountains formation
❑understanding of the origin and evolution of
earth’s crust.
❑At the time of the formation of the earth
crust, first basaltic crust of ocean - breaking
and melting - a lighter continental crust
developed.
❑collide with one another = a larger land
mass.
❑The joints = fold-mountains.

Types of mountains Block mountains formation

Fold
mountains
mountains
Block
mountains
 Block mountains Plateaus
• Fault-block mt. Meaning: • Raised land during
• Due to forces within mountains building
interior of the earth Table land, upland,
process
• Uplifted part = horst higher than
surrounding areas • Eroded mountains
• depressed part =
Grabben • Eroded due to
• Horst => block glaciers
mountains • Deposition from lava,
• Grabben => rift valley wind

Example of block mountains Types of plateau

Europe India Intermontane plateau Continental plateau

❑Bolivia plateau ▪Deccan plateau

❑Tibetan plateau ▪Katanga plateau
❑Columbia plateau ▪Ozark plateau (USA)
❑Colorado plateau ▪Ethiopian highland
❑Anatolia Plateau
(Turkey)
 Types of Plateau Batholith
Glacial plateau Lava plateau
• Granite
❑Grahwal plateau ▪Columbia-snake • Less mobile,
❑Laurentian plateau plateau (USA) cannot move
upward
(Canada) ▪Deccan Plateau
• Backbone of
▪Shan plateau fold mountains
(Myanmar)

Katanga Plateau Plains

• Origin of River Congo • Meaning • Depositional plains
and Zambezi • Flat areas with low - Rivers
• Dense equatorial forest heights - Sea (sub-merged coast)
• Known for resources • Best for human
habitation
- Gold, diamonds, Copper • Erosional plains
• Most populated areas
- Erosion of plateau
of the world – alluvial
plains of rivers
 Important river basins of the world Important locations
Asia Europe Africa South North America ❑Navigable river – 35% of China’s population
America
❑Sichuan basin – rice cultivation
Indus Danube Nile Amazon Mississippi – Missouri
❑Shanghai – biggest port of China
Ganga –Brahmaputra Rhine Congo Parana- Colorado
Paraguay ❑ Wuhan – Iron and steel
Yangtze (China) Rhone Niger St. Lawrence ❑Nanjing – textile, iron and steel
Hwang He (China) Po Zambezi Yukon ❑Chengdu – oil and gas
Ob- Irtysh (Russia) Don Orange Mackenzie ❑Three gorge dam
Mekong (SE Asia) ❑Yun ho canal – connect Yangtze with Hwang He
Euphrates - Tigris

Yangtze river, China Euphrates- Tigris river, Iraq

 Locations near Euphrates-Tigris
❑Lake Van,
❑Lake Urmia
❑Important centers in Iraq:
❑Baghdad, Mosul, Kirkuk, Al Basra
Amazon river, Brazil
Locations near Amazon river
❑Largest, 2nd longest river
❑Selvas – equatorial rain forest
❑Tin, rubber in Selvas
❑Sertao – ranching region
❑Petroleum reserve at the mouth
❑Manaus – Iron ore, navigable
❑ plateau of Mato Grasso – gold reserve
Mississippi , USA
 Locations near Mississippi basin
❑Temperate grasslands – Prairies
❑Wheat, corn and cotton cultivation
❑Important cites:
❑Kansas – agriculture
❑St. Pittsburg – iron and steel
❑New Orleans – port, ship building
Murray-Darling basin, Australia
Location near Murray-darling basin
❑Temperate grassland – downs
❑Wheat cultivation
❑Sheep rearing ,Animal husbandry
❑Wool and dairy production
❑Continental drift theory -> sea-floor
spreading theory -> plate tectonic
theory
❑Landforms on earth
❑Mountains (fold and block)
❑Plateaus
❑Plains
 Landforms on earth Fold mountains

Mountains

Plateaus

Plains

Types of mountains Geomorph

❑Mountains created due to
convergent boundaries of both Fold
Fold 1) O-C (Rockies, Andes) mountains
2) C-C (Himalayas, Alps)
mountains Compressive forces of plates
mountains ❑Youngest mountains on earth
Block ❑True mountains
mountains
 Characteristics of Fold mountains Geo-syncline
1)Extensive mountain chain • Elongated, narrow
2) Great heights depression on
continental margins
3) Formed along unstable parts of the earth
• Here sediments from
4) Sedimentary deposits of marine origin (C-C) both land and ocean
accumulate

Phases of mountain building C-C collision

• Pull of descending
limb of convection
current
• great pressure of
compressive force
exerted by the
convection cells
• Sediments from
continental crusts
of both plates +
geo-syncline
folded
• Because of
sediments of geo-
syncline – marine
origin
Fold mountains of the world Hindu kush, Kirthar and Sulaiman Ranges

Pamir Knot Mountains in Europe

 List of mountains to locate Urals Mountains
1) Alaska range 9) Hindukush
2) Southern Alps 10) Kirthar range
3) Dinaric Alps 11) Kunlun Shan
4) Atlas mountains 12) Urals mountains
5) Pyrenees
13) Appalachian
6) Caucasus mountains
7) Apennines
14) Great Dividing
8) Taurus Range
9) Elburz and Zagros

Importance of mountain building process Types of mountains

❑understanding of the origin and evolution of
earth’s crust.
❑At the time of the formation of the earth
Fold
crust, first basaltic crust of ocean - breaking
and melting - a lighter continental crust
mountains
developed. mountains
❑collide with one another = a larger land
mass.
Block
❑The joints = fold-mountains. mountains
Block mountains formation Phases of Divergent continental crust

Block mountains African rift valley – block mountains

• Fault-block mt.
• Due to forces within
interior of the earth
• Uplifted part = horst
• depressed part =
Grabben
• Horst => block
mountains
• Grabben => rift valley
 Example of block mountains Landforms on earth
Europe India
Mountains

Plateaus

Plains

comparison Plateaus
Fold mountains Block mountains

❑True mountains ▪Not true mountains Meaning:

❑Compressive force -
folding
❑Due to collision of plates
(C-C, O-C)
❑Folding of sedimentary
rocks
▪Tensile force -faulting Flat, Table land,
upland, higher
▪Diverging plates (Conti) than surrounding
▪Differential erosion of areas
horst of fault – looks like
mountains
 Formation of Plateaus Types of Plateau
❑Raised land during mountains building Glacial plateau Lava plateau
process
❑Deposition from lava ❑Grahwal plateau ▪Columbia-snake
❑Deposition from wind ❑Laurentian plateau plateau (USA)
❑Eroded due to glaciers (Canada) ▪Deccan Plateau
▪Shan plateau
(Myanmar)

Types of plateau
Intermontane plateau Continental plateau Bolivia plateau Columbia- colorado

❑Bolivia plateau ▪Deccan plateau

❑Tibetan plateau ▪Katanga plateau
❑Columbia plateau ▪Ozark plateau (USA)
❑Colorado plateau ▪Ethiopian highland
❑Anatolia Plateau
(Turkey)
 Katanga Plateau
Ozark plateau Anatolia plateau • Origin of River Congo
and Zambezi
• Dense equatorial forest
• Known for resources
- Gold, diamonds, Copper

Plateau of Mato Grasso, Brazil

Loess plateau Laurentian plateau
• Equatorial region
• Dense rainforest
• Known for gold
reserve
Shan plateau, Myanmar Batholith
• Plateau crossed by
Salween river • Granite
• Irrawaddy river passed • Less mobile,
in eastern side cannot move
• Shan plateau- chief upward
source of lead, zinc and • Backbone of
silver Myanmar fold mountains
• Known for teak forest
(Burmese Teak)

Tibetan plateau Landforms on earth

“Roof of the world” –
highest and largest Mountains
plateau
• Source of Indus,
Brahmaputra,
Salween, Mekong,
Plateaus
Yangtse, Hwang He
• Imp role in Indian
monsoon Plains
 Plains Yangtze river, China
• Meaning • Depositional plains
• Flat areas with low - Rivers
heights - Sea (sub-merged coast)
• Best for human
habitation
• Erosional plains
• Most populated areas
- Erosion of plateau
of the world – alluvial
plains of rivers

Important river basins of the world Important locations

Asia Europe Africa South North America ❑Yangtze – 3th longest river in the world
America ❑Navigable river – 35% of China’s population
Indus Danube Nile Amazon Mississippi – Missouri ❑Sichuan basin – rice cultivation
Ganga –Brahmaputra Rhine Congo Parana- Colorado ❑Shanghai – biggest port of China
Paraguay
❑ Wuhan – Iron and steel
Yangtze (China) Rhone Niger St. Lawrence
❑Nanjing – textile, iron and steel
Hwang He (China) Po Zambezi Yukon
❑Chengdu – oil and gas
Ob- Irtysh (Russia) Don Orange Mackenzie
❑Three gorge dam
Mekong (SE Asia)
❑Yun ho canal – connect Yangtze with Hwang He
Euphrates - Tigris
 Euphrates- Tigris river, Iraq Amazon river, Brazil

Locations near Euphrates-Tigris Locations near Amazon river

❑Lake Van, ❑Largest, 2nd longest river
❑Lake Urmia ❑Selvas – equatorial rain forest
❑Important centers in Iraq: ❑Tin, rubber in Selvas
❑Baghdad, Mosul, Kirkuk, Al Basra ❑Sertao – ranching region
❑Petroleum reserve at the mouth
❑Manaus – Iron ore, navigable
❑ plateau of Mato Grasso – gold reserve
 Mississippi , USA
Locations near Mississippi basin
❑Temperate grasslands – Prairies
❑Wheat, corn and cotton cultivation
❑Important cites:
❑Kansas – agriculture
❑St. Pittsburg – iron and steel
❑New Orleans – port, ship building
Murray-Darling basin, Australia
Location near Murray-darling basin
❑Temperate grassland – downs
❑Wheat cultivation
❑Sheep rearing ,Animal husbandry
❑Wool and dairy production
❑Landforms on earth
❑Mountains (fold and block)
volcanism
❑Plateaus
❑Plains
earthquake

Tsunami

Geomorpho
❑complete sequence of processes of
creation and movement of magma +
creation of volcanic landforms Volcanism
Natural Catastrophic ❑Volcanism is not random
events ❑Reason associated with volcanism
is also not random
 Distribution of Volcanism Mid Oceanic Ridge

• 1st
2nd
• Pacific Ring of Fire
• O-O divergence
• O-O convergence
• Basaltic – peaceful
• O-C convergence eruption

Plate movements Mediterranean volcanism

O-O : Volcanic arc O-C :Volcanic mountains 3th
• Breaking up of
Mediterranean plates
into multiple blocks
• Andesitic eruption
• Frequent interaction
• Mt. Etna, Mt.
Vesuvius
 History of Mediterranean sea Aleutian Islands

• Mediterranean sea is
residual part of Tethys
sea
• Tethys sea was located
between – Laurasia and
Gondwana
• Collision of Africa to
Laurasia – breaking up of
plates of Mediterranean
sea

Hot Spot Volcanoes comparison

• 4th Basaltic eruption Andesitic eruption
• Magma From deep
interior -Basaltic ❑Occur at mid-oceanic ▪Volcanic arcs, volcanic
ridge and hot spot mountains
• Fixed place - Plate volcanism
movement – Island ▪Andesite – less fluid – less
arc ❑Basalt highly fluid – mobile
mobile ▪Solidifies at short
• Direction of plate
❑Spread across easily distance- intense pressure
• Hawaii, Reunion, develop inside –explosive
Kurile, Aleutian ❑Quite eruption
 comparison Intrusive Landforms
Basaltic eruption Andesitic eruption

Volcanic Landforms Intrusive Volcanic Landforms

Intrusive Landforms
Volcanic ❑Intrusion of Magma in sedimentary rocks
plateau ❑Sills (Horizontal)
Extrusive ❑Dyke (Vertical)
Volcanic
❑Laccolith – magma which could not come
Landforms cones out
❑Lopolith – saucer-shaped
Intrusive Dykes etc. ❑Phacolith – shape like waves
❑Batholith – intrusive granitic rock
 Extrusive volcanic Landforms Indian Deccan trap
• Indian plate passed
Volcanic Shield over a hot spot near
Plateau volcano Reunion Island
Extrusive • Basaltic eruption
Volcanic • Layer over layers –
Cinder vol.
cones looks like steps =>
Deccan lava traps
Composite • Soil – black soil ‘regur’
vol.

Lava plateaus Spatial distribution of Lava Plateau

• Hot spot volcano on
continental crust
• Cracks on continental
crust –Basaltic
eruption
• Spread across the land
• Layer over layer
• EX. Deccan lava trapps
 List of lava plateaus of the world Shield / Dome volcano
• Columbia-snake Deccan plateau, India
plateau, USA • Arabian plateau • Volcanic Islands (Hot
• Ozark plateau, USA • Balkan plateau, Europe spot)
• Parana-Patagonia, S. • Siberian plateau,
America • Highly fluid lava
Russia
• Adamawa plateau, (basaltic) build dome
• Yunan Plateau, China
Africa
• Shan plateau, Myanmar • Gentle slope
• Bie plateau, Africa • Quite volcano
• Kimberly plateau,
• Katanga Plateau,
Africa
Australia • Volcanoes of Hawaii

Extrusive volcanic Landforms Cinder cones

• O-C collision – volcanic
Volcanic Shield mountains
Plateau volcano • Less fluid lava
Extrusive (Andesitic) explode
Volcanic violently
Cinder vol.
cones • Viscous lava solidifies
at short distance
Composite
vol. • Mt. Paricutin, Mexico
 Composite Cones Geysers
Volcanic mountains • Geysers
Each new eruption – =fountains of Hot
new layers of ash or water
lava • Ground water
heated by shallow
source of magma
Mt. Stromboli, Mt.
Vesuvius, Mt. Fuji • Old faithful
geyser, Yellow
stone park, USA

Types of Volcanic cones Hot Spring

Shield/ dome Cinder Composite • Hot Spring:
• Water reach deep
Highly fluid Less fluid / highly Fluid + viscous enough – heated by
viscous interior
Silent flow Violent eruption Multiple and • Locate any part of the
violent eruption world
Gentle slope Steep slope Highest
volcanoes
Small volcanoes Small volcanoes Large volcanoes
 Difference between geyser and Hotspring
• Geyser – G/w heated by
shallow magma source
• Hot spring – g/w heated by
either magma source or
heated rocks
• Geyser – chamber in
interior – pressure –
comes out like fountain
• Hot –spring - quite
comparison
geyser Hot spring
❑Geysers are rare ▪Found anywhere
❑Hot water dissolved with ▪They gets different colors
silica accumulated on from heat-loving bacteria,
surface – gives different like cyanobacteria
colours ▪Medicinal values
❑USA, - Yellowstone park
▪Can be helpful in harness
geo-thermal energy
Geo-thermal energy
• Heated water is
taken out – used
for moving turbine
– generation of
electricity
• Cooled water
flown back into
interior
Limitations of geo-thermal energy
❑Difficult to locate a good source of
geothermal reservoir with current technology
❑Difficult to dig a deep well with hard and hot
bedrock
❑Harmful gases can escape from the earth
interior while exploration – GHG gases and
dissolved toxic elements
 Types of Earthquake

volcanism 1) Shallow focus EQ

2) Intermediate
focus EQ
3) Deep focus EQ
earthquake
Shallow focus –
destructive
Tsunami

Geomorpho Earthquakes in Japan

Sudden movement or vibration in
earth’s crust. At Junction of 3 plates Subduction of Pacific plate
Earthquake

Release of the energy due to intense

pressure + active internal dynamism
of the earth
 Reasons behind EQ Reasons behind EQ
1st
Collision of Plate • 3th
boundaries • Transverse plate
O-O collision boundaries
O-C collision • Friction developed
between two plates
C-C collision

Reasons behind EQ Reasons behind EQ

2nd 4th
Divergent Plate Mediterranean sea
boundaries region
Numerous small
O-O divergence plates
MOR Frequent
interactions
 Reasons behind EQ Geomorpho
❑Submarine EQ
5th 6th ❑Sudden disturbances of underlying Tsunami
Craton = stable part of Human Induced plates transmit the shock waves to
crust 1) RIS surface waves
Re-emergence of old 2) mining
fractures
3) Nuclear testing

comparison
Normal waves Tsunami waves
volcanism
Speed – 100 kmph ▪Speed – 700 kmph
Cover shorter distances ▪Cover longer distances
earthquake Wavelength ~100 km ▪Wavelength – > 150 km

Tsunami
wavelength Phase 2
• Distance between two
crests of troughs =
wavelength
• Waves of Tsunami are
wider than normal
waves of the ocean
water
Phase 1 Phase 3
• EQ on ocean crust –
uplift the water upward
• Tsunami wave
generated
• Vessels in the mid-sea
cannot recongnise the
tsunami waves
• Sea water recede at
the shore
• At coast – depth
decrease – wavelength
decreases – wave
height increases
• A huge wall of water –
10-12 floor high
created
• Enormous energy
released at the shore
• Hit the coast
• Tsunami- not a single
wave but multiple
waves
• 4th and 8th waves are
the most dangerous
• Time lapse between
each waves – 15 to 50
minutes
 Phases of tsunami ❑Catastrophic events on earth
❑Their reasons and distributions
❑Volcanism
❑EQ
❑Tsunami

Indian preparedness against Tsunami

❑Tsunami Early warning system- gives warning in
10 minutes of submarine earthquake
❑Indian National centre for Ocean Information
Sciences (INCOIS),Hyderabad Natural Catastrophic
❑ To capture Tsunami wave amplitude on 24x7 events
basis
❑ real time sea-level sensors with bottom
pressure recorders
❑HF radars for coastal currents
❑Coastal tide gauge stations
 Distribution of Volcanism

volcanism • 1st
• Pacific Ring of Fire
• O-O convergence
earthquake • O-C convergence

Tsunami

Geomorpho Plate movements

❑complete sequence of processes of
creation and movement of magma + O-O : Volcanic arc O-C :Volcanic mountains
creation of volcanic landforms Volcanism
❑Volcanism is not random
❑Reason associated with volcanism
is also not random
 Mid Oceanic Ridge History of Mediterranean sea

• Mediterranean sea is
2nd residual part of Tethys
• O-O divergence sea
• Basaltic – peaceful • Tethys sea was located
eruption between – Laurasia
and Gondwana
• Collision of Africa to
Laurasia – breaking up
of plates of
Mediterranean sea

Mediterranean volcanism Hot Spot Volcanoes

3th • 4th
• Breaking up of • Magma From deep
Mediterranean plates interior -Basaltic
into multiple blocks • Fixed place - Plate
• Andesitic eruption movement – Island
• Frequent interaction arc
• Mt. Etna, Mt. • Direction of plate
Vesuvius • Hawaii, Reunion,
Kurile, Aleutian
 Aleutian Islands comparison
Basaltic eruption Andesitic eruption

comparison Volcanic Landforms

Basaltic eruption Andesitic eruption
Volcanic
❑Occur at mid-oceanic ▪Volcanic arcs, volcanic plateau
ridge and hot spot mountains Extrusive
volcanism ▪Andesite – less fluid – less Volcanic
❑Basalt highly fluid – mobile Landforms cones
mobile ▪Solidifies at short
❑Spread across easily distance- intense pressure
develop inside –explosive
Intrusive Dykes etc.
❑Quite eruption
 Intrusive Landforms Extrusive volcanic Landforms

Volcanic Shield
Plateau volcano
Extrusive
Volcanic
Cinder vol.
cones
Composite
vol.

Intrusive Volcanic Landforms Lava plateaus

Intrusive Landforms • Hot spot volcano on
❑Intrusion of Magma in sedimentary rocks continental crust
❑Sills (Horizontal) • Cracks on continental
❑Dyke (Vertical) crust –Basaltic
eruption
❑Laccolith – magma which could not come
out • Spread across the land
❑Lopolith – saucer-shaped • Layer over layer
❑Phacolith – shape like waves • EX. Deccan lava trapps
❑Batholith – intrusive granitic rock
 Indian Deccan trap
• Indian plate passed
over a hot spot near
Reunion Island
• Basaltic eruption
• Layer over layers –
looks like steps =>
Deccan lava traps
• Soil – black soil ‘regur’
List of lava plateaus of the world
• Columbia-snake Deccan plateau, India
plateau, USA • Arabian plateau
• Ozark plateau, USA • Balkan plateau, Europe
• Parana-Patagonia, S. • Siberian plateau,
America Russia
• Adamawa plateau, • Yunan Plateau, China
Africa
• Shan plateau, Myanmar
• Bie plateau, Africa
• Kimberly plateau,
• Katanga Plateau, Australia
Africa

Spatial distribution of Lava Plateau Extrusive volcanic Landforms

Volcanic Shield
Plateau volcano
Extrusive
Volcanic
Cinder vol.
cones
Composite
vol.
 Shield / Dome volcano Composite Cones
Volcanic mountains
• Volcanic Islands (Hot Each new eruption –
spot) new layers of ash or
• Highly fluid lava lava
(basaltic) build dome
• Gentle slope Mt. Stromboli, Mt.
Vesuvius, Mt. Fuji
• Quite volcano
• Volcanoes of Hawaii

Cinder cones Types of Volcanic cones

• O-C collision – volcanic Shield/ dome Cinder Composite
mountains
• Less fluid lava Highly fluid Less fluid / highly Fluid + viscous
(Andesitic) explode viscous
violently Silent flow Violent eruption Multiple and
• Viscous lava solidifies violent eruption
at short distance Gentle slope Steep slope Highest
volcanoes
• Mt. Paricutin, Mexico Small volcanoes Small volcanoes Large volcanoes
 Geysers Difference between geyser and Hotspring
• Geysers • Geyser – G/w heated by
=fountains of Hot shallow magma source
water • Hot spring – g/w heated by
• Ground water either magma source or
heated by shallow heated rocks
source of magma • Geyser – chamber in
• Old faithful interior – pressure –
geyser, Yellow comes out like fountain
stone park, USA • Hot –spring - quite

Hot Spring comparison

• Hot Spring: geyser
• Water reach deep
enough – heated by ❑Geysers are rare
interior ❑Hot water dissolved with
• Locate any part of the silica accumulated on
world surface – gives different
colours
❑USA, - Yellowstone park
Hot spring
▪Found anywhere
▪They gets different colors
from heat-loving bacteria,
like cyanobacteria
▪Medicinal values
▪Can be helpful in harness
geo-thermal energy
 Geo-thermal energy

• Heated water is volcanism

taken out – used
for moving turbine
– generation of
electricity earthquake
• Cooled water
flown back into
interior Tsunami

Limitations of geo-thermal energy Geomorpho

Sudden movement or vibration in
❑Difficult to locate a good source of earth’s crust.
Earthquake
geothermal reservoir with current technology
❑Difficult to dig a deep well with hard and hot Release of the energy due to intense
bedrock pressure + active internal dynamism
❑Harmful gases can escape from the earth of the earth
interior while exploration – GHG gases and
dissolved toxic elements
 Types of Earthquake Reasons behind EQ
1) Shallow focus EQ 1st
2) Intermediate Collision of Plate
focus EQ boundaries
3) Deep focus EQ O-O collision
O-C collision
Shallow focus – C-C collision
destructive

Earthquakes in Japan Reasons behind EQ

At Junction of 3 plates Subduction of Pacific plate 2nd
Divergent Plate
boundaries

O-O divergence
MOR
 Reasons behind EQ Reasons behind EQ
5th 6th
• 3th Craton = stable part of Human Induced
• Transverse plate crust 1) RIS
boundaries Re-emergence of old 2) mining
• Friction developed fractures
3) Nuclear testing
between two plates

Reasons behind EQ ➢Catastrophic events on earth

4th ➢Their reasons and distributions
Mediterranean sea ➢Volcanism
region
➢EQ
Numerous small
plates
Frequent
interactions
 Geomorpho
❑Submarine EQ
❑Sudden disturbances of underlying Tsunami
plates transmit the shock waves to
surface waves
Geomorphology
Oceanography

comparison
Normal waves Tsunami waves
volcanism
Speed – 100 kmph ▪Speed – 700 kmph
Cover shorter distances ▪Cover longer distances
earthquake Wavelength ~100 km ▪Wavelength – > 150 km

Tsunami
wavelength Phase 2
• Distance between two
crests of troughs =
wavelength
• Waves of Tsunami are
wider than normal
waves of the ocean
water
Phase 1 Phase 3
• EQ on ocean crust –
uplift the water upward
• Tsunami wave
generated
• Sea water recede at
the shore
• Vessels in the mid-sea
cannot recongnise the
tsunami waves
• At coast – depth
decrease – wavelength
decreases – wave
height increases
• A huge wall of water –
10-12 floor high
created
• Enormous energy
released at the shore
• Hit the coast
• Tsunami- not a single
wave but multiple
waves
• 4th and 8th waves are
the most dangerous
• Time lapse between
each waves – 15 to 50
minutes
 Phases of tsunami ➢Geomorphology
➢Interior of the earth
➢Continental drift – sea floor sprading-
plate tectonic theories
➢Mountains –plateaus –plains
➢Catastrophic events – Volcanism, EQ
and Tsunami

Indian preparedness against Tsunami

❑Tsunami Early warning system- gives warning in
10 minutes of submarine earthquake
❑Indian National centre for Ocean Information
Sciences (INCOIS),Hyderabad
❑ To capture Tsunami wave amplitude on 24x7 Oceanography
basis
❑ real time sea-level sensors with bottom
pressure recorders
❑HF radars for coastal currents
❑Coastal tide gauge stations
 Topics under Oceanography Ocean Bottom Relief
Ocean Bottom Relief

Ocean Currents

Ocean Tide

Salinity of Ocean water

Temperature of Oceans

Coral Reef

Ocean Bottom Relief Division of Ocean Bottom

❑Oceanic crust –first order relief – most
fundamental –basaltic 3 divisions:
❑Oceanic crust thickness = 1-3 km, darker in 1) Ocean –
colour, higher density continent
❑Oceanic crust created at MOR and margin
destroyed at trenches 2) Deep
❑Ocean floor is not flat. More diversity than Ocean
on continents plains
3) MOR
 Ocean-Continent margins Continental shelf
• Shallowest part
1) Continental • Depth ~ 200 m
shelf • photic zone
2) Continental • Marine life- floating
slope planktons, benthos
3) Continental (crabs) and
nektons (fishes)
rise
• sediments from
land = terrigenous

Ocean- continent margin landforms Resources from continental shelf

• 90 % of Petroleum
reserves of the world
found in continental
shelves
Continental Continental Continental
shelf slope rise Bombay high, gulf of
Cambay, Persian Gulf,
North Sea, Barents
sea, gulf of Mexico,
Norwegian sea
 Persian gulf Arctic Ocean
Petroleum reserves Strait of Hormuz • Melting due to
global warming
• New sea route from
Europe to Russia
• Potential petroleum
reserve
• Artic ocean- global
commons
• Arctic council

Oil exploration in Barents sea Resource at continental shelf

• Petroleum reserve
• Sulphur – rarely found
• Russia started on land. Available in
exploration sea during marine
• Protest from volcanism.
environmentalists – Ex. Gulf of Mexico – rich
Greenpeace source of sulphur
• “Rainbow warriors”
Resources from continental shelf
Placer deposits
Wave action erode the
beach rocks
some stable minerals
freed from the rocks
due to weathering
waves shift the lighter
material more rapidly
than heavier
concentration of heavy
minerals on shelf
Resource at continental shelf
• Calcium- least soluble
in ocean water –
Peruvian coast rich
deposits of calcium and
phosphate
• Fishes are rich in
nitrate and phosphate,
high protein, medicinal
use
• Pearls

Resources from continental shelf Ocean- continent margin landforms

• monazite sand
(source of thorium)
at Kerala coast
Continental Continental Continental
• Gold (Alaska)
shelf slope rise
• Zircon (Brazil,
Australia)
• Diamond (South
Africa)
 Continental slope Continental Rise
• Very steep slope
• Massive landslides of • Transition zone
terrigenous deposits between
• Rivers like, Ganga, continental block
Indus, Mississippi, and oceanic
Yukon and Congo block
have created
submarine canyons
• Highest waterfall on
earth – under
Denmark Strait.

Ocean- continent margin landforms Continental rise

• They are
absent near
trenches, as
subduction
Continental Continental Continental near trenches
shelf slope rise consumes the
deposition of
Continental
rise
 Ocean- continent margin landforms Abyssal Plain
• Occupies 40% of
the ocean floor
• Tremendous
diversity in terms
Continental Continental Continental of landforms
• It has deposits
shelf slope rise from continents
(terrigenous),
marine life
(biogenous) and
salts and mineral
(inorganic)

Division of Ocean Bottom Resources from Abyssal plain

3 divisions: • PMN (Poly Metallic
1) Ocean – Nodules) or
continent Manganese nodules
margin
• Concentration of
2) MOR metals around a core
3) Deep Ocean
plains
• Depth 4000-6000m
 Global distribution of PMN India
❑2002- India got approval from ISA –
• First found in ‘Pioneer Investor’ for 15 years
❑ India - 1,50,000 ml ha ocean stretch PMN
Kara sea, Arctic
ocean in central Indian Ocean out of 10 to15
• These nodules ml ha of PMN
are found in the ❑India RV Samudra Ratnakar +
all the oceans – equipment from S Korea
economically ❑NIOT – developing tech for exploration
viable -central
Indian Ocean and
❑2011 - China acquired 10,000 ha area
Eastern Pacific ❑2013 – UK co. in Pacific ocean
Ocean.

PMN UN convention on Laws of the seas ISA

• PMN are small nodules 1983

60 countries signed UNCLOS
of metals like,
Manganese, Iron, came into force in 1993
Silicon, Al, Nickel and
Cobalt etc. 1) Decides the maritime boundary
• some of the minerals 2) Deep sea mining (ISA, Kingston,
are rare on land. Jamaica)
• Countries are in race to 3) Environment protection
explore and extract 4) Dispute settlement
PMN
 UNCLOS Types of Islands
• Decides territorial 4 types of Islands:
waters, contiguous 1) Volcanic (plate/ hot spot)
zone and EEZ for
coastal countries 2) Continental
• EEZ – special right 3) Coral islands
of the state to 4) Sand bar islands
explore minerals or
produce energy
from the area

Question Types of Islands

Q. Critically evaluate the various
resources of the oceans which can Island Formation
be harnessed to meet the resource UPSC
continental Once part of large
crisis in the world (10)
continent
volcanic O-O plate collision,
Mains
Hot spot
2014
coral Formed due to coral
reefs
Sand-bar island Accumulation of sand
near the coast
 Types of Islands Example of Islands
Continental Islands Volcanic islands Volcanic Continental Coral Sandbar

Japan Shri Lanka Lakshadweep Long Island

(New York)
Philippines Madagascar Maldives

Kurile Vancouver Mauritius

Aleutian Baffin Island Bahama,

Bermuda

Types of Islands Coral Reefs

Sand-bar islands Coral Islands • Indicative of
health of
Marine ecology
• Primary food-
chain
• Source of great
biodiversity
 Coral Reefs Spatial distribution of Corals
❑Corals = tiny fleshy sea anemones polyps.
❑They extract Ca from the sea water for their
skeletons to protect their bodies.
❑ One generation die on previous generation.
❑Corals live symbiotic relationship with
microscopic plant – Zooxanthalae,
photosynthesis capabilities.
❑ Zooxanthalae provide food to corals and
corals provide protection to zooxanthalae

Condition for growth of Corals Coral Bleaching

❑Need submarine shallow platform (50 meter • When corals are
deep)– to receive sun light in stress they
❑Temperature- 25-27 degree expel
zooxanthalae –
❑Warm, tropical and low latitude waters that’s why coral
❑Salinity – 33 ppt seem white =>
coral bleaching.
❑Not at mouth of river, No turbulent water Ultimately,
❑Need circulating nutrient rich water without food
coral die
 Reason of coral Bleaching Formation of coral reef
❑Global warming => increase in sea surface • Corals can be
temperature developed both at the
❑Ozone depletion => increase in solar margins of the
irradiation continents or around
❑Ocean acidification islands
❑algal bloom • 3 stages of coral
formation
❑Increase sedimentation from rivers
1) Fringing reef
❑Marine pollution – oil spill
2) Barrier reef
❑Diseases
3) Atoll

Distribution of Coral Bleaching Fringing reef

• Coral reef developed
along margin of an
island
• If Gap is created
between corals and the
surface of island
• Small water bodies =
lagoons
Barrier reef Fringing Reef Atolls
• Reef is not continuous
but broken
• Lagoon can connect to
open ocean
• Most extensive
• If they are parallel to
coast -> barrier reef

Atoll Great Barrier Reef, Australia

• The hill submerged
• Only narrow ring of
coral is visible
 Marine pollution Tar balls
• Tar balls — lumps of
• Dangerous for petroleum
marine biodiversity • oil spillage from
• Marine diversity is tankers
the wealth of the • The wax-like lumps
earth are caused due to
• Harmful to global the reaction of the
environment oil with sea water
• Sticky and greasy

Marine pollution ❑Ocean bottom relief:

Issue effect 1) Continental shelf
Oil spill Marine life – devoid of 2) Continental slope
sunlight and oxygen
3) Continental rise
Run-off from land Eutrophication - Algal
bloom 4) Abyssal plain
Atmospheric input makes ocean water acidic Types of islands
Dumping of toxic elements Toxicity harms marine Formation of coral
organism Marine pollution
Ballistic water issue Danger to biodiversity
 Motion of Ocean water Waves

•waves
Horizontal
•currents

•tides
Vertical
•Up-welling

Waves Breaking up of the waves

❑Creation of waves:
❑wind pushes the water body • when the depth
of water is less
❑ gravity pulls the crests of the waves than half the
downward, the falling water pushes the wavelength of
former troughs upward. the wave, the
❑Actual motion of water beneath the wave is wave breaks
circular
 Motion of Ocean water Ocean currents

•waves • Heat distribution

Horizontal – from Poles to
•currents Eq.
• warm water from
equator
•tides • Cold water from
Vertical
•Up-welling Poles

Ocean Currents Forces responsible for Ocean Current

❑Ocean currents are narrow and shallow (up
to 500 meter deep), stream of water Wind
circulating along the Ocean margins
❑Circumnavigate the earth Insolation

Gravity

Coriolis Force
 Dominant force : wind Insolation: temperature gradient
• Most of the
currents
follow the
direction of
the trade
winds,
Westerlies
and polar
easterlies

Insolation: temperature gradient Insolation: Salinity gradient

❑Water expands under high temperature
❑Cold water near poles
❑Water lighter near equator, than at the
poles
❑Cold water - heavier (denser) sinks
downward
❑Cold water from pole flow towards equator
at subsurface level, to balance loss of water
at equator
❑Salinity increases density of water
❑Denser water sinks at depth
❑Less saline water move towards high saline
water on the surface
❑High saline water move towards less saline
water at sub-surface
❑Equator – rainfall –less saline water
❑Poles – iceberg – high saline water
 Factors modifying the ocean currents
❑Factor deflect the path of the currents:
❑Coastlines modify the path of the currents
❑coriolis force deflect the path
oceano
Q. Consider the following factors:
1. Rotation of the earth UPSC
2. Air pressure and wind
3. Density of ocean water
4. Revolution of the earth
Which of the above factors influence Prelims
ocean currents? 2012

Coriolis effect oceano

a) 1 and 2
• Due to Earth’s b) 1,2,3 UPSC
rotation W->E
c) 1 and 4
• Deflective force- d) 2,3,4
deflect the
direction of Ans. B)
currents Prelims
Rotation of the earth -> coriolis force
• Clockwise – N Air pressure and wind -> planetary 2012
• Anti-clockwise -S winds
Density of water -> salinity
 oceano Ocean currents of the world
Q. Consider the following
statements:
UPSC
1. Ocean currents are slow-surface
movement of water in ocean
2. Ocean current assist in
maintaining the earth’s heat
balance Prelims
3. Ocean currents are set in motion 2002
primarily by prevailing winds

oceano North Atlantic Ocean Currents

4. Tropical currents are affected by
the configuration of the ocean
UPSC
Which of the statements are correct?
a) 1 and 2
b) 2,3 and 4
c) 1,3 and 4 Prelims
d) 1,2,3 and 4 2002
Ans. B)
 New found land Canary current
• Meeting of gulf
stream and Labrador
current at new found
land
• fishing ground =
grand banks
• Foggy area –
dangerous for
shipping
North Atlantic drift Sargasso sea
• warming effects to
Western Europe
• ports of Norway
Narvik, Hammerfest
operating in winter-
at same latitude
ports in Russia
freeze during winter
cold current
Passes near canary
islands
desiccating effect
to Sahara desert
• Gyre of north equatorial
current, gulf stream and
canary current
• Water confined –calm
and motionless
• HP zone – high salinity
• ‘Sargassum’- sea weed
–obstruct navigation
• Devoid of nutrients –
poor marine life
South Atlantic Ocean Currents Benguela current

• Cold current
• Desiccating effect to
Namib desert

Bahia Blanca North Pacific Ocean Currents

• Meeting of warm
Brazilian and cold
Falkland current
• Important fishing
ground
 Desiccating effect of cold current South Pacific Ocean Currents
• cold Californian current
• Chilling effect on
western coast of N.
America
• Drying effect to Mojave
desert, Sonoran desert
in California

Meeting of cold-warm current near Japan Upwelling on Peruvian coast

• Meeting of warm
Kuroshio and cold • Cold Peru/Humboldt
Oyashio current near current – desiccating
southern Japan effect to Atacama
dessert
• Rich fishing ground
• Peruvian coast –
• Foggy area upwelling – rich fishing
ground
North Indian Ocean Currents South Indian Ocean Currents

Navigation in Indian Ocean oceano

Q. Which one the following factor is
• In summer: wind and responsible for the change in regular
direction of the ocean currents in the UPSC
current flow towards
India – Arabia to India Indian ocean?
• In winter: wind + a) Indian ocean is half an ocean
current flow towards b) Indian ocean has monsoon drift
Arabia - sea vessel from c) Indian ocean is a land-locked ocean Prelims
India to Arabia
d) Indian ocean has greater variation in 1997
• Important for sea-trade, salinity
cultural interaction
Ans. B)
 oceano Motion of Ocean water
Q. The most important fishing ground
of the world are found in the regions
where: UPSC •waves
Horizontal
a) Warm and cold atmospheric
currents meet •currents
b) Rivers drain out large amount of
Prelims
fresh water into sea
2013 •Up-welling
c) Warm and cold oceanic currents Vertical
meet •tides

oceano Ekman layer

d) Continental shelf is inundating
UPSC • The wind exerts
Ans. C) stress on the ocean
surface proportional
1) New found land to the square of the
2) Bahia Blanca wind speed and in
3) Japanese coast the direction of the
Prelims
wind.
2013
• This motion extends
to a depth of ~ 100
m
 Ekman spiral Up-welling
• Wind force balanced • When Ekman
by coriolis force and transport induce
friction divergence at the
• Water defect 45 deg coast
under coriolis force • divergence draws
• Depth – wind force water from below to
reduce- deflect away the surface
from wind direction

Ekman Transport Ekman transport in southern hemisphere

Ekman spiral 90 deg Ekman transport Peruvian coast
= Ekman transport
• Deflect Right in N.
hemi
• Deflect Left in S.
hemi
• Due to coriolis force
 Up-welling Down-welling
• cool and nutrient • When Ekman
rich water come at transport induce
the surface convergence at
the coast
• Phytoplankton • convergence
reproduce rapidly in forces surface
this condition – water downward
zooplankton ->
nekton

Up-welling regions Down-welling

• Cold current • Descending

• Humboldt current = water -warm
Peruvian coast water - saline
• Gulf of Guinea, • push down at
Iberian coast the bottom
• Up-welling – rich
nutrients => fishing
 Motion of Ocean water Ocean tides

•waves • If moon stationary –

Horizontal
•currents every place on earth
experience 2 HT and
2 LT in 24 hours

•Up-welling
Vertical
•tides

Ocean tide Ocean tides

• But moon also revolves
• Rise and fall of around earth in 27.5
sea water due to days
gravitation forces • So, same location
of sun and moon is comes under moon not
called tides exactly after 24 hours
but 24.52 min
• Gravitational +
centrifugal forces • So, diurnal frequency of
HT and LT is 12.26 min
 Tidal range Ebb – Flood/Flow
• Difference ❑The time between the high tide and low tide,
between High tide when the water level is falling, is called the
and Low Tide ebb.
• Depends upon:
1) Depth of ocean
water ❑The time between the low tide and high tide,
2) Configuration of when the tide is rising, is called the flow or
coastline flood
3) Openness and
closeness of the
sea

Highest tidal range Apogee and Perigee tides

World: Bay Fundy India: Gulf of Khambhat
• Moon’s orbit around
the earth –elliptical
• Perigee tides –
higher than apogee
tides
 Syzygy positions Spring – Neap Tide
• the sun, the moon - Spring , neap = High
and the earth are tide
in a straight line
(Syzygy) Spring – highest HT
• occur twice a Neap – Lowest HT
month - there is a 7 Days
• Conjuction – New interval between the
moon spring tides and neap
• opposition – full tides.
moon

Quadrature position comparison

sun and moon Spring tide Neap tide
are at right
angles to each ❑HT higher than usual ▪HT lower than usual
other
(Quadrature) ❑LT lower than usual ▪LT higher than usual
The forces of the ❑Syzygy position ▪Quadrature position
sun and moon –
counteract ❑Gravitational force ▪Gravitational force of
7/8 D of every from both sun and moon sun and moon counter-
fortnight together act
 Question Tidal bores
A) During the neap tides, high tide is
lower and low tide is higher than • when seawater enters
usual UPSC
into mouths of low lying
R) The neap tide, unlike spring tide, rivers during HT
occurs on new moon instead of full • Narrow opening –
moon. Prelims gentle gradient of river
basin
2001
• Obstructed by river
Ans. A true, R is incorrect water – so steep wall of
tidal bore

Tidal currents Q. Which of the following statement Question

is NOT correct?
• When the tide is UPSC
channelled between a) Gulf with narrow fronts and wider
islands or into bays and rears experience high tide
estuaries b) Tidal currents take place when a
• Coastward = flood gulf is connected with open sea
by narrow channel Prelims
current
c) Tidal bore occurs when a tide 2004
• Seaward = ebb current
enters the narrow shallow estuary
• Reversing tidal of river
currents great velocity
 Estuary Hooghly river
If a mouth of a river is
low-lying and Hooghly -Distributary
submerged under sea- of Ganga
water • Kolkata on left bank
River deposit create of Hooghly
long-narrow delta = • Tidal bores in Kolkata
estuary deltas port
Ex. Deltas of Tapi,
Narmada

Question Importance of Tide

d) The tidal nature of the mouth of
river Hooghly is of the crucial
importance to Kolkata port
Ans. D)
Tidal bores at Hooghly are
constraints for shipping at port
- Rushing current imbalance the
docking ships
❑Tidal height important for Harbours with
UPSC
shallow ‘bars’ at the entrance, which
prevent ships and boats from entering
into the harbour.
Prelims ❑ Tides are also helpful in desilting the
2004 sediments and in removing polluted
water from river estuaries.
❑Tidal energy to generate electrical
power
 Question Tidal ports
Q. Consider the following
statements: Kandla port Diamond harbour
UPSC
1) Tides are great help in navigation
and fishing
2) High tide enable big ships to
enter or leave the harbour safely
Prelims
3) Tide prevents siltation of harbor
2000
4) Kandla and diamond harbor are
tidal ports

a) 1 and 4 Question Ports

b) 2,3 and 4 Tidal ports Non-tidal ports
UPSC
c) 1,2 and 3
d) 1,2,3 and 4 ❑Feed by sea water during ▪Feed by rivers
high tide ▪Relatively in-land
❑Located on coast ▪Ex. Kolkata port
Statement 1 is wrong.
Prelims ❑Ex. Kandla
Tide not helpful in navigation
2000

Ans. B)
 12 major ports of India Tidal energy
port facts
• Power is harnessed
Kandla First port developed after independence
taking advantage of
JNPT To decongest Mumbai port
difference of level
Murmagao, KN Known for iron ore export
between HT and LT
New Manglore port Export iron ore from Kudremukh mine in KN
• A dam is constructed to
Kochi At the entrance of a lagoon
clock receding water
Tuticorin port Also Handles cargo of Shri Lanka and Maldives
during LT
• Water is released from
Chennai Oldest artificial port

vishakhapatnam Deepest landlocked port, export iron ore

dam – turbine -
Kolkata port Riverine port
electricity
Haldia To decongest Kolkata port

Paradip port, Odisha Initially to export iron ore

❑Motion of ocean water Tidal energy in world

❑Horizontal – wave, current • La Rance, France
❑Vertical – tide • Scotland, UK
• potential of 8000MW in
India
• Gulf of Cambay, gulf of
Kutch, Sundarban (WB)
• 50 MW plant in gulf of
Kutch 2012
 Tidal stream energy ❑Motion of ocean water
❑Horizontal – wave, current
• Turbines are placed on
ocean floor ❑Vertical – tide, upwelling –down
• Turbine are run by fast welling
moving ocean currents ❑Tidal energy
• Fastest ocean currents:
gulf stream off East
USA

Motion of Ocean water

•waves
Horizontal
•currents
Oceanography
Climatology
•tides
Vertical
•Up-welling
Topics under Oceanography Resources from continental shelf
Ocean Bottom Relief petroleum Sulphur
Ocean Currents

Ocean Tide

coral reef

Temperature of Oceans

Salinity of Oceans

Ocean bottom relief Resources from continental shelf

Placer deposit Pearls, fish, calcium
 Continental margins Types of Islands
Continental slope Continental rise Continental Islands Volcanic islands

Abyssal plain Types of Islands

Poly-metallic nodules Indian exploration Sand-bar islands Coral Islands
 Coral reef Formation of coral reef
formation conditions
• Fringing reef –
❑Symbiotic relationship ▪Sunlight –depth 50 m barrier reef- atoll
between coral polyps and ▪Temp – 25-27 deg • Subsidence
xooxanthalae theory of Darwin
▪Salinity – 33
• Standstill theory
▪Calm, circulating nutrient of Murray
rich water
▪Not at mouth of river

Coral reef Motion of Ocean water

Coral bleaching Reasons for bleaching
•waves
❑Coral polyps expel ▪Global warming Horizontal
xooxanthalae under stress ▪Ozone depletion •currents
condition
▪Ocean acidification
▪Sedimentation
▪Marine pollution
•tides
Vertical
▪diseases •Up-welling
Horizontal motion of ocean water Up-welling and down-welling
waves Ocean currents Upwelling Down-welling

Tides
tides Spring-neap tide

Temperature of the ocean

Salinity of the ocean

 Temperature of Ocean Temperature pattern of the Oceans
❑Main energy source - Insolation • Hemispheric
❑Oceans play important role in energy and variation
temperature regulation on earth, due to • Northern
specific heat of the water hemisphere
warmer than
❑Average temperature of ocean = 3-5 degree southern
Celsius • Reason: large
land mass in
❑But average surface temperature of ocean northern
water = 25 degree hemisphere –
high energy

Temperature Pattern of the Ocean Temperature pattern of the Oceans

• Latitudinal variation • Enclosed seas
• It decreases from • Marginal seas of
equator to poles tropics warmer than
• But highest open Ocean + marginal
temperature is not at seas of temperate
the equator but at the region cooler than open
tropics
seas
• Reason: high rainfall,
cloud cover (high • Reason: less mixing of
albedo/ reflection of water
sunrays)
 Temperature pattern of the Oceans Temperature pattern of the Oceans
• Ocean currents
• Warm ocean • Down-welling –
current – piling up of warm
warming effect water – increase
the temp
• Cold ocean
current cooling
effect

Temperature pattern of the Oceans Diurnal range of temperature

• Up-welling and dow- • Max temp of day
welling and min temp of
night time
• Upwelling bring cool
water from depth – • Tropical water
higher diurnal
lower down the surface range than
temp equatorial waters
• Because, Heating
and cooling of
water rapid under
clear sky
 Annual range of temperature Question
Which of the statement is correct?
• Bigger the size of a) 1 only UPSC
ocean- better b) 2 only
mixing of water
and heat c) Both 1 and 2
• Lower annual d) Neither 1 or 2 Prelims
range
2007
• Pacific ocean – Ans. B)
lower annual
range than Pacific Ocean – better mixing
Atlantic Ocean

Question Vertical distribution of temperature

Q. Consider the following
statements: 1st layer – upto 500m
UPSC
1) Annual range of temperature is (20-25 deg C)
greater in Pacific ocean than in 2nd layer – thermocline
Atlantic ocean 500-1000m
2) Annual range of temperature is Prelims 3th layer – cold layer –
greater in northern hemisphere 2007 beyond 1000m
that in southern hemisphere
 Vertical distribution of temperature Salinity of Ocean water
• Temp decreases with ❑Amount of salt found in 1000 gm of water
increasing depth ❑Nacl (78%), MgCl2 (11%), MgSO4 (3.5%),
• rate of decrement is CaSO4 (2.5%)
rapid at equator –
❑Na and Cl has high residual time in ocean
tropics than towards
poles water – very gradual removal – that’s why,
they remain in the highest proportion
• 1st layer – permanent in
Tropics– temperate
only in summer

Salt Budget
❑Irrespective of absolute salinity of the
Temperature of the ocean water, the proportion of the salt remain same
in all parts of the oceans
❑Amount of addition or extraction of fresh
water compared to salt content in the Ocean
Salinity of the ocean water decides absolute salinity of the
Oceans.
 Sources of salts in ocean water
❑Sediments carried by rivers
❑Submarine volcanism at MOR
❑Chemical reaction between rocks of
geothermal vent of volcano and cold water
❑Erosion of oceanic rocks
Removal of Salts in Ocean water
❑Physical removal – waves break at the
beaches, salt-spray
❑Biological removal – marine life forms
extract calcium from sea water for their
bones
Variation in salinity
❑Addition of fresh water => Rainfall, inflow of
large river, melting of glacier => less salinity
❑Reduction of fresh water => increase in
temperature, high evaporation, windy (wind
accelerate the evaporation)
Salinity of the oceans
❑Standard salinity of ocean water is = 35.5
ppt – salinity of Atlantic Ocean
❑Dead Sea (350 salinity), Lake van (400),
Lake Urmia
❑Man seldom drowned in sea with high
salinity
❑Because, high salinity = high density
Pattern in variation of salinity Local Variations in Salinity
• Salinity goes • 1st - Ocean
decrease from currents
equator to poles
• warm ocean current
• But highest salinity is like, high
not at the equator = evaporation
because high rainfall,
• Cold current led to
cloud cover
Up-welling: cooler
• Highest salinity is at water from depth
tropics come at the surface
=> low salinity

Pattern in variation of salinity Local Variations in Salinity

• Northern • 2nd - Enclosed seas
hemisphere – • low latitude - warmer
warmer – high than open sea- high
evaporation – saline salinity
• But in southern • Ex. Mediterranean Sea,
Pacific- roaring 40, Red sea
furious 50 and
shrinking 60 • high latitude- cooler
screaming 70 – very than open sea – low
fast winds salinity
• High evaporation => • Ex. Baltic Sea
high salinity
 Local Variations in Salinity Rivers inflow to the seas
• 3th – inflow of large Black sea Persian gulf
rivers
• Ganga – Brahmaputra
flow into Bay of Bengal
• Bay of Bengal less
saline than Arabian sea

Rivers inflow to the seas Local Variations in Salinity

Amu darya, Syr darya to Aral
Mississippi in G.of Mexico
sea
• 4th – glaciers
• Baltic sea receive fresh
water from melting of
glaciers – low salinity
 Vertical pattern of salinity ❑Temperature of ocean water
❑Salinity decreases with increasing depth ❑variations
❑Temp of water decreases ❑Salinity of ocean water
❑Density of water increases ❑Salt budget
❑Salinity increases density –water sinks ❑variations
❑Saline water freeze slowly compared to pure
water

Vertical pattern of salinity

❑Equator – salinity increases with depth upto
some layer –than decreases with depth
❑Beyond equator – salinity decreases with
depth Climatology
❑Vertical salinity variation of oceans is
complicated
❑No uniform layering
Origin of the Atmosphere on Earth Proportion of gases
• Early atmosphere has H Gas Proportion
and He in abundance - Nitrogen 78%
lighter gases escaped Oxygen 21%
• During early life of the Argon 0.93%
earth – extensive
volcanism- degassing. Carbon dioxide 0.03%
N, S, Water Vapour, Neon 0.0018%
Argon and CO2 came
out Helium 0.00005%
ozone 0.00006%

Origin of the Atmosphere on Earth Proportion of gases

• Water vapour ❑N, O, H and Argon are permanent gases
condensed – clouds ❑Water vapour, Co2, ozone -> variable gases,
– rainfall –washed GHG
out bulk of the CO2
into Oceans. Co2 = ❑N, Argon – inert gases
0.03% ❑Atmospheric gases- no chemical interaction
• Oxygen – from among them
anaerobic respiration ❑They don’t lose their properties
of bacteria like,
Cynobacteria ❑They act as a single unified gas
Structure of atmosphere Greenhouse effect in troposphere
• Temperature decrease
as height increases
• Transparent to
insolation (shortwave)
• Heated by terrestrial
radiation (longwave)
• GHGs absorbs long
wave terrestrial
radiation

Troposphere Question
Q. normally, the temperature
• 90% of atmosphere decreases with increase in height
from the earth’s surface, because, UPSC
within 32 km
• Tropopause = Height 1. Atmosphere can be heated
8 km at poles, 18 km upward only from earth’s surface
at equator 2. There is more moisture in upper
• At equator atmosphere Prelims
cumulonimbus
clouds 3. The air is less dense in upper 2012
atmosphere
 Question Question
a) 1 only Q. The jet aircrafts fly very easily and
b) 2 and 3 smoothly in lower stratosphere.
UPSC Why? UPSC
c) 1 and 3
d) 1,2 and 3 1. There are no clouds or water
vapour in lower stratosphere
2. There are no vertical winds in
Ans. C) Prelims lower stratosphere Prelims
Less dense = less amount of GHGs = 2012 2011
low temp
Ans. 1 in wrong, 2 is correct

stratosphere Mesosphere
• Temperature
increases with • Absence of GHGs
height • Temperature decreases
• Because of the with height
presence of ozone
layer
• Ozone absorbs UV
rays from isolation
Noctilucent clouds Ionosphere
Mesospheric clouds • From 80km to 640
• Clouds visible at km
high latitudes • Number of ionic
• During summer layers
season • Useful in radio-
• Condensation of communication
mixture of meteoric
dust and some
moisture

Thermosphere Ionosphere
• Temperature increase • High energy sunrays
with height and cosmic rays break
• Gases in ionic state – the atoms of air
trap insolation – molecules – become
extremely hot ionised (+ve charged)
• But ions are highly • Behave as free
dispersed particles
• Up to 800 km from • At night time, only
earth cosmic rays ionization
-weak
 Layers of Ionosphere Exosphere
layers height Frequency Presence formation • Beyond 640 km
D 60-90km LF Day-time Solar
• Highly rarified
radiation atmosphere
E 99-130km MF, HF Day-time UV with N • Very high
molecule temperature- but
different from air
F 150- MF, HF Day &night temperature-
380km
because no
G >400km MF, HF Day & night existence of air-
temp can’t be felt

Question Aurora
Q. A layer in Earth’s atmosphere
called ionosphere facilitates radio
communication. Why? UPSC • Glowing lights at
mid-nights at high
1. Presence of ozone cause latitudes
reflection of radio waves to earth • At height of
2. Radio waves has long wavelength exosphere and
Prelims magnetosphere
Both statements are wrong 2011
Aurora
• sun emit solar
wind/storm from its
corona
• Solar wind consist of
plasma (free
electrons and +ve
ions)
• Interaction of solar
wind with earth’s
magnetosphere -
disturbance
Heat budget
• The average
temperature of the
earth 15 degree
• Earth maintains influx
and out-flux of the
energy, but out-flux is
not immediate, it has
long time gap. That is
why, the temperature is
maintained.

Auroras Heat budget - Incoming

• Collision of charged
• First 35%
particles (isonization)
absorbed by
in magnetosphere
Ozone layer
• Ionised particles emit
• Then 15% by
light –release energy
cloud cover
• charged particles
• Only 50% energy
interact with
reached to the
geomagnetic field lines
earth surface
• Thus, visible on high
latitudes
Heat budget - outgoing Albedo - table
• 20% is lost in latent surface Albedo
heat of evaporation
10% lost in sensible Fresh snow 80%-90%
heat (temperature of
the body) Desert 35-45%
• 15% absorbed by
GHGs Grasses 26%
• Remaining 5% was Crops 15%
released in the
space Brick - concrete 10-20%

Albedo Question
Q. Which one of the following reflect
• Ratio between the total back more sunlight as compared to
other three? UPSC
solar radiation falling
upon a surface and the a) sandy desert
amount reflected
b) Paddy crops
• Represents as %
c) Land covered with fresh snow
• Earth’s avg. Albedo = Prelims
35% d) Prairie land
2010
• Lowest- dark soil
• highest - snowfall Ans. C)
 Movement of air Vertical movement of air - stability
Horizontal vertical • When air is cooler than
surrounding –it cannot
❑when there is pressure ▪when air get warm, gets move upward
gradient expands, becomes lighter • sinking air
❑from high pressure to low => move upwards =>
convection • atmospheric stability
pressure => advection or anti-cyclonic
condition
• High pressure on
ground

Vertical movement of air - instability Low pressure – High pressure

• When air gets hotter
than surrounding air, it
rises upward
• If it has moisture -
latent heat of
condensation – more
heated – will go up -
form clouds -can bring
rainfall = instability
 Adiabatic lapse rate
• The rate at which air
packet cools while
rising
• Avg adiabatic lapse
rate is 6.4 degree/km
• That is air packet gets
cool by 6.4 degree after
covering one km
upward
Dry Adiabatic Lapse rate
• If air packet is dry, it
does not have much
moisture, it will get
cool very fast. More
than 6.4 degree/km –
like, 10 degree/km.
• Dry air create stable
condition

Wet adiabatic lapse rate Conditions of stability and Instability

• if air packet has high situation condition
moisture content- not
get cool so fast. Conditional stability when wet ALR< normal
• Its adiabatic lapse rate ALR < dry ALR
<6.4 degree/km ~ 4
degree/km => WALR Absolute stability when normal ALR< wet
• Wet air can reach ALR < Dry ALR
higher distances with
low lapse rate =>
create instability Absolute instability when wet ALR< Dry
ALR< normal ALR
 Temperature Inversion Ex. Of temperature Inversion

• Normally, with • 2nd

increasing height • A cool winter night, the
temperature of air air above the cold
decreasing, but surface gets cool.
reverse is • But the air layer above
happened than it is that cool layer is till
called temperature warmer. Then, by going
upward, air does not
inversion get cooler but warmer

Ex. Of temperature Inversion Ex. Of temperature Inversion

• 1st • 3th
• At Tropopause – • Valley inversion
temperature • winter – cool air
starts increasing descends to valley
from here
• Uplift the warm air
• So air packet of valley
reach till here,
• Descending cool air-
start moving
damage crops- frost
downwards
 Implications of temperature inversion Condensation of water droplets
Formation of fog Warm air cooled by cold air
below – condensation – tiny Condensation of water droplet Result
water droplets- low visibility At heights Clouds
Formation of frost Water moisture frozen with
At lower level Fog
contact cold surface- damage
to crops on the cold surface Dew drop
Atmospheric stability Prevents upward or downward Turn into ice crystal in extreme Frost
movement of air- Discourage
cold conditions
rainfall

Question Reason for formation of fog

Q. What do you understand by
phenomenon of “temperature Advection Moving of warm air over cold
inversion” in meteorology? How does UPSC
it affect weather and habitants of the Radiation Winter nights – loss of heat
place? (5) due to terrestial radiation –
cold surface. Moving of warm
mains air over cold surface
2013
Ocean Meeting of cold and warm
current ocean currents
 Decreasing level of visibility comparison
Smog Photochemical smog

❑It occurs in cool humid ▪It occurs in warm, dry and

climate sunny climate
❑It is a mixture of smoke, ▪Mixture unsaturated
Mist Haze Fog Smog fog and sulphur dioxide hydrocarbons and nitrogen
oxides (NO2) in presence
(SO2). of sunlight
▪Its components are ozone,
nitric oxide, acrolein, and
formaldehyde and
peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN).

comparison Q. Photochemical smog is resultant Question

fog smog
❑Water droplet condensed ▪Water droplet condensed
around a dust particle around a particle of
❑It reduces the visibility, pollutant, like SO2
damage the crops ▪Reduce visibility + health
hazard
of reaction among
a) NO2, O3 and peroxyacetyl nitrate UPSC
in the presence of sunlight
b) CO2, O2 and peroxyacetyl nitrate
in the presence of sunlight
c) CO,CO2 and NO2 at low
temperature Prelims
d) High concentration of NO2, O3 2013
and CO in the evening
 Question precipitation
Photochemical smog:
NO2, Ozone + sunlight UPSC

Ans. A)

evaporation Humidity condensation Precipitation

Prelims
2013

❑Structure of atmosphere Evaporation

❑Vertical Movement of air 1) High temperature
❑Adiabatic lapse rate 2) LP conditions
❑Temperature inversion and its effects 3) Fast moving wind
• Water vapour evaporate
❑fog from the water body
• Evaporation adds
moisture in the air
 Humidity Types of clouds
Absolute Humidity Specific Humidity

❑Weight of water vapour in ▪Weight of water vapour per

unit volume of moist air unit weight of dry air

Precipitation Types of rainfall

• Precipitation – when • Precipitation depends Convectional rainfall Orographic rainfall
air is saturated with upon temperature and
water vapour and any moisture content of the
extra addition result in air
precipitation
Relative Humidity: • Hot air – saturation
reach with more
• Amount of water vapour
present in air – to moisture content than
amount of water vapour cold air
required for saturation
 Types of rainfall Pressure system of the world
Cyclonic rainfall Frontal rainfall • 4 belts:
• equatorial low
pressure belt
• sub-tropical high
pressure belt
• sub-polar low
pressure belt
• Polar High
pressure area

Pressure system of the world Equatorial LP belt

❑Entire earth is divided into 4 large pressure • Constant insolation
belts • Air gets warm -LP
❑In reality, belts are not continuous but pockets • Air move upward ->
of low and high pressure. cloud formation ->
❑But pressure can be created through thermal or instability -> rain in the
dynamic reasons evening daily
❑Thermal: high temperature=> LP, low • Cumulonimbus clouds
temperature => HP • Convectional rainfall
❑Dynamic: air rises => LP, air descends => HP
 Equatorial LP belt
• Absence of advection
of air
• Belt of calm / Doldrum
• Because light, feeble
winds - calm region
Sub-tropical HP belt (STHP)
• As descending air – HP
• Dynamically induced
HP
• Called ‘horse latitude’

Sub-tropical HP belt (STHP) Sub-polar LP belt (SPLP)

• The air above equator • From the pole, cold
move towards pole, but winds move towards
coriolis force - their equator
path get deflected. • The both warm and
cold winds collide,
• The length of path the warmer winds
increases. Their energy from STHP rise above
reduced in mid-path - the cold polar winds
cooled. air subside near • This rising of warmer
30-40 deg latitude. wind near 50-60
degree create LP
 Polar high Planetary winds
• Air risen at SPLP, • winds blowing at the
descends at poles same direction
• High pressure throughout the year
conditions • cover large distances.
• Thermally induced • Horizontal movement,
Pressure belt system
provide them the
pressure gradient
• Corilis force modify
their direction

Wind system of the world Trade winds

Permanent
wind
Planetary
winds
• The winds move
towards equatorial low
Seasonal pressure = ITCZ
winds winds
• ITCZ – inter tropical
Local winds convergence zone,
Variable where wind converges
wind Mt.-valley • Their direction is east
breeze
to west due to coriolis
Land-sea force
breeze
Tropical deserts and trade winds Question
Q. Major hot deserts in northern
• Tropical easterlies hemisphere are located between 20-
flows– east to 30 degree North latitudes and on the UPSC
west western side of the continents. Why?
• Wind becomes dry (10)
when they reaches
the western coast
of the continents Mains
• Off –shore trade
winds 2013
• Trade wind deserts

Tropical desert and cold currents Westerlies

• From west to east
• 2nd
• From STHP to SPLP
• Cold currents
provide
desiccating effect
to trade wind
deserts
• Cold current flow
on western
margins of
continents
 Westerlies Polar Easterlies
• From west to east
• From STHP to SPLP • From east to
• Less landmass in west
southern • From poles to
hemisphere SPLP
• Fast flowing winds
in the open sea
• Roaring 40s,
furious 50s,
shrinking 60s and
screaming 70s

Q. Westerlies in southern hemisphere Question Apparent movement of the sun

are stronger and persistent than Summer Winter
northern hemisphere. Why? UPSC
1. Southern hemisphere has less
landmass as compared to
northern hemisphere
2. Coriolis force is higher in
southern hemisphere as Prelims
compared to northern 2011
hemisphere
Ans. 1 is correct, 2 is wrong
movement of the pressure system Seasonal winds
Summer Winter • Monsoon winds:
seasonal reversal of
winds
• Feature of tropical
latitude
• In winter – trade
wind blows north to
south, in summer –
trade wind blows
south to north [but in
limited area]

Wind system of the world Monson winds

Permanent Planetary • Due to apparent
wind winds northward movement of
Seasonal the sun in summer.
winds winds Thus, the ITCZ (LP) also
moves upward
Local winds • Thus, the area which
Variable was under northern
wind Mt.-valley trade winds in winter,
breeze will come under
Land-sea southern trade winds in
breeze the summer
 Wind system of the world Local winds : land
Permanent Planetary Cold wind: land Warm wind: desert
wind winds
Seasonal
❑HP condition in winter desert Winds
winds winds ❑Divergence of cold air Sahara Sirocco
❑Siberia – Buran
Local winds Egypt Khamsin
Variable ❑Canada - Blizzard
wind Mt.-valley
Libya Gibli
breeze Gulf of Harmattan
Land-sea Guinea
breeze

Local winds : mountains winds Local winds: India

Cold wind Warm winds summer Pre-monsoon thunderstorm

country wind Mountains Wind ❑Hot-dusty wind = ‘loo’ states Wind

Bihar, WB, Kalbaishakhi
Greece Gragale Alps Fohn Assam
Italy Tremonta Rockies Chinook KN Blossom
shower
Adriatic bora Andes Zonda
KR Mango
sea shower
Wind system of the world Valley breeze
Permanent Planetary • During day time:
wind winds
top gets warmer
Seasonal than valley = LP,
winds winds valley = HP
Local winds • So wind moves
Variable from valley to
wind Mt.-valley the top => valley
breeze breeze
Land-sea
breeze

Mountain breeze Wind system of the world

• During night time: Permanent Planetary
top gets cooler than wind winds
valley = HP, valley Seasonal
=LP winds winds
• Wind move hill-top to
valley => mountain Local winds
breeze Variable
wind
• Agriculture –frost Mt.-valley
breeze
bite, chill in
habitation in the Land-sea
valley breeze
Land breezes ❑Pressure belts of the world
❑Planetary wind system
• Differential cooling
of land and water ❑Variable winds
• During night: ❑Seasonal, local winds
• land cooler =HP, ❑Mountain- valley breeze
• water =LP ❑Land-sea breeze
• Wind move land to
water => land breeze

Sea-breeze Upper tropospheric winds

• Around tropopause,
• During day time: there is only one
• land gets warmer =>LP gradient
, water =HP • Wind accumulated
• Wind move from water above equator and
to land => sea breeze rarified atmosphere
above poles
• HP at the equator and
LP at the poles
 Geo-strophic winds Rossby waves
• strong coriolis force
at tropopause
• Because friction is
less - high speed -
stronger the coriolis
force
• So the deflection is
90 degree
• Such winds called
geo-strophic winds
• Westerlies at poles –
to maintain the
angular momentum-
they meander =>
Rossby waves
• Rossby waves do not
meander
consistently, but
follow a cycle = Index
cycle

Westerlies winds Jet streams

• The upper
tropospheric • In westerlies, there
winds / geo- are strong, narrow
strophic winds bands of high speed
blow from wind => Jet stream
west to east • Speed of Jet stream
at the very 300kmph
high speed
 Jet streams location Jet streams
• There are situated • Jet stream
at the margins of embedded in
meridional cells westerlies (Rossby
• 4 permanent Jet waves) at high
streams: 2 Polar Jet latitude, cause
and 2 Sub-Tropical pressure variability
Westerly Jet STWJ • That’s why they are
called travelling
depression

Jet streams Jet Stream – travelling depressions

Permanent jet stream Temporary jet stream
 Weather of Mid and high latitude Air mass
❑Weather of higher latitude is more complex • Air mass acquired
than weather of equatorial or tropical regions properties from the
❑Because tropical and equatorial region are heat source regions – land,
surplus region– thermal reasons play the marine, polar, arctic,
dominant role. Antarctic = give them
❑But higher latitude are heat deficit region – identity. Ex. mP, cT
dynamic reasons play dominant role • Extensive
❑These include – localised + upper-tropospheric homogeneous surface
circulations (Rossby waves, Jet streams, + longer stay (HP)
temperate cyclones)

Air mass Air masses

• Large extensive body of • Air masses do not stay
air-mass (1000sqkm) at their source regions
• Height upto Tropopause forever, they move out.
• At particular height, one While moving they
air mass will have came across other air
uniform temperature and masses.
moisture across its width
• Airmasses can be
differentiate according to
their temperature and
moisture content
 Front
• The relative difference
between temperature
and moisture decide
their interaction with
one another
• The border/ meeting
region of the two air-
mass => Front
Warm front
• If warmer air mass
is more active than
cold front => warm
front
• slope will be
gentler = there
won’t be sudden up-
liftment of warm air
= uniform
prolonged rain –
drizzle

Cold front Fronts

• If cold air mass move
faster than the other
than it will lift the
warmer one upward =>
cold front
• the slope will be steep
= there will be sudden
up-liftment of the warm
air = cumulonimbus
clouds =frontal rainfall
 Frontal cyclone Isobar
• Also called as Normal isobar Closed isobar
extra-tropical
cyclone,
travelling
depressions,
cold-core
cyclone, wave
cyclones

Meaning of cyclone Conditions for LP

1) Intense LP system Thermally induced Dynamically induced
2) Air converges towards
the centre ❑Because of high ▪Upliftment of warm air
temperature ▪Ex. LP at sub-polar LP belt
3) Closed isobars
❑Ex. LP at equator ▪Frontal rainfall
4) In Northern
hemisphere ❑Convectional rainfall at
convergence – anti- equator
clockwise
 Development of Frontal cyclone
• Movement of
airmasses from their
source region
• The warm and cold air
mass face each other
• A front is created
between them
• Called Stationary front
Formative stage of frontal cyclone
Location of air masses Circular movement Interaction of air masses
Development of Frontal cyclone
• Cold air mass pushed
the warm air mass
• Forced upliftment of
warm air mass at the
cold front =LP
• Two cold air mass
convergence – circular
due to coriolis force
Mature stage
LP – closed isobars
 Occluded front Stationary front Front
• One cold air mass
climb over other cold
air mass–warm front is
destroyed
• Called occluded front
• Rapid change in
temperature and
pressure
• Unstable weather
conditions

Dissipation of frontal cyclone Occluded front Frontolysis

• Frontolysis – no
great
temperature
difference
between two
cold air masses –
front dissipated
– LP reduced –
cyclone
dissipated
 Path of the temperate cyclone Tropical cyclone
• Always west to east
direction
• Because influence of
the wetserlies
• Gradual movement-
Predictable weather
Hurricane –N. America
Typhoon - China
• Late summer
• Increased sea surface
temperature = LP
• Convergence of air
around LP zone
• Rising moist (wet) air
=> absolute instability

Distribution of temperate cyclones Tropical cyclone

• Cloud formation =more
and more moisture –
latent heat of
evaporation => cumulo
nimbus cloud =>
cyclone
• Coriolis force induce
spiral movement of air
 Mature Tropical cyclone Properties of tropical cyclones
• Intensification of LP • Move swiftly
• Converging air near • It is fuelled by
water surface moisture – so when
• Circulating air rises cyclone is cut-off
above (coriolis force) from sea and move
• Diverging air at the towards land – it
top of cyclone starts weakening

Eye of the tropical cyclone Distribution of tropical cyclone

• At the centre of the
cyclone – ‘eye’ of the
tropical cyclone.
• It is a pressure defect.
Because, at ‘eye’ a
narrow stream of wind
descend = is HP at ‘eye’
• At the eye, there is
clear sky.
• Beyond eye wall –
extreme low pressure
 comparison
Temperate cyclone
❑30-40 degree latitude
❑Dynamically induced
❑Due to frontal interaction
❑Formed over large area
❑Move west to east
❑Gradual movement –
predictable
comparison
Temperate cyclone
❑Wind speed 40-50 kmph
❑Pressure gradient 980 mb
❑Powerful on land
❑Affect mainland
❑More time to dissipate
Question
Q. Tropical cyclones are largely
Tropical cyclone confined to South China Sea, Bay of
Bengal and Gulf of Mexico. Why? UPSC
▪8-20 degree latitude (10)
▪Thermally induced
▪Due to increasing SST
▪Small area Mains
▪Move east to west 2014
▪Swift movement- difficult
to predict path
Reason for location of Tropical cyclone
Tropical cyclone 1) Tropical water
2) Warm ocean
▪Wind speed >120 kmph currents
▪Pressure gradient <880 mb 3) Increase SST in
▪Weakens on land late summer
▪Affect only coastal areas 4) Tropical
▪Quickly dissipate after cyclone move
coming on land east to west
5) Landmass on
western coast
 ❑Origin of the atmosphere on the earth
❑Structure of atmosphere
❑Heat Budget
❑Albedo
❑Movement of air
❑Stability and instability
❑Adiabatic lapse rate
❑Temperature Inversion

❑Precipitation processes: evaporation-

Humidity - condensation-clouds
❑Types of clouds
❑Types of rainfall
Climatology ❑Pressure system of the world
❑Planetary wind system
❑Variable winds
Structure of Atmosphere
Troposphere
▪Temperature decreases with
increasing height
▪GHG gas absorb long wave
terrestrial radiation –
transparent to insolation
(short wave radiation)
▪Heated from terrestrial
radiation from earth surface
Structure of Atmosphere
Stratosphere
▪Temperature increases
with increasing height
▪Ozone layer absorbs UV
rays from Insolation
Structure of Atmosphere
Mesosphere
▪Temperature decreases
with increasing height
▪Absence of GHG gas
▪Going away from Ozone
layer
Structure of Atmosphere
Thermosphere
▪Temperature increases
with increasing height
▪Gases are in ionic state –
extremely hot
▪Ionosphere -Imp for radio
communication
 Basic air movement
Movement of air Adiabatic lapse rate
Temperature Inversion
Ex. Of Temp Inversion -
Temperature Inversion
tropopause
Temperature Inversion
Ex. Cool winter night Ex. Valley inversion
Precipitation process
Evaporation Humidity
▪Relative Humidity
▪Addition of moisture or
reduction of moisture
holding capacity of the air
packet = rainfall
1) Addition through
evaporation
2) Reduction through
upliftment of the air
 Precipitation process Types of rainfall
Condensation- clouds Cyclonic rainfall Frontal rainfall

▪Types of clouds according

to their height and shape
▪Nimbus clouds give rainfall
▪Cumulonimbus cloud –
indication of instability
▪Cyclonic heavy rainfall

Types of rainfall Pressure system of the world

Convectional rainfall Orographic rainfall
 Planetary wind system Geo-strophic winds
▪High pressure to low • strong coriolis force
pressure Poles at tropopause
▪Coriolis force – clockwise • Because friction is
in northern hemi and anti- less - high speed -
clockwise in southern hemi stronger the coriolis
▪Trade winds force
▪Westerlies • So the deflection is
▪Polar easterlies 90 degree
• Such winds called
Equator
geo-strophic winds

Upper tropospheric winds Geo-strophic winds

LP • Around tropopause, Poles • Northern

HP there is only one LP
hemisphere
gradient
Geostrophic deflect
• Wind accumulated Equator HP
clockwise
LP above equator and
west to east
rarified atmosphere
above poles In southern
LP Poles
Hemisphere: Anti-
HP • HP at the equator and
clockwise movement
LP at the poles
Deflect west to east
 Westerlies winds Jet streams
• The upper
tropospheric • In westerlies, there
winds / geo- are strong, narrow
strophic winds bands of high speed
blow from wind => Jet stream
west to east • Speed of Jet stream
at the very 300kmph
high speed

Rossby waves Jet streams location

• Westerlies at poles – • There are situated
to maintain the at the margins of
angular momentum- meridional cells
they meander => • 4 permanent Jet
Rossby waves streams: 2 Polar Jet
• Rossby waves do not and 2 Sub-Tropical
meander Westerly Jet STWJ
consistently, but
Polar SPLP STHP Eq. LP
follow a cycle = Index
High
cycle
 Jet streams Jet streams
Permanent jet stream Temporary jet stream-TEJ • Jet stream
embedded in
Tibet plt.
Tropical
Easterly LP westerlies (Rossby
Jet waves) at high
latitude, cause
SW Monsoon
winds
pressure variability
• That’s why they are
Mascerene called travelling
High
depression

Temporary Jet Streams Jet Stream – travelling depressions

Somali jet stream/
Polar-night Jet
Findlater
Polar night
Jet stream

Somali Jet
stream

summer
winter
 Weather of Mid and high latitude Air mass
❑Weather of higher latitude is more complex • Large extensive body of
than weather of equatorial or tropical regions air-mass (1000sqkm)
❑Because tropical and equatorial region are heat • Height upto Tropopause
surplus region– thermal reasons play the
dominant role. • At particular height, one
air mass will have
❑But higher latitude are heat deficit region – uniform temperature and
dynamic reasons play dominant role moisture across its width
❑These include – localised + upper-tropospheric • Airmasses can be
circulations (Rossby waves, Jet streams, differentiate according to
temperate cyclones) their temperature and
moisture content

Conditions for LP Air mass

Thermally induced Dynamically induced • Air mass acquired
properties from the
❑Because of high ▪Upliftment of warm air source regions – land,
temperature ▪Ex. LP at sub-polar LP belt marine, polar, arctic,
❑Ex. LP at equator Antarctic = give them
▪Frontal rainfall identity. Ex. mP, cT
❑Convectional rainfall at
equator • Extensive
homogeneous surface
+ longer stay (HP)
 Air masses Cold front
• Air masses do not stay • If cold air mass move
at their source regions faster than the other
forever, they move out. Cold air mass
than it will lift the
While moving they warmer one upward =>
came across other air cold front
masses. • the slope will be steep
= there will be sudden
up-liftment of the warm
air = cumulonimbus
clouds = cyclonic rain

Front Warm front

Warm
• The relative difference • If warmer air mass
front between temperature is more active than
and moisture decide cold front => warm
their interaction with front
one another • slope will be
• The border/ meeting gentler = there
region of the two air- won’t be sudden up-
mass => Front liftment of warm air
Cold front = uniform
prolonged rain –
drizzle
 Fronts Meaning of cyclone
Warm
front
1) Intense LP system
2) Air converges towards
the centre
Cold air
mass 3) In Northern
Cool air
hemisphere
convergence – anti-
warm
air mass mass

clockwise
Cold front 4) Closed isobars
Cold front Warm front

Frontal cyclone Isobar

• Also called as Normal isobar Closed isobar
extra-tropical
cyclone,
travelling
depressions,
cold-core
cyclone, wave
cyclones
 Conditions for LP Formative stage of frontal cyclone
Thermally induced Dynamically induced Location of air masses Circular movement

❑Because of high ▪Upliftment of warm air

temperature ▪Ex. LP at sub-polar LP belt
❑Ex. LP at equator ▪Frontal rainfall
❑Convectional rainfall at
equator

Development of Frontal cyclone Development of Frontal cyclone

• Movement of • Cold air mass pushed
airmasses from their the warm air mass
source region • Forced upliftment of
• The warm and cold air warm air mass at the
mass face each other cold front =LP
• A front is created • Two cold air mass
between them convergence – circular
• Called Stationary front due to coriolis force
 Mature stage Dissipation of frontal cyclone
Interaction of air masses LP – closed isobars • Frontolysis – no
great
temperature
difference
between two
cold air masses –
front dissipated
– LP reduced –
cyclone
dissipated

Occluded front Stationary front Front

• One cold air mass
climb over other cold
air mass–warm front is
destroyed
• Called occluded front
• Rapid change in
temperature and
pressure
• Unstable weather
conditions
Occluded front Frontolysis Distribution of temperate cyclones
Temperate
cyclones

Path of the temperate cyclone Tropical cyclone

Hurricane –N. America
• Always west to east Typhoon - China
direction • Late summer
• Because influence of • Increased sea
the Westerlies surface temperature
• Gradual and = LP
predictable movement
 Tropical cyclone
• Convergence of air
around LP zone
• Rising moist (wet) air =>
absolute instability
• Cloud formation =more
and more moisture –
latent heat of
evaporation => cumulo
nimbus cloud => cyclone
Mature Tropical cyclone Properties of tropical cyclones
• Intensification of LP
• Converging air near
water surface
• Circulating air rises
above (coriolis force)
• Diverging air at the
top of cyclone
Eye of the tropical cyclone
• At the centre of the
cyclone – ‘eye’ of the
tropical cyclone.
• It is a pressure defect.
Because, at ‘eye’ a
narrow stream of wind
descend = is HP at ‘eye’
• At the eye, there is
clear sky.
• Beyond eye wall –
extreme low pressure
• Move swiftly
• Always east to west
• It is fuelled by
moisture – so when
cyclone is cut-off
from sea and move
towards land – it
starts weakening
 Distribution of tropical cyclone comparison
Temperate cyclone Tropical cyclone

❑Wind speed 40-50 kmph ▪Wind speed >120 kmph

❑Pressure gradient 980 mb ▪Pressure gradient <880 mb
❑Powerful on land ▪Weakens on land
❑Affect mainland ▪Affect only coastal areas
❑More time to dissipate ▪Quickly dissipate after
coming on land

comparison
Temperate cyclone
❑30-40 degree latitude
❑Dynamically induced
❑Due to frontal interaction
❑Formed over large area
❑Move west to east
❑Gradual movement –
predictable
Question
Q. Tropical cyclones are largely
Tropical cyclone confined to South China Sea, Bay of
Bengal and Gulf of Mexico. Why? UPSC
▪8-20 degree latitude (10)
▪Thermally induced
▪Due to increasing SST
▪Small area Mains
▪Move east to west 2014
▪Swift movement- difficult
to predict path
Reason for location of Tropical cyclone Thunderstorm
1) Tropical water • Strong upward
2) Warm ocean movement of warm
currents moist air
3) Increase SST in • Atmospheric
late summer instability
4) Tropical • Cumulonimbus
cyclone move clouds
east to west • convectional
5) Landmass on rainfall
western coast

Thunderstorm Stages of thunderstorm

• Local storm
• for short period of
time
• Heavy rainfall with
thunder and
lightning
 Stages of thunderstorm Lightning
1) Air motion mostly upward • Create high electric
field
2) When accumulated load of water and ice
becomes excessive –downdraft starts. • Reason unknown
Descending water droplet evaporate- cool • When accumulated
charge becomes
the air – increase more downdraft action large-
3) Downdraft spreads throughout the cell • Lightning between
opposite charge
within cloud, to
ground, to neutral
atmosphere

lightning Types of thunderstorm

• Within thunderstorm
– updrafts, Thermal
downdrafts, ice and
water particles
• Thunder clouds
produce excessive thunderstorm orographic
negative charge at
height where temp is
btwn -5 to -15 deg c
• +ve charge at higher Cold front
and lower altitude
 Thermal thunderstorm Cold front thunderstorm
• Localised intense • Active air masses
heating of ground –forceful
during summer upliftment of
afternoon warm moist air
• Equatorial regions • Localised and
• Die out if passes over short-lived
water body because
absence of supply of
heat

Orographic thunderstorm Question

Q. Which one of the following
• Warm moist air when weather conditions is indicated by a
sudden fall in barometer reading? UPSC
passes over mountain
barrier a) Stormy
• Forceful upliftment – b) Calm weather
latent heat of
condensation c) Cold and dry weather Prelims
• ‘Cloud burst’ d) Hot and sunny weather 2001
• In Cherrapunji during
monsoon Ans. A)
 Tornedo Distribution of tornedo in world
• It forms on land
• Higher wind speed
than tropical
cyclone
• But smaller than
tropical cyclone
• Intense LP system
• Exact mechanism
unknown

Water spout in tornado Distribution of tornedo in world

• Occur mostly in
• When tornado temperate regions
passes over a water (20 to 60 deg N,S)
body –water is • Where cold polar air
sucked up towards meets warm tropical
center of tornedo air
• Called water spout • USA, South-west of
great plain –
“tornado alley”
Polar vortex
• It is a large scale
cyclone that encircles
geographical poles of
the earth
• Span =1000 sqkm
• It develops at upper
troposphere or
stratosphere
Polar vortex Cold wave – polar vortex
• It originated during
winters due to sharp
temperature
differential created
between poles and
equator
• Development of Polar
night Jet streams
• Circular movement
Polar vortex
• Rossby waves can
disrupt the
circulation around
the polar vortex
• North moving warm
air masses and HP
systems
• Disruption in polar
vortex can push
part of its frigid air
pockets to
southward
• Produce ‘ cold
waves’
• Jan 2014 in USA
Polar vortex in USA 2014 Ozone depletion
Polar stratospheric clouds Ozone depletion
• Nacreous
cloud/mother of pearl
• Polar stratospheric
clouds formed in winter
during polar vortex.
• temperature below -80
degree – 12 -22 km
height
• Contains water, Nitric
acid and sulphuric acid
• Nitric acid in polar
stratospheric clouds
reacts with CFC -create
chlorine
• Chlorine concentration in
winter
• in summer -Chlorine
reacts with oxygen
molecule of ozone -
destruct the ozone
molecule
• Increased level of CFC
in atmosphere
• Winter - Polar vortex
more concentration of
chlorine
• Summer – more
destruction of Ozone
layer
 Ozone depletion Pressure gradient cells
• Polar vortex in northern Vertical: Hadley, Ferrell Horizontal: walker
hemi are weak and not
as cold as formed at
Antarctica
• Ozone depletion at Ferrel
cell
Arctic = ‘Ozone dent’
• ozone depletion more
at southern pole =
‘Ozone hole’

Ozone hole Walkar cell at south Pacific

❑Montreal Protocol, 1987 (1989)
❑Restriction over usage and release • There are
Protocol oscillation in
of CFC gases and HFCs
pressure gradient
❑197 countries ratified and air circulation
❑Most successful international after intervals of 2-
3 years in south
environmental treaty Pacific Ocean
❑In 2014 recovery of ozone layer • Called Southern
found Oscillation
• ENSO = EL Nino
Southern
Oscillation
 Normal year Normal year
• South equatorial • As south equatorial
West
Pacific current pile up water current take water
pool
LP HP at northern Australia from east to west, it
– increase SST – LP led water from
called West Pacific HP bottom to come up
Pool Down- and take the space
welling

• It brings rainfall in • Up-welling at the

Northern Australia Peruvian coast = rich
fishing ground

Normal year El-Nino year

• The diverging air • Direction of walker
above Australia cell reverses
LP HP move towards LP • South equatorial
HP
Peruvian coast current weakens
• They descend at (reason unknown)
Peruvian coast = HP • Weak piling up of
– desiccating effect water at Northern
to Atacama desert Australia
• Completes the • Weakening of west
Walker cell Pacific Pool
 El-Nino year Implications of El-Nino
• Ocean water move • El-Nino bring
towards Peruvian drought
coast. Create LP condition in
system over there and Indonesia as well
HP rainfall at Atacama
Australia
LP
Peru desert – forest fire
• The rising and • It is responsible
diverging wind above for weak
Peru descends over monsoon in India
Australia = HP
condition – drought in
Northern Australia

El-Nino year Implications of El-Nino on Indian Monsoon

• The reversal in LP • Association of El-
wind direction Nino or Western
alters submarine Pacific Pool with
Down- Upwelling cycle as well LP Indian Monsoon
• There can be other
welling
• Down-welling at HP
Western pacific
Peruvian coast => Mascarene High Pool atmospheric cells
loss in fishing associated with
business Western Pacific
Down-
Upwelling welling pool
• Still undiscovered
 Global Implications of El-Nino ❑Thunderstorm
❑With global warming there will be ❑Tornado
increasing number of El-Nino events ❑EL-Nino
❑It is a global phenomenon. Though ❑La-Nina
happening in limited area, it may have wider
implication over the globe ❑implications

La-Nina Climatic regions of the world

• Intensification of walker
cell
• Strong west pacific pool
• Heavy rainfall – flood
condition in Northern
Australia – good
monsoon in India
• Drought in Atacama
• Very good fishing
business at Peruvian
coast – price crash
 Climatic regions of the world Equatorial climate
1) Equatorial region 7) Mediterranean • 5-10 degree latitude
2) Tropical monsoon climate • Same season (weather)
3) Savannah 8) China type throughout the year
4) Steppe 9) British type • Direct sunlight – heat
5) Hot desert 10) Laurentian type surplus – LP condition
11) Taiga every day – rising of
6) Continental deserts moist air – advection
12) Tundra rain every evening
• Hot-wet climate

Equatorial regions in the world Equatorial climate

• Dense forest –
rainforest –lungs of the
earth
• High biodiversity
• Tall trees (Abony,
Rosewood, mahogany,
rubber) – epiphytes
• But not good for
lumbering – hardwood
– high diversity –
loading-unloading very
difficult
 Equatorial climate Question
Q. Which of the following is/are
• Amazon rainforest is characteristics of equatorial forests?
being cleared for rubber UPSC
plantation, oil exploration 1. Presence of tall, closely set trees
• Yasuni national park in with crowns forming continuous
Ecuador– cleared for oil canopy
extraction – biodiversity
is more than entire north 2. Co-existence of a large number of
America - 2 un-contacted species Prelims
tribes 2013
• Rainforest of Indonesia- 3. Presence of numerous variety of
cleared for oil-palm epiphytes
cultivation

Equatorial climate Question

a) 1 only
• Equatorial climate Country Primitive b) 2 an 3 UPSC
• not good for habitation tribe c) 1 and 3
hot and moist climate Congo Pigmy d) 1,2 and 3
• High incidents of
malaria and diseases Malaysia Semang,
Orang Asli Ans.d) Prelims
Philippines Orang Akita 2013

Borneo Dayaks
 Tropical desert Tropical desert
• Sub-tropical HP belt • Arid-dry climate, scanty
• Off-shore trade rainfall, water deficit
winds – by the time • Vegetation – Xerophytic
STHP STHP
rain bearing wind • Low population –
reach from east to Maghreb region – high
STHP STHP
west – they become poverty
dry –so no rain on • Tauregs of Sahara,
western coast in Beduins of Arabia
Northern hemisphere Hottentots of Kalahari
and southern desert
hemisphere

Tropical desert Continental desert

• desiccating • Interior of large
effect of cold land
oceanic • Rainfall bearing
current on winds cannot
western reach there
coast of • Leeward side of
continents the mountain
• Aridity (but no sand
dunes)
• High annual temp
range
 Continental deserts Tropical grassland
China South America • It is also called
savannah, the
ALTUN
SHAN
“park land
TIEN ANDES topography” or
SHAN Range
“big game
country”
• Located between
rain forest and
hot desert

Deserts to locate Tropical Grasslands

• Negev Desert • Dast-e-kavir Llanos, Campos – S.Ame Savannah -Africa
• Kalahari Desert • Dast-e-lut
• Namib Desert • Nubian Desert
• Atacama Desert • Patagonian Desert
• Takla Makan • Great Sandy Desert
• Rub –al-Khali • Simpson Desert
• Great Victorian Desert
Tropical grassland Tropical Grasslands
• Moderate rainfall – • Tribes = Masai
clear dry-wet season tribe (kenya) –
• Tall grass ‘elephant Pastoralist
grass’, scanty large • Hausa and Aibo
trees, grass-fire in tribes of Nigeria
dry season – way of
controlling trees
• Large carnivorous
animals

Tropical grassland Question

Q. Which one of the following
• Acacia tress with characteristics of climate of Tropical
broad trunks – Savannah region? UPSC
baoab trees and
bottle trees a) Rainfall throughout the year
• To store water b) Rainfall in winter only
• Grass – long roots, c) An extremely short dry season
remain dormant in Prelims
dry period d) A definite dry and wet season 2012
• Australia – Mallee,
Mulga, Spinifex Ans. D)
grasses
Temperate grasslands Truck-farming
Continents Names • Temperate grasslands
North Prairies entirely converted into
America agriculture.
South Pampas • Prairies: Truck-farming
America – large acres of
Central Asia Steppe farmlands – extensive
South Veldt use of machinery-
Africa • High productivity per
Australia Downs person

Temperate grasslands Prairies, North America

• Cooler and wetter than • Wheat, cotton and

Savannah Maize cultivation
• Under westerlies • USA:
• Perfect grassland – no • Prairies: maize is fed to
trees animals – fattening –
slaughter house near
• Grass is very nutritious great lake region
 Steppe, Asia Downs, Australia
• Pustaz in hungary • Australia: sheep
• Wheat bowl of rearing, meat
the world • New Zealand:
• ‘Black Earth’ • Canterbury plains
• Sugar from sugar • Sheep rearing
DOWNS
beet

Pampas, South America Veldt, Africa

• Livestock ranching Limpopo
• Veldt (Dutch word) =
• Alfalfa nutrious grass river field
• Argentina –wheat • Basins of Orange river
exports and river Limpopo –
sheep rearing, agora
• Buenos Aires and Orange
river goat
Montevideo -
• Wool production
• Meat and dairy
exports
Tropical Monsoon
• India, Thailand,
Cambodia,
Myanmar, Laos,
Vietnam, Northern
ITCZ
tip off Australia
• Eastern Brazil
• Gulf of Guinea coast
and around horn of ITCZ
Africa in Africa
Tropical Monsoon
• On shore trade wind
seasonal reversal of
winds
• During summer, sun
move northward
• With sun, LP ITCZ also
move
• Thus, entire wind
system shift
northward
Tropical Monsoon
• The region which was
under northern trade
winds, come under
southern trade winds
• Northern trade winds
blow north to south, while
southern trade winds
blow south to north
• it seems reversal of winds
in the region
Tropical Monsoon
• Distinct wet and dry
season – rainfall in
confined to 4 months
– vulnerable to
drought and flood
• Similar to savannah
but wetter than
savannah
Tropical Monsoon Tropical Monsoon
• Tropical deciduous • Shifting cultivation/
slash and burn
forest – distinct cultivation/ Jhum
autumn season – cultivation
shedding of trees • forests are cut, burnt and
cultivated.
• Trees: Indian • When soil fertility began
subcontinent – Sal, to decline, the land is
Teak (Myanmar abandoned, and a new
patch of forest is burnt.
Teak) • By the time abandoned
• Hardwood land regenerated for
several years until the
next round of cultivation.

Tropical Monsoon Jhum cultivation

• Intensive agriculture, against favour
subsistence farming
• High population ❑Deforestation ▪Jhum uses natural cycle
❑ higher run-off of rain of forest regeneration (6-
density, small land 10 years)
holding water in hilly areas -Water
scarcity during non-rainy ▪Cause temporary loss of
• High productivity per forest patches
acre – per person low days
❑ loss of biodiversity ▪No use chemical
• Crops: rice, sugarcane, fertilizers or pesticides +
jute, cotton, indigo, diversified crops
spices
 Jhum cultivation
❑the dry the cut trees are dried under the sun-
burn the trees – ashes of the burnt trees
(Potash) replenish the soil nutrients
❑The regenerating forest provides forest produce
to the people
❑Settled agriculture- monoculture plantation of
pineapple, rubber and oil palm – cause
permanent loss of forest
❑Once monoculture adopted with chemical
inputs, the same land cannot be converted into
natural forest
Insolation –terrestrial radiation
❑Earth receive energy from the sun, so
temperature should increase away from the
earth surface.
❑But If we go to top of the mountain, it gets
cooler
❑Earth gets heated not because of short
wave solar radiation but long wave terrestrial
radiation
❑Environmental lapse rate = 6.5 degree/km

Different names of shifting cultivation Heat budget

Country Term for shifting • The average
cultivation temperature of the
earth 15 degree
Malaysia Ladang • Earth maintains influx
Myanmar Taungya and out-flux of the
Thailand Tamrai energy, but out-flux is
Philippines Caingin not immediate, it has
Java Humah long time gap. That is
Shri Lanka Chena why, the temperature is
maintained.
Africa Milpa
Heat budget - Incoming Albedo

• First 35% • Ratio between the total

absorbed by solar radiation falling
Ozone layer upon a surface and the
amount reflected
• Then 15% by
cloud cover • Represents as %
• Only 50% energy • Earth’s avg. Albedo =
reached to the 35%
earth surface • Lowest- dark soil
• highest - snowfall

Heat budget - outgoing Albedo - table

• 20% is lost in latent surface Albedo
heat of evaporation
10% lost in sensible Fresh snow 80%-90%
heat (temperature of
the body) Desert 35-45%
• 15% absorbed by
GHGs Grasses 26%
• Remaining 5% was Crops 15%
released in the
space Brick - concrete 10-20%
 Question
Q. Which one of the following reflect
back more sunlight as compared to
other three? UPSC
a) sandy desert
b) Paddy crops
c) Land covered with fresh snow
d) Prairie land Prelims
2010
Ans. A) Climatic Regions of the world

Climatic regions of the world

1) Equatorial region 7) Mediterranean
2) Hot desert climate
3) Continental deserts 8) China type
Climatology 4) Tropical grasslands 9) British type
Indian geography 5) Temperate 10) Laurentian type
grasslands 11) Taiga
6) Tropical monsoon 12) Tundra
1st Equatorial regions in the world Tropical Deserts
2nd Off-Shore
Trade winds

Effect of Cold
currents

Equatorial Regions Tropical desert

climate Vegetation climate vegetation
 Continental Desert Tropical grasslands
China South America 3th
3th
Rain-shadow
Continentality
region

Continental deserts Tropical grasslands

climate Vegetation South America Savannah in Africa

❑Extreme weather
❑Hot summer- cold winter Sahara
Equatorial Desert
❑High annual temperature Rainforest

range Savannah
Equatorial
Rainforest

Savannah
 Tropical grasslands Temperate grasslands
Climate Vegetation Prairies of North America Pampas of S. Ame

❑Distinct hot and dry 5th

weather
❑Summer rainfall

Mississippi
-Missouri
Basin Parana-
Paraguay
Basin

Tropical grasslands Temperate grasslands

Savanna tress Baoab trees Steppe of Central Asia Veldt of Africa
 Temperate grasslands Temperate Grasslands
Downs of Australia Climate Agriculture Economy

▪Cool and wet ▪Animal husbandry

▪Under westerlies ▪Dairy- meat production
▪Wheat production
Murray- ▪Truck-farming
Darling
Basin
DOWNS

Temperate grasslands Tropical Monsoon

Grass vegetation 6th
 Tropical Monsoon Warm temperate Western margin

climate Vegetation
Warm temperate Eastern margin

Cool temperate Western margin

Cool temperate Eastern margin

Taiga

Tundra

Tropical Monsoon: economy Warm temperate western margin

Intensive agriculture Shifting cultivation 7th • Mediterranean
climate
• Area around
Mediterranean
Sea
• California, USA
• Central Chile,
South America
• Southern tip of
South Africa
• South Australia
Mediterranean climate Movement of Jet streams
• Shifting wind belt
• In summer –
apparent movement
of the sun towards
north – region
comes under
influence of off-
shore North trade
winds => no rain
• Distinct dry season

Mediterranean climate Mediterranean climate

• In winters – apparent • Winter – cyclonic rain
movement of the sun STWJ in Atlantic -> these
towards south – region STWJ
cyclones are carried by
comes under influence STWJ to Northern India
of westerlies => rainfall in winter – western
• Winter rainfall disturbances in
northern India during
winter
 Mediterranean climate Different names of medi. vegetation
• Shrubs and bushes country Name of
with scattered vegetation
stunted trees Southern Maquis
• The natural grass is
so wiry and bunchy – France
not suitable for cattle Italy Macchia
rearing =>
Mediterranean region California Chaparral
net importer of dairy
products Australia Mallee scrub

Mediterranean vegetation Agriculture in Mediterranean

• Trees without • Not suitable for
shed, stunted agriculture – but
massive trunks, cultivation using
wide spread roots irrigation network
– because winter • Wheat and barley
rain – growth grown
limited to autumn
• Chief cooking oil –
and spring when
olives
moisture content is
sufficient
 Mediterranean agriculture
• Citrus fruit plantation –
World’s orchard lands –
fruit trees – long deep
root, to survive during
dry summer
• oranges, grapes, lemon
• California – Sunkist
oranges
• Negev desert of Israel –
Jaffa oranges
• Spain – Seville oranges
Mediterranean in Europe
• Viticulture:
• Ebro basin in Spain
• Po valley in Italy
• Rhone basin in France
• Sicily Island of Italy
• Algeria in Africa:
exports wine

viticulture Mediterranean in USA

Country Name of wine • California state of USA
Southern Spain sherry • San Francisco, Los
Angeles, San Diego
Portugal Port wine
• Fruit plantation –
Italy Chianti and oranges, grapes, Olives
Marsala • California – high
France Champagne, productivity
Bordeaux,
Burgundy
Mediterranean in South America Mediterranean in South Africa
• Central Chile • Imp Cities:
• Cities: Santiago (cap. • Cape town, Port
Of Chile) Elizabeth
• Valparaiso • Fruit plantation
• Wine manufacturing

Mediterranean in Australia Warm temperate eastern margin

• Southern tip of 8th
Australia
• Cities: Perth and
Adelaide
• Fruit plantation
 Warm temperate eastern margin China type
China type Gulf type Natal type • In winter -> north-west
monsoon
Central and north S E USA Natal, South Africa
• Siberian plateau – HP
china Yellow anticyclone, cold air
sea
flow outwards as North
West monsoon- snow
Southern Japan (gulf of Mexico) Eastern Australia fall and rain on
windward side of the
Southern Brazil mountains

China Type China Type

• Similar to tropical • Rainfall is also due
monsoon to local storms –
• But Rainfall throughout typhoons (China) in
the year late summers
• summer –intense • More rainfall than
heating of central Asia Mediterranean
• south east monsoon climate though
being on the same
latitude
Gulf Type Gulf type
• Less annual Late Summer-Hurricanes Winter- temperate cyclone
temperature range
– warm due to gulf
stream (ocean
current) and on-
shore trade winds
• Imp cities: New
Orleans, Atlanta

Gulf type Natal Type

• No distinct dry season • Narrow land,
• Rainfall maximum in dominance of maritime
summer-mT unstable climate
air mass - • South east trade winds
thunderstorms bring even distribution
of rainfall throughout
the year
• Imp City: Durban
 vegetation Agriculture in gulf type
• High rainfall, • Best suited for
warm temp, long cotton cultivation
growing season • Long growing
• Evergreen season, frost free
vegetation – days, bright sunlight,
broadleaved high rainfall
forest – grass, • Tobacco cultivation
ferns, bamboos,
• Famous Virginia
palms
tobacco

Agriculture in China type Economic activities in China type

• Intensive Country Economic activity
agriculture
China Rice, tea, cotton, maize,
• Rice cultivation – mulberry
largest rice
production
Natal Sugarcane
• Sericulture
South America Coffee and maize
• Yangtze, Si-kiang
river basins USA Maize region – cotton – tobacco
(Virginia tobacco)
 cool temperate western margin British type
9th • British type • Rainfall from
• Britain, Northern westerlies
France, Northern • western coast
Germany, Norway receive the
most – rainfall
• Western Canada – decreas
Vancouver Island towards interior
• Tasmania, New • Temperate
Zealand cyclones –
rainfall in
• Southern Chile winters
• Not in Africa

British type British type

• Best climate for
human habitation • Tall trees with good
• Warm current canopy cover
moderate climate –
North Atlantic drift, • soft wood
Alaskan current • trees in pure stand
• Moderate climate – • Oak, elm, birch
warm summer, cool
winters
• Low annual
temperature range
British type Cool temperate Eastern margin
• Lumbering in Canada • Laurentian Type
10th
– Vancouver city • Transition between
British and Siberian
• Systematic climate
lumbering • Laurentian plateau,
• Winter cutting – Labrador plateau –
Quebec state
wood logs float in
the rivers to • New England region of
USA
industries
• China Manchurian
• Wood furniture and part, South east part
paper making of Russia, Northern
Japan

British type Laurentian type

• Not in southern
• Agriculture – hemisphere-
market gardening because hardly any
=> cultivation of land beyond 40
fruits and degree latitude
vegetables
• South America –
• Tasmania (Aus.) – Andes block the
apple farming westerlies – oceanic
influence
Laurentian climate, N. America Climate of Japan
• Rainfall throughout • Rainfall from south
the year east monsoon in
• Summer - Westerlies summer
bring rain due to Sea of
• north west monsoon
moisture content of Japan

Great lakes in winter – dry wind

from Siberia –
• Winter - Gulf stream
increases moisture become moist from
content of polar east china sea
easterly wind from • Maritime influence
Atlantic

Laurentian type, China Laurentian type

• In china – summer max • Coniferous forest –
• summer – intense lumbering – Oak,
heating of land – birch, beech, maple
rainfall - wind from • Agriculture:
pacific Potatoes, oats,
• Winter – anti-cyclonic barley, soya beans
condition in the heart
of Asia – cold wind • Nova scotia
blows out – snow fall in (Canada)– apple
mountainous area farming
 Laurentian type Taiga
• Temperate regions – • Rainfall throughout
fish in large shoals the year
• Cod, mackerel, tuna, • Temperate cyclones
salmon • Evergreen coniferous
• Economically forest ( Juniper,
profitable Spruce, Birch)– soft
• Mechanised wood in pure strands
sophisticated fishing
• St.John’s port in
Newfoundland –
grand banks

Taiga Taiga
11th • Not in southern • Fur bearing animals –
hemisphere warm blooded –
• Siberia in Russia, muskrat, mink, silver
Northern Canada, fox
Scandinavia
• Very cold winter,
warm summer • Taiga: limited economic
• Blizzard in Canada, prospects
Buran in Siberia • Hard weather
• Very high annual
temperature range
 Tundra Question
Q. Consider the following statements:
12th • Arctic or polar climate 1. In equatorial regions, the year is
UPSC
• Northern Canada and divided into four main seasons
Northern Russia 2. In Mediterranean region, summer
• Periglacial climate month receives more rain
• Freezing winter, 3. In china type climate, rainfall occurs
thawing in summer throughout the year Prelims
• Summer short and cool 2002
4. Tropical high lands exhibit vertical
• Mosses, linchens zonation of different climate
(algae and fungi) –
ephemeral flowering
plants

Tundra Question
Which of these statements are
• Aborigines: correct?
UPSC
• Canada – Inuits, a) 1,2,3 and 4
Aleutians b) 1,2 and 3
• Russia – Chukchi, c) 1,2 and 4
Buriyat (baikal)
d) 3 and 4 Prelims
• Norway- Finland –
Lapps 2002
• Nomadic herders Ans. D)
 Vertical zonation in highlands
• With increasing height
– decrease in moisture
• Soil layer becomes
thinner Indian Geography
• Changes in vegetation
pattern Physical geo of India

Question
Q. Consider the ecosystems:
1. Taiga UPSC Geological history of India
2. Tropical evergreen
3. Tropical deciduous Physiography of India
4. Tundra Indian weather: seasons
The correct sequence in decreasing Prelims
order of albedo values of these 2002 Climatic regions of India
ecosystem is:
Soils of India
 Geological history of India Pre-Cambrian era
• Pre-Cambrian era • 3 lineaments
• India part of 1) Narmada
Gondwana land 2) Son
3) Godawari
Remmenants:
Aravalli R, Dharwad plt,
Singhbhum plt

Pre-Cambrian era Pre-Cambrian era

• Indian Peninsular plate Geosynclines at margins
=Oldest crustal block of Proto-continents:
of India 1) Aravalli
Aravalli • Collision between 3 2) Vindhyan
Singhbhum
proto continents
3) Satpura
Dhrawad 1) Aravalli
4) Eastern Ghats
2) Dharwad
5) Bijawal
3) Singhbhum
Gondwana times Mesozoic time
• Reactivation of • 150 ml yrs ago
Narmada – Son- Indian plate broke
Godawari lineament from Gondwana
• Rifting of Mahanadi land
and Damodar valley • Started northward
journey
• Submergence of forest-
Development of • 15 ml yrs ago India
coalfields broke from
Madagascar

Gondwana times Late Cretaceous

• Faulting along • India move over
western edge of Reunion Islands
peninsular • Hotspot volcanism
plateau
• Deccan lava plateau
• Narrowing of Tethys sea
 Tertiary time Tertiary time
• Collision between 1 • 3 phases of formation
Indian plate and 2
of Himalayas:
3
Eurasian plate 1) Great Himalayas
• Upliftment of (Oligo-Eocene)
Himalayas 2) Mid-Himalayas
(Miocene)
3) Outer-Himalayas
(Pleistocene)

Tertiary Time Tertiary time

• The jerk – activation of • Late
crack created at Pleistocene –
western margin of formation of
peninsula
Northern
Slope: South • Breaking of western plains
part – subsidence –
eastern

peninsula raised at • Sediments

western side from
• Tilted on west-east Himalayan
direction rivers
• Western ghats = horst
 Northern mountain complex
Trans- 1) Himalayas (Nanga
Himalayas
parbat to Namcha
barwa)
Indian Geography Purvanchal
2) Trans-Himalayas (
Karakoram, Ladakh
Physical geo of India and Zaskar)
3) Purvanchal

Physiography of India Northern mountain complex

Northern mountains Trans- 1) Himalayas (Nanga

Himalayas
parbat to Namcha
barwa)
Northern plains 2) Trans-Himalayas (
Purvanchal Karakoram, Ladakh
and Zaskar)
Peninsular plateau 3) Purvanchal

Coastal plains
 The Himalayas Phases of formation of Himalayas
Upliftment of Great
• C-C plate collision Himalayas
Upliftment of mid-Him
• Fold mt., tertiary
young mt.,
sedimentary rocks
of marine origin
• Not a single range
but series of chain
of mountains

Phases of formation of Himalayas Phases of formation of Himalayas

Dras-kohistan islands Karakoram ranges Upliftment of Shiwaliks Still rising
North south division of Himalayas Middle Himalayas
1 1) Great Himalayas 1 • Mid/lesser-Him
2
(Himadri) 2 (Himachal)–
3 3
4 5 discontinuities –
2) Middle/ lesser 6

Himalayas 1) Pir Panjal

(Himachal) 2) Dhauladhar
3) Shiwaliks (Outer 3) Nag tibba
Himalayas) 4) Masoorie
5) Kumaon hills
6) Mahabharat (Nepal)

Great Himalayas Shiwaliks

• Highest and most • Upliftment of foothills
continuous mountain of Himalayas
range of the world • Fluvial in origin –
• Crystalline rocks alluvial fans, coarse
• Mount Everest, deposits brought by
Kanchenjunga, Makalu, Himalayan rivers
Dhaulagiri, Mansalu, • Closer to great Him in
Annapurna Nepal – disappear after
• Nanda devi, Kamet, river Gandak
Gurla Mandhata
Structure of Himalayas Antecedent rivers
1) Aravalli and Assam hills • Don’t as a water divide
– strong push. – river cut across –
• Middle peninsula – antecedent rivers
sagged- convex shape of • Indus, Satluj,
Himalayas Brahmaputra, Kosi
2) Sharply bent towards • Rate of erosion of
southward - sudden end
rivers are higher than
• Western bend near Nanga rate of upliftment of
parbat and eastern near Himalayas
Namcha Barwa
• Called syntaxial bend

Structure of Himalayas Erosion process of rivers

• Great Himalayas and antecedent Superimposed rivers
Shiwaliks hog-back
structure
• Gentle sloping northern
face – southern face
steep slope
• Northern side rest
against Tibetan plt
• Snow accumulation on
southern side
Western and eastern Himalayas
• Indian plate first collide
at its north-western
part to Eurasian plate
• Eastern part still not
collided
Western and eastern Himalayas Western and eastern Himalayas
• Indian plate then rotate
clockwise – NW part as
hinge
• collision of eastern
edge
• Both the portion is now
attached to Eurasian
plate
Western and eastern Himalayas
• Indian plate again
rotate anti-clockwise
• Now NE part as hinge
• Western part get away
from the Eurasian plate
partially
• Western portion moves
southward
• NW edge released
• Western Himalayas
spread out
• Western Himalayas
broaden
• That’s why, shiwaliks
gets closer to Great
Himalayas in Eastern
part than in western
part
 Western and Eastern Himalayas Nepal Himalayas Himalayas
Western Western Himalayas: Western
him
him

Eastern him
From Indus to Kali river Eastern him Dhaulagiri
Annapurna
Mansalu

Eastern Himalayas: Everest Makalu

From Kali river to

Brahmaputra river
Kanchenjunga

Difference between W and E Himalayas West and East Himalayas

Western Himalayas Eastern Himalayas

❑Great Him, Middle ▪Great Himalayas +

Himalayas (Dhualadhar, ▪Middle Himalayas : Nepal Abor

Pirpanjal, Kumaon, Him (Dudwa, Muree, Miri

Massoorie range) Churia) NE Him (Dafla,
Miri, Abor, Mishmi) Dafla
Kanchenjunga
 Difference between W and E Himalayas Question
b) Eastern Himalayas are nearer to
Western Himalayas Eastern Himalayas equator and sea than Western
Himalayas UPSC
❑Lower and gradual slope ▪Higher and steep-sudden c) Eastern Himalayas get more
❑Peaks= k2, Godwin slope
Austin, Gasherbrum, ▪Peaks= Everest, Makalu,
rainfall than western Himalayas
Masherbrum Annapurna, Dhaulagiri d) Eastern Himalayan rocks are more
Prelims
❑Located on higher latitude ▪Located on lower latitude – fertile than western Himalayas
–colder warmer 2010
❑Don’t act as barrier for ▪Active barrier of south west
north-west monsoon -drier monsoon winds -wetter Ans. C)

Question East-West division of Himalayas

Q. The alpine vegetation in western
Himalayas is found only upto a height
of 3000m while in Eastern Himlayas UPSC
it is found upto a height of 4000m.
The reason for this variation in same Kashmir Kumaon Nepal Sikkim Assam
mountain range is that: Him- PN Him him Him Him
Prelims (Indus - (Satluj - (Kali - (Kosi - (Teesta -
1995 Satluj) Kali) Kosi) Teesta) Dihang)
a) Eastern Himalayas are higher than
western Himalayas
 Kashmir-PN Himlayas Nepal Himalayas
• Karakoram, Ladakh, • Tallest section of
Zasakar, Pir panjal, Himalayas
Dhaulagiri
Dhaula dhar Annapurna • Great Himalayas –
• Zozila pass btwn peaks –Dhaulagiri,
Zozila pass Mansalu
Everest Makalu
Kashmir and Ladakh Annapurna,
• Valleys, duns, lakes Mansalu, Everest,
Makalu
Kanchenjunga

Kosi river
• Kathmandu valley

Kumaon Himalayas Sikkim Himalayas

• West – Garhwal • Peak: Kanchenjunga
Himalayas
• Teesta originate near
• East –Kumaon Kanchenjunga Kanchenjunga
Himalayas
• Nandadevi, Kamet, • Jelep la pass- tri-
Badrinath, Kedarnath, junction of India- China-
Gangotri Bhutan
• Source of Ganga,
Jelep la
pass
Yamuna
• Nainital and Bhimtal -
lakes
 Assam Himalayas “Duns” formation
• Himalayas –narrower • When river initially
blocked by rising
• Lesser Himalayas close
mt.
to great Himalayas
• it spreads out –
Abor
Diphu
• Peaks: Namcha Barwa,
Miri
pass
form lake
Kula Kangri lake
river

Dafla • Bengal ‘Duars’

• Diphu pass- tri-junction
of India- China-
Myanmar

Question “Duns” formation

Q. Nanda devi peak forms part of:
a) Assam Himalayas • Lakes dry out when
UPSC
b) Kumaon Himlayas river find weak
rocks to cut across
c) Nepal Himalayas the mt.
d) Punjab Himalayas • Dry lakes = ‘Duns’
Prelims lake
river • Between great and
Ans. B) 2003 mid-Him
• Dehradun btw
Nandadevi - Uttarakhand Shiwaliks and
masoorie range
 Karewas Importance of Himalayas
• Flat-topped ❑Forest wealth – great Himalayan NP –
terraces of Kashmir unique Bio diversity
valley on flanks of ❑Minerals – coal (Anthracite) at kalakot,
Pir Panjal
Nickel, Copper, lead, zinc, gold, silver
• made up of clay,
sands from old ❑Most of them cannot be exploited due to
deltaic fans adverse geo conditions
• Fertile land

Importance of Himalayas Question

❑Prevents cold Siberian wind to enter into
India
❑No Himalayas –No Tibet – No rainfall- India
would have been desert
❑Himalayas split STWJ into 2 branches –
winter rain
❑Source of perennial rivers – great fertile
plain
Q. If there were no Himalayan range,
what would have been the most
likely geographical impact on India? UPSC
1. Much of the country would
experience the cold wave from
Siberia
2. Indo-Gangetic plain would be Prelims
devoid of such extensive alluvial 2010
soils
 Question Question
3. The pattern of monsoon would be a) 1 and 2
different from what it is at present. b) 1,2 and 4
UPSC UPSC
Which among the above is/are c) 3 and 4
correct? d) 1,2,3 and 4
a) 1 only
b) 1 and 3 Prelims Ans. D) Prelims
c) 2 and 3 2010 2012
d) 1,2,3
Ans. D)

Q. When you travel in Himalayas, you Question Trans-Himalayas

will see following:
UPSC • Immediately north of
1. Deep gorges 1
Great Himalayas
2. U-turn river courses 2 • Most of them lie in
3. Parallel mountain ranges 3 Tibet
4. Steep-gradient causing land- 1) Karakoram
slides Prelims 4
2) Ladakh
Which of the above can be said to be 2012
3) Zaskar
evidence for Himalayas being young
fold mountains? 4) Kailash
• Avg. elevation
3000m
 Ranges and peaks Trans-Himalayas
Karakoram Ladakh Kailash Zaskar • Deosai mt. part of
ladakh range
• Origin of Suru river
K2 Rakapokshi Kailash Nanga Deosai
(tri.of Indus)
• Kailash range is
Shyok
mountains
Parbat Suru
river

off-shoot of Ladakh
river Ladakh
Gasherbrum range range
• Indus river passes
Indus
river
between Ladakh
and Zaskar range

Trans-Himalayas Purvanchal
• Karakoram is home of • Eastern Himalayas
the greatest glaciers of • Same orogeny that of
world outside polar Himalayas
regions
• Patkaibum, Naga hills,
• Siachin, Baltoro, Biafo, Manipuri hills, Mizo
Hispar- Glaciers hills
• Watershed btwn India • Elevation decrease
and Turkmenistan from north to south
 Purvanchal Physiography of India
Mt. details Northern mountains
Patkai Border between Arunachal Pradesh and
bum Myanmar
Naga hills Highest peak – mt. sharamati
Northern plains
Form water shed between India and Myanmar
Peninsular plateau
Manipuri Border between Manipur and Myanmar
hills Source of R.Manipuri(tri.Chindwin, Myanmar)
Coastal plains
Mizo hills Highest peak – blue mt.

Purvanchal Northern plains

• Extension of • Youngest physiographic
Purvanchal feature in India
continues in • Depositional flood plain
1 2

Purvanchal
Myanmar as 3
created by Himalayan
Arakan yoma Arakan yome – rivers
then Andaman
1) Indus
Andaman and and Nicobar
Nicobar
Islands 2) Ganga-Yamuna
3) Brahmaputra
 Northern Plains N-S division of N.Plains
• One of the largest, • Bhabhar = alluvial fans
continuous and of Himalayan rivers –
extensive plains coarse depo – large
• Fertile plain- flat boulders
topography -historically
settled –dense • High porosity and
population permeability
• 30% of the world’s • Rivers disappear
population on 10% of • Not good for cultivation
world’s agro-land

NS division of Northern plains N-S division of N.Plains

Bhabhar • Terai:
• Bad drainage
Terai • Rivers re-appears –
swamps, marshy
• Naturally sal forest
Bangar
• Terai of Bengal and
Bihar more
Khadar developed
N-S division of N.Plains Flood plain of a river Bangar and Khadar
• Bangar:
• old flood plains of
rivers - Dry land
river
• Colcareous concretion - Old Flood plain Old Flood plain
Kankar New Flood plain Old New
Flood
Flood
plain plain

N-S division of N.Plains Northern Plains

• Khadar – new flood • East-West division
plains – fresh river 2
of plain
deposition 1) RJ plains
1
• Slope btw Bangar 3 4
(Indus)
and Khadar: 2) PN plains
• PN- ‘Dhayas’, UP- (Indus)
‘Khol’, Bengal – 3) Gangetic plains
‘Bhils’, Bihar –’Taal’
4) Assam plains
(Brahmaputra)
 RJ Plains RJ Plains
• West of Aravalli SW plains: marine origin
Gangasagar • North: Gangasagar Gangasagar • While north movement-
region
region region
Indian plate’s western
• Extension of PN plains Thar margin – marine
Thar
desert of Indus desert
transgression – marine
• West of Aravalli: depo. – oil and gas
Rajasthan Bagar reserve – salt lakes
• Drained by river Luni SW plains
• Extend to Kutchh
• Luni merged into Rann
of Kutchh

RJ Plains Deserts in RJ
• Rajasthan Bagar: • Tropical desert
fluvial grasslands –RJ • Off-shore trade winds +
steppe local reason – Aravalli
Thar • Very fertile –Rohi tracts parallel to SW monsoon
desert
• Western most RJ- – no orographic rain
marusthali/ Thar • Soil is fertile – but
desert– sand dunes moisture deficiency –
“Dhrians” cultivable if relclaimed
 Punjab Plains Gangetic Plains
• Fluvial plains –Ravi, Upper ganga
Beas and Sutlej (tri. Of plains
Indus) • From Yamuna
• Khadar plains: fertile to Ghaghara
but limitations plains
1) Aridity • Rohilkhand
2) Basin topography plain
(bad drainage) - • Sandy deposits
salination

Gangetic Plains Gangetic Plains

1
• Divisions: middle ganga
1) Upper Gangetic plains
2
plains • Kosi plain
2) Middle Gangetic • Called Magadh /
plains Awadh /Anga
3) Lower Gangetic plain
3
plains • Flood-prone,
shifting of river
course of Kosi
 Gangetic Plains Assam plains
• Streams from north –
Lower ganga plains swift flowing – form
Manas
• Ganga enters WB
Subansiri
alluvial fans
• Sundarban delta 1) Manas
2) Subansiri,
• Lowland-almost sea Naga

level Garo Khasi

Jaintia Barail
hills • Streams from south
range plt. –smooth flowing-
• Sagar Island 3) Dibang
• Lothian Is. (N.P) 4) Lohit
• Bengal tigers 5) Dhansiri
6) Kapilli

Assam Plains ❑Geological history of India

• Brahmaputra largest ❑Physiographical regions of India
river of India (volume) ❑Northern mountains
• Origin Mansarovar
Kailash mt.
lake- enters as ❑Northern plains
Dihang in Arunachal
Pradesh
• River course narrow-
numerous stream
flow -flood prone
 3 proto-continents Rift valley

Indian Geography
Aravalli
Physical geography of India Singhbhum

Dhrawad

Geological history of India Crack over western coast Break up from Gondawana

Physiography of India

Indian weather: seasons

Climatic regions of India

Soils of India
 Indian peninsular plateau
Western Ghats Northern Plains • Pre-Cambrian old 1) N-C highlands
region 2) S-C highlands
• 8 divisions: 3) Eastern plateau
4) North Deccan
Slope: South
eastern
5) South Deccan
6) Western Ghats
7) Eastern Ghats
8) Meghalaya uplands

Physiography of India Indian peninsular plateau

1) N-C highlands
Northern mountains 2) S-C highlands
3) Eastern plateau
Northern plains 4) North Deccan
5) South Deccan
Peninsular plateau 6) Western Ghats
7) Eastern Ghats
8) Meghalaya uplands
Coastal plains
 N-C highlands Bundelkhand
1) Aravalli • Granite, gneissic rocks
2) Mahabharat • Drought-prone – low
2 Uplands agro-productivity
3
3) Madhya Bharat • Jhansi, Gwalior,
1 4
Pathar Hamirpur
4) Bundelkhand

Aravalli range S-C highlands

• One of the oldest mt 1) Vindhyan range
range 2) Malawa plateau
• Sedimentary, 2
3) Narmada valley
metamorphosed rocks 1

– marble, quartzite 3
• From Palanpur to Delhi
ridge
• Source of Sabarmati,
Luni and Banas (tri.
Chmbal)
Vindhyan range Malawa plateau
• From GJ to Bihar • Located btwn
Arvalli and
• Rifting- southern slope Vindhyan range
steeper than northern
• Semi arid region
slope
• Faulty agro-
practice- high soil
erosion – gully
erosion- ‘Chambal
badlands’
• Historically known
as Khandesh

Vindhyan range Eastern plateau

• Source of many 1) Baghelkhand
north flowing 2) Garhjat hills,
rivers
3) Rajmahal hills,
• Chmabal, Sindh,
3 4) Mahanadi basin,
Betwa and Ken 1 6
2
5) Dandkarnya
(tributaries of 4
5
Yamuna) 6) Chotanagpur plateau
• Water divide of
central India
Chhota Nagpur plateau Chhota Nagpur plateau
• Craton of Singhbhum – • Radial drainage
Hazaribaug metallic mineral rich
1) North koel, (tri. Of
• Rifting along Damodar
plt
Son),
valley – 2 parts
N. – Hazaribaug Plateau 2) Damodar,
Subarnarekha Barakar
S. – Ranchi plateau river
North koel
3) Subarnrekha
Ranchi plt Damodar and Mahanadi river

Rifting – coal formation

Chhota Nagpur
plateau 4) South koel rivers
(tri. Of Brahmani)
Unique coal + iron
combination

Chhota Nagpur plateau Meghalaya Plateau

• Rajmahal hills NE edge • 3 parts of plateau
Rajmahal
hills of Chhota Nagpur plt. • Garo-Khasi-Jaintia
• Garhjat hills – southern • Garo (Nokrek), Khasi
edge of Chhotanagpur (Shillong)
• Mikir, Regma, Barail
Mikir
plt hills
ranges
Garhjat Regma • Kapilli river separates
hills hills
mikir, Regma & Barail
Kapilli river from Meghalaya
plateau
 Meghalaya Plateau Deccan traps
• Extension of Peninsular • India pass over Reunion
block hot spot
• Separated from • Basaltic lava flow
Chhotanagpur plateau • Layer over layer of lava
• Down warping along formation
Rajmahal Rajmahal –garo hills = • Look like steps – traps
hills
‘malda gap’
Malda gap
• Ganga-Brahmaputra
flow through the Malda
gap

Meghalaya Plateau North Deccan

• Hills are not very high • Satpura range
• Not effective in (Rajpipla, Gawilgarh,
blocking the rain Mahaev, Maikal,
bearing winds – reach Amarkantak plt.)
till Arunachal Pradesh Satpura range • Maharastra plateau
• But pass with funnel MH plateau
effect – heavy rainfall
Monsoon
winds in Meghalaya
• But inadequate storage
– water shortage
 Satpura range Question
Q. Which one of the following rivers
• fold mt. of Archaenean originate in Amarkantak?
UPSC
–then faulting a) Damodar
1) Rajpipla (GJ) b) Mahanadi
1
2
3 4 2) Gawilgarh (MH) c) Narmada
3) Mahadeo (MP), d) Tapi Prelims
4) Maikal (Chh)
2007
• Highest peak –
Dhupgarh (Mahadeo) Ans. c)

Satpura Range MH plateau

• Amarkantak plateau- • Shield –crystalline
east of Maikal range Ajanta
rocks
• Source of Narmada and Balaghat
MH plateau
• Overland by lava
2
3 4 Son (tri. Of Ganga) flow
• Betul plateau – south • In south merge with
1
Telangana plt
Betul
Amarkantak
plateau
of Mahado hills KN plateau and in
• source of river Tapi, east with
plateau

Pench/ Wainganga KN plt Telangana plateau

river (Tri. Of Godavari)
 South Deccan Dharwad plateau
1) KN -Dharwad plt • The most oldest
sedimentary rocks of
• One of the oldest India
physiographical region
• Ancient Dharwad
2) Telangana plateau craton (shield) –
metallic mineral rich
region
2 • Shimoga, Tumkur and
Chitradurg, Chikmaglur
of KN – mineral rich

KN plateau Dharwad plateau

• Baba budan hills, • Iron and limestone
Maidan and Malnad • Bellary (KN) and upto
Maidan • Malnad = forested Ratnagiri (MH) – Fe ore
Malnad Maidan = arid • Kemangundi and
• Highest peak of Baba Kudremukh mines
plain
Budan = Mulangiri (near Chikmaglur)
Banglore
plateau
 Telangana plateau Western Ghats: Rainfall pattern
• Arachaean gneisses • More rainfall in KN
• Avg. elevation 500-600m
Satmala hills
• Steeper in MH, lower
Telangana
• Southern portion higher and broader in KN
plateau than northern part • KR – isolated hills –
Krishna river
• North – Satmala hills rain bearing wind
• South Sheshachalam pass between gaps
hills, Rayanseema plt
Sheshachalam
hills • Drained by Godavari,
Benglore plateau Krishna and Penneru

Western Ghats Western Ghats: Rainfall pattern

• GJ-MH-KN-TN-KR • KN:
Satmala Ajanta • Ajanta – Satmala – • Gentle slope= Air parcel
Balaghat – can retain energy and
Balaghat
Harishchandra speed for a long time,
allowing cloud droplets
• Highest peak: Anaimudi
Harishchandra

to grow and precipitate

• Passes: as rainfall.
• Thalghat – Btwn • In Karnataka, mountains
Mumbai-Nashik are continuous. No
gaps= Clouds can’t
• Bhor ghat – btwn easily escape to leeward
Mumbai -Pune side.
 Western Ghats: ecology Eastern Ghats
• Western Ghats- Discontinuous range
UNESCO world heritage lower than western
site (evergreen to Ghats
thorn)
1) Northern circas
• KN-TN-KR region:
2) Nallamalla
• SHOLA forest –
biosphere reserve – 3) Palkonda
unique BD – above
2 1
4) Javadi
3
2000m 4 5) Shevroy
• Stunted tropical 5
• Highest peak:
montane forest Armakonda

Western Ghats: ecology and agriculture Eastern Ghats

• KN-KR-TN region: • Laterite soils
• Bandipur-Waynad- • Bauxite deposits:
Mudumalai NP
• Largest population of 1) Malaygiri
leopards ` 2) Niyamgiri
1
• leopards + tigers+ wild 3 1
3) Baflai mali
dogs 2

• TN – tea-coffee
4
4) Panchpat mali
• KN –rubber, coffee,
cashew plantation • POSCO plant, Niyamgiri
• KR- spices
 Southern hill complex Question
Q. Which one of the following is
• South of Western correct sequence of hills starting
from north to south? UPSC
Ghats but
geologically not part a) Nallamalla –Nilgiri –Javadi –
of Western Ghats or Anamalai hills
Eastern Ghats
b) Anamalai – Javadi –Nilgiri-
1) Nilgiri, Prelims
Nallamalla hills
2) Anamalai 2005
1
c) Nallamalla –Javadi – Nilgiri-
3 3) Palani
2 Anamalai hills
4
4) Kardamom hills

Southern complex Question

d) Anamalai – Nilgiri – javadi-
• Palghat – btwn Nallamalai
UPSC
Nilgiri and
Annamalai hills
• Shenkotta gap–
btwn Cardamom
Hill stations: Prelims
Nilgiri
• Nilgiri – Ooty 2005
• Annamalai –
Palani
cardamom
Munnar
Annamalai • Palani hills -
Kodaikanal
 Hills of South India Question
Q. Which of the following hills are
found where Western Ghats and
Eastern Ghats meet? UPSC
a) Anamalai hills
b) Cardamom hills
Nallamalla
c) Nilgiri hills Prelims
Javadi
Nilgiri d) Shevroy hills 2008
Palani
cardamom
Annamalai

Question Physical map of Southern India

c) Nallamalla –Javadi – Nilgiri-
Anamalai hills • Ans. C)
UPSC
Nilgiri hills
Ans. C)

Prelims
2005
Q. Which of the following is not Question Physiography of India
correct?
a) Western Ghats are relatively UPSC Northern mountains
lower in their northern region
b) The Anaimudi is highest peak in Northern plains
western Ghats
c) Tapi river lie south of Satpura Prelims
d) The Narmada and Tapi river valley 2005 Peninsular plateau
are said to be old rift valleys
Ans. A) Coastal plains

Importance of Peninsular plateau Coastal plains

❑Peninsular plateau – oldest and most stable • From Rann of Kutch to
region Sundarban
❑Rich in minerals – iron, limestone, bauxite 1) Western coastal
plain
❑98% of Gondwana coal
2) Eastern coastal plain
❑Peninsular: ‘Regur’ black soil important for
cotton and sugarcane cultivation 1 2

❑Plantation agriculture in hilly areas: tea,

coffee, rubber, spices, cashews
Western coastal plain Western coastal plain
• Narrower than Eastern • KR coast/Malabar
coastal plain coast:
• Steeper fast flowing • Vembnad lake
rivers – No alluvial • Periyar river merge
deposits near Vembnad lake
• Rivers form Estuaries Periyar
• Inner side – Ernakulam
river
and not deltas kochi
and outward side -
• Good for Port Vembnad lake Annamalai
Kochi
development hills

Western coastal plain Eastern coastal plain

• Formation of 2 gulfs: gulf • Broader
of Khambhat and gulf of
Kutchh • Large rivers –extensive
• Narmada, Mahi,Tapi and delta formation
Sabarmati flow into Gulf • Mahanadi delta
of Khambhat
• Godavari delta
• Kathiawar: radial
drainage • Krishna delta
• Islands: Alia bet, Pirotan • Kaveri deltas
island, Diu
• Baidar, Kora, Kurumbhar
Is in g. of Kutchh
Eastern Coastal Plain Eastern Plain
• Odisha coast: Palar
river
• TN coast:
• Wheeler Is. – Javadi hills • Winter rainfall
missile testing Shevroy hills • Rameshwaram –
Wheeler
Is.
• Chilka lake Kaveri
Pamban Island – last
(biggest) river point – Dhanushkondi
Chilka lake • Olive ridley turtles • Gulf of Mannar –
–Ganjam coast- Cardamom
biosphere reserve
Rushikulya
river (nr. Mouth of hills Vaigai
river • Ram setu issue
Rushikulya river)

Eastern Coastal plains Physiography of India

• Andhra coast:
• Kolleru lake –deltaic
Northern mountains
lake (Goadavari and
Krishna rivers) Northern plains
Kolleru
• Pulicut lake – split bar
lake Shriharikota Is. (ISRO
Pulicut lake
+Shriharikota rocket launching Peninsular plateau
Island
station)
Coastal plains
 Northern Peninsular
rivers rivers
Rivers of India
West
Indus
flowing

East
Ganga
flowing

Brahmaputra

Indus river
• Indus + 5 tributaries
Northern • After partition: Indus
water Treaty 1960
rivers • Indus, Jhelum, Chenab
Indian rivers to Pak
• Ravi, Beas and Sutlej to
Peninsular India
• Chej doab, ReChna
rivers doab, Bari doab, Bist
doab
 Tributaries of Indus Tributaries of Indus: Chenab
Hunza • Cities on Indus –Leh • Two headward
Gilgit riv
riv
Siachin
Tributaries: tributaries: Chandra
glacier
and Bhaga
• Shyok from Siachin
• Chnadra originate near
Shyok
riv glacier
Zozi la and Bhaga at
• Suru (Obsequent tri) –
Baracha la
originate from Deosai
Zaskar riv
mt. , Burzil la pass, • Dhulhasti, Baglihar and
kargil on it, chutak dam Salal dams
• Gilgit – last tri in India

Tributaries of Indus: Jhelum Tributaries of Indus: Ravi

• Jhelum river: • Source near Rohtang
• Rises at Verinag pass in Himachal
• Shrinagar Pradesh
• Kishanganga joins on • Drains between
right Pripanjal and
• Kishanganga river Dhauladhar
dispute with Pakistan • Chamba is located on
• Jhelum enters Pakistan Ravi
near Baramulla
Tributaries of Indus: Beas Question
Q. Which one of the following rivers
• Source near Rohtang does not originate in India?
UPSC
pass - at southern end a) Beas
of Pir Panjal (HP) b) Chenab
• Meets Satluj at Harike
c) Ravi
• Kulllu on Beas’s
tributary Parbati d) Sutlej Prelims
• It is entirely within 2009
India Ans. D)

Tributaries of Indus: Satluj Question

Q. From north to south, which one of
• Originate near the following is the correct sequence
of given rivers in India? UPSC
Man sarovar
• Enters India a) Shyok- Spiti-Zaskar-Sutlej
through Shipki b) Shyok-Zaskar-Spiti-Sutlej
la pass
c) Zaskar- Shyok-Sutlej-Spiti
• Imp tributary: Prelims
Spiti d) Zaskar-Sultej-Shyok-Spiti 2006
• Neptha-jhakhari
dam Ans. b)
 Ganga system
Northern Peninsular
rivers rivers • Mandakini (from
Kedarnath) meet at
West Rudra prayag
Indus • Alaknanda and
flowing
Bhagirathi meet at
East Dev prayag
Ganga • After merger known
flowing
as Ganga

Brahmaputra

Ganga system Ganga System

• Originate as Bhagirathi Left Bank tributaries Right Bank tributaries
from Gangotri
• Alaknanda originates ❑Ramganga ▪Yamuna
from Badrinath ❑Gomati ▪Son
• Dhauliganga meet ❑Ghaghar ▪Hugli
Alaknanda at Vishnu
prayag ❑Gandak
• Pindar river (from ❑Kosi
Nanda devi) meet
Alaknanda at Karn
Prayag
Ganga system: left bank tributaries Ganga system: left bank tributaries
• Ramganga Gurla
mandhata
• Ghaghara –
Man sarovar lake
• Gomati peak originate from Gurala
mandhata peak
• Ghaghra (Saryu) Karnali river
(South of Man
• Gandak Kali (Sarda) sarovar) in Tibet
• Kosi
river
Rapti river
• Two headward
streams: kali (Sarda)
Ghaghara
river
and Karnali
• Ayodhya, Faizabad
located on Ghaghara

Ganga system: left bank tributaries Ganga system: left bank tributaries
• Ramganga • Gandak originated near
• Originate near Nepal-Tibet border
Garhwal Kali Gandaki • Kali Gandaki and
• Gomati: north UP Trishuli imp tributaries
• Lucknow is on • Merge in Ganga near
Gomati Patna
• Both originate
within India
Ganga system: left bank tributaries Ganga system: right bank tributaries
• Kosi- ‘Saptkaushi’ • Delhi, Agra and
• 7 streams Mathura on Yamuna
• Located in snow • Its imp right bank
Kosi
covered areas – heavy tributaries from
rainfall – huge volume Vindhyan range
of water • Chambal, Sindh, Betwa
• 7 streams -> 3 stream - and Ken
> merged at Triveni
(mahabharat range) to • Banas tri of Chmabal
form Kosi originate from Aravalli

Ganga system: right bank tributaries Ganga system: right bank tributaries
1) Yamuna 2) Son
• Originates from From Amarkantak
Yamnotri glacier – plateau
Bandarpunch peak Imp tributaries: Rihand
–Garhwal – source Ramgarh hills
• Imp tributaries: Son river
Govind vallabh pant
• Right bank -Tons- Kaimur hills Baghel sagar on Rihand
rises from Bandar Amarkantak Ramgarh hills
North Koel – source –
plt
punch glacier Chhota Nagpur plateau
 Ganga system: right bank tributaries Rivers in Himachal Pradesh
3) Hugli • Chenab
Distributary of Ganga • Ravi
Tributary: Ajay • Beas
Kolkata on river Hugli • Satlej – Spiti
• Yamuna on border
between HP and
Hugli
river Uttarakhand
Kolkata

Question Question
Q. Rivers that pass through Himachal Q. Rivers that pass through Himachal
Pradesh are: Pradesh are:
UPSC UPSC
a) Beas and Chenab a) Beas and Chenab
b) Beas and Ravi b) Beas and Ravi
c) Chenab, Ravi and Satlej c) Chenab, Ravi and Satlej
d) Beas, Chenab, Ravi, Satlej and Prelims d) Beas, Chenab, Ravi, Satlej and Prelims
Yamuna 2010 Yamuna 2010

Ans. D)
 Brahmaputra system
Northern Peninsular
rivers rivers • Enters into Assam
Manas
Subansiri
Plains near Sadiya
Indus
West • After Sadiya it is
flowing known as
Naga
Garo Khasi
Jaintia Barail
hills Brahmaputra
Ganga
East range • Tributaries: Manas,
flowing Subansiri,
Dhansiri, Dibang,
Lohit and Kapilli
Brahmaputra

Brahmaputra system Brahmaputra system

• Originate from
Chemayungdung
glacier in Kailash
• Passes in Indus-
Dihang Tsangpo sature zone
(between Great
Himalayas and Kailash
range)
• Enters into India as
Dibang
• enters Bangladesh as
Brahmaputra Jamuna
• Merged with Ganga –
unitedly known as
Meghna
Padma
• Meghana river joins
• Now known as Meghna
• Large delta formation
 Question Question
Q. Consider the following rivers: a) 1 only
1. Barak UPSC b) 2 and 3 UPSC
2. Lohit c) 1 and 3
3. Subansiri d) 1,2 and 3

Which of the above flows/flow Prelims Ans. B) Prelims

through Arunachal Pradesh? 2014 2014

Barak river
Northern Peninsular
rivers rivers

West
Indus
Naga Hills
flowing

East
Ganga
Barak
river
flowing

Brahmaputra
 Peninsular rivers Question
Q. Narmada river flows to east to
1) West flowing rivers: west, while most other large
peninsular rivers flow west to east. UPSC
Narmada – Tapi
2) East-flowing rivers: Why?
Damodar, 1. It occupies a linear rift valley
Subarnarekha, 2. It flows between vindhyan and
Mahanadi, Godavari, Prelims
Krishna, Kaveri etc
Satpura
2013
3. The land slope to west from
central India

West flowing Peninsular rivers Question

a) 1 only
1) Narmada: b) 2 and 3 UPSC
Source: Amarkantak c) 1 and 3
plateau
Flow in rift valley btwn d) None
Vindhyan and Satpura
MP-MH and GJ Prelims
Duandhar fall in MP 2013
Ans. A)
Merged near Bharuch in
GJ
Sardar Sarovar dam
 Question West flowing Peninsular rivers
Q. At which one of the following
places do two important rivers of 2) Tapi
India originate; while one of them UPSC
Source: Betul
flows towards north and merge with plateau
another important rivers flowing Flow south of
towards Bay of Bengal, the other one Rajpipla Satpura
Betul
flows towards Arabian sea? Prelims
range Tapi river plateau Imp tributary: Purna
Gawilgarh river
a) Amarkantak plateau 2009 Purna river range
Merged into sea
b) Badrinath near Surat
MP-MH-GJ

Question West flowing Peninsular rivers

c) Mahabaleshwar
d) Nasik UPSC Others:
Sabarmati from Aravalli
Ans. A) range
Mahi
Mahi from Vindhyans
River Son- flows towards north Sabarmati
Vindhyan
merges with Ganga – towards Bay of Prelims
Bengal 2009
River Narmada – flows towards
Arabian sea
 West Flowing Peninsular rivers West Flowing Peninsular rivers
• West flowing rivers Periyar and Pamba in
from Western Ghats KR
Mandovi • Mandovi and Zuari in
river
GOA

Periyar
Zuari river river
kochi
Annamalai
hills
Vembnad lake Pamba Cardamom
river hills

West Flowing Peninsular rivers

Northern Peninsular
• Kalinadi, Sharavati in rivers rivers
KN
• Shravati- Jog fall Indus
West
(highest) flowing
Kalinadi

Sharavati
East
Ganga
Netravati
flowing

Brahmaputra
 East Flowing Peninsular rivers East Flowing Peninsular rivers
1) Damodar 3) Mahanadi
Source: chhota Nagpur Source: Danadkarnya
plateau Left bank: Sheonath,
Tributary: Barakar Hasdo and Mand
Iron and steel industry Hasdo Right bank: Tel, Jonk,
Sheonath
Ong
Chhota Nagpur Hirakund dam
plt Ong

East Flowing Peninsular rivers East Flowing Peninsular rivers

2) Subarnarekha, 4) Rushikulya
Baitrani and Brahmani
Source:
Subarnrekha – from Nayagarh hills
Ranchi plateau
Mouth known
Ranchi Baitrani- Garhjat hills for: hatching
plateau
Brahmani – headward Chilka lake site of Olive
Garhjat hills streams, South Koel and ridley turtles
Rushikulya
Sankh from Chhota river
Baitrani Nagpur plateau
 Oilve Ridley turtles East Flowing Peninsular rivers
• The smallest and most 5) Godavari:
abundant of all sea Source: Trimbak plt
turtles found in the Left bank tri:
world Indravati
Penganga, Wardha,
Sabari
• They live in warm Wainganga
waters of the Pacific, (combined =
Atlantic and Indian Pranhita), Indravati
oceans. (fall), Sabari and
sileru
• Olive ridley turtles IUCN Right bank tri:
status- “endangered”
Manjara

Olive Ridley turtles on Odisha coast East Flowing Peninsular rivers

• known for their unique 6) Krishna:
mass nesting called • Source:
“Arribada”= thousands Mahabaleshwar
of females come Musi
• Left bank tri:
together on the same Ghatprabha

beach to lay eggs. • Musi, Sina,Bhima,

Ghat prabha,
• Orissa coast is the Tungbhadra
Malprabha,
largest mass hatching
Tungbhadra, Hagari
site of Olive ridley turtle
in the world.
East Flowing Peninsular rivers East Flowing Peninsular rivers
7) Penneru/Penner: 9) Vaigai:
Source: Nandi durg • Source: Varushand
peak in KN Hills
Tri: Kunder, • Madurai located on
Charavati, Papagni, Vaigai river
Punchu • Dry channel
Varushand
Hills
• Disappear then
again re-appear

East Flowing Peninsular rivers Question

Q. The correct sequence of eastward
8) Kaveri: flowing rivers of Peninsular India
from north to south is: UPSC
• Source: Tal kaveri
at Brahmagiri a) Subarnarekha- Mahanadi-
hills Godavari- Krishna-Pennar-
• Left bank tri: Cauveri- Vaigai
• Shimsa, Hemvati, b) Subarnarekha – Mahanadi- Prelims
Kabani, Bhavani, Krishna –Cauveri- Pennar- vaigai 2002
Noyil, Amaravati
 Question Question
c) Mahadnadi- Subarnarekha- c) A is true R is false
Godavari- Krishna- Cauveri- Pennar- d) A is false R is true
Vaigai UPSC UPSC
d) Mahanadi- Subarnarekha- Krishna-
Godavari- Cauveri- Vaigai-Pennar
Ans. A)
Prelims West flowing river- short distance – Prelims
Ans. A)
2002 no alluvial – no delta 2004

Question River linking project

(A) west-flowing rivers of Peninsular
India have no deltas ❑First time recommended by Sir Arthur
UPSC
(R) These rivers do not carry any Cotton in 19th cent
alluvial sediments ❑Aims to transfer surplus water of some
rivers to water deficit river basins
a) Both correct and R is correct ❑K.L. Rao, MoWR: Ganga-Kaveri link
Prelims
explanation of A ❑Dishaw Dastur, pilot: transferring of water
2004
b) Both correct but R is not correct using garland canal
explanation of A
 River linking project
1) Transfer of water of Ganga and
Brahmaputra towards west and east in
south using 14 canals
2) In peninsula plateau: linking of rivers
using 16 canals
River linking project
❑Largest inter-basin transfer of water in the
world if executed
❑Project will take 50-100 years to complete
❑May produce 35GW of power
River linking project
❑Favour:
1) Management of flood and drought
2) Expansion of irrigation network
3) Drinking water supply
River linking project
❑Challenges:
1) Indian monsoon climate: rainy months and
dry months occur at the same in the entire
country
2) Dams and canals- not proper solution to
floods
3) Plateau higher (upland) than northern
plains – difficult to pumping of water from
plains to peninsula
 River linking project
4) That require large amount of energy and Geological history of India
canals
5) Submergence of forests and villages Physiography of India
6) Blocking of rivers – damage to riverine
ecosystem Indian weather: seasons
7) International water disputes and inter-state
Climatic regions of India
water disputes
Soils of India

Seasons of India

Winter

Indian Geography
Physical Geography of India

Monsoon Summer
 Monsoon Indian Monsoon: mechanism
• Unique weather Tropical
ITCZ
phenomenon Easterly Jet

• “Mausam”=
Seasonal 2nd equatorial
Somali Jet
reversal of winds trough

El-Nino- IOD STWJ

India Monsoon: unique features Tropical Easterly Jet (TEJ)

Tropical Tibet plt. • Northward movement
Sudden Onset Easterly
Jet
LP
of the sun in summer
• Heating of Tibetan plt –
Gradual Advance LP
• Rising of the air
Gradual retreat Mascerene
High
• Create TEJ above Tibet
– move towards
Variation – regional and temporal Mascarene High
• Strengthen Mascarene
High pressure cell
 Pressure system on earth Second equatorial trough
ITCZ
• When 2nd equatorial
LP cell
trough (LP cell of ITCZ)
merges with main ITCZ
– strengthen the LP of
ITCZ
• Attract more monsoon
LP cell winds towards India
• If not, then weak LP
system over Tibet

Second equatorial trough Somali current and Somali Jet stream

ITCZ
• Summer: northward • Somali jet stream – low
movement of sun, level, appear only in
northward movement of summer
ITCZ • Intensify Somali ocean
• Sometimes, LP cells of current
ITCZ do not merge with • Somali jet stream
ITCZ on movement of pushes monsoon winds
LP cell LP cell
ITCZ towards India
• Stronger the Somali
current, better d
monsoon
Permanent Jet stream in the world Sub-Tropical Westerly Jet
• Early summer –
STWJ

northward movement –
STWJ
HP
bifurcation – southern
STWJ branch still over
northern India
• HP conditions

Sub-Tropical Westerly Jet Sub-Tropical Westerly Jet

STWJ • Winter – entirely south • Summer: STWJ entirely
HP
of Himalayas – over STWJ northward
north India • Allow Onset of
STWJ • STWJ maintain the monsoon (sudden
HP
High pressure over burst)
north India • If southern branch re-
ITCZ

establish- monsoon
break
ITCZ
 Sub-Tropical Westerly Jet Indian Ocean Dipole
LP cell • Even after development • El-Nino year:
HP STWJ
of ITCZ over Tibet, and • Weak WPP – weak
LP cell merging of 2nd Mascarene High
equatorial trough, HP HP
LP • Low push to SW
monsoon winds can’t Mascarene Western
High Pacific pool monsoon winds to
attract toward India move towards India
• If southern branch of
STWJ is over north-
India resist monsoon
winds towards India

Indian Ocean Dipole Fluctuation in Monsoon

LP • Association of 1) If ITCZ does not
Western Pacific ITCZ develop properly over
Pool with Tibet
LP Mascarene High
HP • Strong WPP- strong
Western pacific
Mascarene High Pool Mascarene High
 Fluctuation in Monsoon Fluctuation in Monsoon
ITCZ
LP cell
2) If 2nd equatorial 4) Inadequate heating of
trough does not merge Tibetan plateau
with ITCZ

LP cell

Fluctuation in Monsoon Fluctuation in Monsoon

LP
STWJ 3) Southern branch 5) Weak Mascarene
HP of STWJ re- High pressure cell
establish over north
STWJ India
HP
Mascarene High
 Fluctuation in Monsoon Monsoon: Arabian branch
6) Intensification • Western Ghats blocks
of Indian ocean • Rainfall in windward
dipole/ El-Nino side
HP HP
LP
event • South KN plateau,
- If IOD intense= Rayalseema of AP
IOD negative – remain dry
weak monsoon
in India

Monsoon Monsoon : Arabian branch

• Burst of monsoon first • No effective barrier in
on Malabar coast Gujarat or Rajasthan
• 2 branches: • Aravalli parallel to the
1) Arabian branch winds
2) Bay of Bengal • Low rainfall in GJ-RJ
Arabian
branch • Rainfall along
branch Bay of Kathiawar upland,
Bengal
branch
south Aravalli
 Monsoon : Arabian branch Monsoon: Bay of Bengal branch
• Gaps between Western • Rainfall along
Ghats, river valleys – chhotanagpur plateau,
winds enter interior of Vindhyan and Satpura
India Chhota nagpur plt range
• Wind reach up to
Himachal Pradesh-
Punjab

Monsoon: Bay of Bengal branch Monsoon: Bay of Bengal branch

• Eastern Ghats – low, • Purvanchal –
discontinued –cannot Meghalaya plateau –
block • Funneling effect
• Large gaps, large river • high rainfall
deltas – more winds
• Rainfall decrease from
can enter inland
east to west
• Most of the rain from
eastern branch
 Rainfall pattern Retreating Monsoon
• India –avg rainfall = Northern
Northern • Southward movement
Trade winds
120-180 cm = wetter Trade winds of ITCZ
• But rainfall variation is • SW monsoon winds and
100
cm

across regions and NE winds co-exist

seasons • Gradual withdrawal of
SW monsoon winds –
Southern
Southern
Tradewinds
Trade winds
first eastern then
western branch

Rainfall pattern Retreating Monsoon: tropical cyclone

60
cm • Highest rainfall: • Increase in SST of Bay
60 100
60
cm
western Ghats, North- of Bengal and Arabian
20 cm cm 200
cm cm east ITCZ sea
200
• Then East India • Possibility of Tropical
cm
• Then GJ-RJ and J&K cyclone
100 • Then south KN- • Retreating SW
cm
Rayalseema region monsoon branch drag
60 them towards Eastern
cm • Thar and Kutchh
coast
200
cm
deserts
 Winter: rain in TN coast Summer
• NE winds – coming • Northward apparent
NENorth
winds
from land – dry winds HP
STWJ movement of Sun
• Temperature increases
East
Trade winds
• But passing through
Bay of Bengal- • LP but resisted by STWJ
become moist • Local heating
convectional rainfall
• Coastline of TN • Pre-monsoon thunder
• Rainfall in TN storm
• Kalbaishakhi (WB),
ITCZ
Mango shower, Blossom
shower

Winter: western Disturbances Climatic regions of India

• STWJ from By Stamp
STWJ
Mediterranean sea
• Brings disturbances By Koppen
to north India
• Winter rainfall – By Thorthwaite
western
ITCZ disturbances
By Trewartha

By R.L.Singh
 Climatic regions of India by Trewartha Climatic regions of India by Trewartha
Symbol significance B: dry climate
Bs = semi-arid (<100
A Tropical Humid climate Bwh
cm)
Rain-shadow region of
B Dry climate (Rainfall <100 Bsh
Am
Aw
Western Ghats
Bsh= dry regions
cm) Aw
(Kathiawar, Rayalseema,
Am Telangana, malawa
C Sub-tropical humid Bs
plteau)
H Mountainous climate Bwh: desert (Thar,
Kutchh)

Climatic regions of India by Trewartha Climatic regions of India by Trewartha

A: tropical Humid C: Sub-tropical
Am = Tropical Rainy H Caw= humid, sub-humid
monsoon type (>250 cm Bwh Northern Plains, most of
rainfall) NE states
Bsh Caw
Am Aw Western cost, Tripura Am
Aw Summer rainfall (E->W)
Aw Aw = Tropical wet and Aw
Winter rainfall in NW
Am dry (avg. 100 cm rainfall) Am part
Bs
Most of peninsular H = mountainous
plateau, Mizoram
Himalayan regions
 Vegetation types in India Tropical Wet -Evergreen forest in India
• Areas of very high
rainfall
Tropical forest • More than 250cm
• Temperature 25-27 deg
Montane forest • Western side of
western Ghats, NE
states and Andaman
and Nicobar
Alpine forest

Tropical Forest Tropical Wet- Evergreen forest in India

• Dense forest + dense
Wet undergrowth
evergreen • Pine, bamboo, Jamun
Semi- • Underdeveloped
Moist lumbering industry:
Tropical evergreen
• Tress are not in pure
forest Moist stands
Dry • Lack of transport
deciduous
facility
Tropical Semi-evergreen forest in India Tropical Forest
• Border areas of tropical
evergreen forest Dry
Moist
• Rainfall 200-250 cm Tropical evergreen
• Western coast, Assam, forest
lower slopes of eastern Dry
Dry
Himalayas and A & N deciduous
Tropical
thorn

Tropical Moist deciduous forest in India Tropical Dry Evergreen forest in India
• Moderate rainfall 100- • Rainfall about 100 cm
200 cm • TN coast
• Both on western and • Winter rainfall +
eastern sides of monsoon rainfall
western Ghats
• MP, Chhota nagpur
plateau
• Odisha, WB, A &N
 Tropical Dry Deciduous forest in India Tropical Dry Deciduous forest in India
• Rainfall about 75-100 • Central India
cm • MP, RJ, Kathiawar,
• Shed their leaves in dry western Ghats
season • Sal, Teak, Rosewood
• Transition type-
between
• Wetter -> moist
deciduous
• Drier ->tropical thorn

Tropical Thorn forest in India

Tropical • Less than 75 cm
Tropical Dry Tropical Dry rainfall
Moist
• North-west part of the
country
• RJ, Kutchh, Kathiawar
Moist Dry Deciduous
Tropical Thorn
deciduous
 Vegetation types in India
Sub-tropical
broad-leaves
Tropical forest
Montane Sub-
tropical forest Subtropical
Montane forest 1000-2000m
moist Pine

Sub-tropical dry
Alpine forest evergreen

Rainfall Decrease from bottom to top

Sub-tropical forest Sub-Tropical Dry-

Evergreen
(1000-2000m)
Montane Sub-Tropical Moist
Pine
forest
Temperate forest Sub-Tropical Broad
leaved
(1500-3000m)
Sub-tropical broad leaved forest
• Height 1000-2000m
• Rainfall: 75-125 cm
• Evergreen dense
• Oak, Chestnut
Sub-tropical Moist Pine forest
• Height 1000-2000m
• But Rainfall: about 100
cm
• Eastern Himalayas
Temperate forest
• Chil/chir most
abundant
• Chil/Chir is used for
timber, resin and
turpentine
Sub-tropical Dry evergreen forest
• Height about 1000
• Rainfall: 50-100 cm
• Bhabhar, Shiwaliks –
western Himalayas
• Stunted trees and
shrubs
Wet-Temperate
Montane
Moist-Temperate
1500-3000m
Dry-temperate
Rainfall Decrease from bottom to top Montane Moist Temperate forest
• Height: 1500-3300 m
Dry-Temperate • Rainfall: 150-250 cm
• Entire length of
Himalayas
Moist-Temperate
• Deodar dominates
• Deodar wood used for
Wet-Temperate Timber, railway
sleepers

Montane Wet Temperate forest Montane Dry Temperate forest

• Height: 1800-3000 m • Rainfall: less than 100
• Rainfall 150-300 cm cm
• Eastern Himalayas • Dry part of Himalayas
• Western Ghats above • Ladakh, Sikkim and
height of 1800 m Garhwal
• Trees: evergreen, short,
leaves dense and round • Coniferous forest
• Deodar, Birch, Plum • Oak, ash, maple
 Vegetation types in India Vegetation types in India

Tropical forest Tropical forest

Montane forest Montane forest

Alpine forest Alpine forest

Alpine forest Forest type - Area

• Height: 2900- 3800 m Forest type Percentage of
• Mixture of coniferous total area
trees, large scrubs, Tropical Moist Deciduous forest (100- 37%
broad-leaved trees 200 cm)
• Then with increase in Tropical Dry Deciduous forest 28%
height - Alpine grass a (~100cm)
and scrub
Tropical Wet Evergreen (>250cm) 8%
• Fur, Spruce, Birch,
Berberries Montane Sub-Tropical Pine (Chir) 6.6%
Tropical Semi-Evergreen 4%
 Forest type - Area Question
Q. In India, which type of forest
Forest type Percentage of total among the following occupies the
largest area? UPSC
area
a) Montane wet forest
Montane Wet Temperate 3.6%
b) Sub-tropical dry evergreen
Montane Moist 3.4% c) Tropical moist deciduous forest Prelims
Temperate (Deodar) d) Tropical wet evergreen forest 2010
Sub-tropical Dry 2.5%
Evergreen (shiwaliks)
Alpine 2.1%

Forest type - Area Question

a) Montane wet forest -3.6%
Forest type Percentage of b) Sub-tropical dry evergreen – 2.5% UPSC
total area c) Tropical moist deciduous forest –
37%
Littoral-swamp 0.6% d) Tropical wet evergreen forest –
8% Prelims
Sub-tropical Broad leaved 0.4%
2010
Montane Dry Temperate 0.3% Ans. C)
Tropical Dry Evergreen 0.2%
 Water Res
❑70% of India’s useable water is
surface water resource Surface Water
❑Rivers, lakes and ponds Resource
❑Rivers are most important for water
resource
❑India’s important rivers: Himalayan
rivers and peninsular river

Water Resource Comparison

Himalayan rivers Peninsular rivers

Surface Water resource ❑Perennial ▪Seasonal

❑antecedent
❑Larger , wide flood plain,
huge sediments, low slope
gradient, meandering
Ground water resource ❑flood-prone
▪superimposed
▪Smaller, not broad
catchment – hard-rocks
below – no shifting of
course
▪ less flood-prone
 Comparison Telangana plateau
Himalayan rivers Peninsular rivers

❑Water fall at only youthful ▪Hard rocks – water fall at

stage (mountainous any course of river Telangana
plateau
areas) ▪Not navigable
❑Navigable (Allahabad to ▪Need pumping for Krishna river

Hugli and Sadia to Dhubri) irrigation – river basing

❑Easily diverted for located on higher plateau
irrigation Ex. (Telangana plateau)

comparison Water Resource

Himalayan river basin Peninsular river basin

Surface Water resource

Ground water resource

Ground water resource Ground water resource in India
• Water present in pore • Ground water reserves:
spaces of permeable 30-40 ml ha in India
rock– below the
surface = GW
• Not found everywhere
• Rainwater/ river water
4 most prominent
percolate the soil –
regions
through pores and
cracks reach till aquifer
• Aquifer = storage pool
of GW

Ground water resource Ground water resource: Location

• Sand or permeable 1) Alluvial sedimentary
rocks like sandstone = - Northern plains
good aquifers - Peninsular river basins
• when all the pores are - Deltas of rivers
filled = saturated zone
- High water table
• Upper layer of
saturated zone = water-
table
Ground water resource : Location
2) Bhabhar (foothills of
Himalayas)
- Not important
- Coarse topography – no
soil
- Not important for
agriculture
Ground water resource : Location
4) Peninsular gneissic
and granitic rocks-
Impermeable rocks –
water stored in cracks
-once water is extracted
difficult to recharge –
easily exhausted
Telangana, Dharwad,
Bastar, Rayalseema

Ground water resource : Location Ground water reserve in India

3) East and west coastal Ground water Total ground water
plains Reserve reserve
- Eastern coastal plain
broader and receive Ganga ~17 ml ha
large amount of rivers Godavari ~5 ml ha
- Issue of over-use
Brahmaputra ~2.8 ml ha
- Vulnerable to salinity
Krishna ~2.6 ml ha
Indus ~2.5 ml ha
 Development of use of GW Ground water usage
Ground water Level of GW • Tube well revolution
Reserve development • Now 60% of India’s
irrigation through dug-
Indus (+PN-HN) ~80% wells and tube-wells
Cauveri ~45% • Highest in PN-HN, RJ,
UP, GJ and TN
Kutchh-Saurashtra ~40%
• Water-table going down
Ganga basin ~31% • Aquifers are drying up
Penner basin ~30%

Ground water usage Present availability of GW

• 50% already used • Rate of usage > rate of
• rural household = >90% replishment
• urban household = 1) cities: alarming rate
~60% of fall of GW table
• Un-planned urban 2) Destruction of
expansion – unreliable aquifers
municipal water supply 3) Over-dependent on
– urban sprawl GW- salinity
• GW cheap source, need
no infra
 Ground water pollution Issues related to water
1) Fluoride- northern ❑Current water availability 2000
plains, Telangana, cum/person/year
Golkonda ❑By 2050, water demand would be 3500
2) Arsenic – leather cum/person/year
industries- UP, Bihar, ❑But actual availability will be
WB (Malda,
murshidabad, 1200/cum/person/year
Burdwan, Asansol) ❑Potential water crisis in the future
3) Nitrate – fertilizers-
across country

Rainwater Harvesting+ ❑Climatic regions of India

Artificial Recharge recharge
❑Vegetation pattern in India
❑Water resource:
1) Surface water resource
2) Ground water resource
 Flood
• Inundation of land
• India – Monsoon
climate
• Rainfall concentrated
to limited months
• Large network of rivers
• Possibilities of flood
and drought
Flood: Natural Reasons Flood: Anthropogenic Reasons
- Heavy rainfall
- cloud burst
- La-Nina
Flood: Natural Reasons
1) Bad drainage (terai)
2) Basin topography
(PN-HN)
3) Narrow river valley
(Brahmaputra)
4) Siltation of river bed
(Kosi)
5) Landslide in the
course of river
1) Global warming –
melting of glaciers
2) Deforestation –
siltation- lower
channel capacity
3) Construction of
dams and canals
4) Poor settlement
management
Flood-prone areas Solutions for flood
1) Ganga-Yamuna ❑Administrative strategies:
system ❑Flood management program (11th Plan)
2) Brahmaputra – ❑Flood control commission to control flood in
Manas
23 rivers
3) Mahanadi
❑Information exchange from Nepal and China
4) Weinganga about volume of water in rivers in their origin
(Godavari)
5) Bhima (Krishna)

Problems of floods Solutions for flood

• IPCC 4th and 5th report: • Forestation on the
• Increase in events of banks of rivers
heavy rainfall in
Himalayan region • Better settlement
• Deforestation, management
haphazard • Watershed
construction, dams in management and
upper reaches of rivers rainwater harvesting
• Sand mining, than construction of
habitation near river dams and canals
valley
 Drought
• Rainfall less or equal to
75 cm or less than 60
cm = Drought
Drought-prone areas
• Areas having more than
25% of variability of
normal rainfall –
drought-prone
1) Plateau region
2) Western RJ, Kutchh
3) Ladakh
Problem of Drought
• Drought is not only
about water scarcity –
much more complex in
India
• Drought is related
development
• Drought = agrarian
poverty = high IMR,
high MMR, low literacy
Problems of Drought
• Drought can affect only
if the farmers are not
prepared.
1) Economic status of
farmers
2) Irrigation facility
3) Alternative livelihood
 Drought-prone areas
To fight
1) Rain-shadow regions
Agriculture income against
of western Ghats -
Drought Telangana,
Rayalseema,
Irrigation facility Vidarbha

Alternate livelihood

Rainfed-Areas Drought-prone areas

❑Where agriculture is totally depended on 2) Malawa,
rainfall Bundelkhand, Mewar,
❑Areas without irrigation 3) Eastern India
❑Dry season = land fallowing - High rainfall but misuse
or under use of water
❑If rain fails = agricultural poverty resources –
❑Low productivity, subsistence farming, high administrative lapses –
poverty underdevelopment of
❑55% of net sown area of the country irrigation network
 Drought-prone areas Problems of Rainfed areas
4) North-east India • Most of their farmers
Wettest part of India but grow cash-crops
no availability of water (cotton, ground nut,
storage facility tobacco)
Water shortage in dry • if crop fails – reduce
season their purchasing power
– hunger- malnutrition
• Low Human
Development

Importance of Rainfed areas Problems of Rainfed areas

❑Rainfed areas produce 50% of India’s grain • Arid, semi-arid regions
production – 90% of pulse/millets production • Land fallowing, soil-
❑Most of the cash crops, industrial crops erosion
exclusively from these areas • Penninsular region -
❑Important for food security Difficult to construct
canals + low ground
❑Home of 66% of livestock population of water level
India
❑Max potential for livestock expansion
 Problems of rainfed areas Solution to drought
❑Rainfed areas – more than 40% of India’s ❑Expansion of irrigation facility
BPL population (most of them are landless ❑Use ground water in water-crisis situation
labourers)
❑rainwater harvesting
❑If farmers of rainfed areas are strengthen – ❑Check-dams
much of the poverty in India will be reduced
❑Watershed- management

Implications of drought Small drought-preventing techniques

- Land abandoning – soil Rainwater Harvesting Small check-dams
erosion
- Reduction in
production – food
security
- Low productivity
- Poverty (most of the
small and marginal
farmers live in drought-
prone areas)
 Watershed management Components of Watershed
❑Sustainable way to use water resource • River, streams, soil,
❑Understanding the natural resource in its surrounding forest,
entirety riverine ecosystem,
wild life
❑Integrated or system approach
• Surrounding agriculture
❑Human intervention should be limited to field, villages
natural limits • Human beings (active
participation)

Meaning of Watershed Watershed Management

• Watershed = geo- • Construction of small
hydrological unit that earthen check-dams
drains at a common • Network of small dams
point instead of large
• A main river and its concrete dams
catchment area • No blockage of river
• Storage and
sustainable use of
water
 Watershed Management Successful Watershed Management
experiments: Watershed
• Afforestation on river development
banks 1) Aravari project in RJ under in India
• Increase in ground Rajendra singh of Tarun Bharat
water level Sangh
• Increase in water level 2) Rale gaon siddhi (MH) under
in river Anna Hazare
• Soil conservation
• Entire area can be
greener

❑Watershed Management program ❑management can work only under

in 1973 Watershed cooperative atmosphere of entire People’s
❑2009-2010 development area participation
❑Drought-prone area Program + in India
❑Community participation
Desert development program +
integrated watershed development ❑Strong panchayati raj system
program = Integrated watershed ❑Decentralized system
Management Program
❑Institutional and capacity building
assistance from center
 Involvement of local population
To fight
• Local population to
participate in Agriculture income against
watershed Drought
management
• Better soil and water Irrigation facility
availability – better
production
• Better income
• Environment and Alternate livelihood
ecology balance each
other

Benefits of watershed management Solution to Drought

❑Increase in water availability • Alternate income to
farmers from:
❑Multiple crop in a year – increase income
• Animal husbandry
❑Increase farm income – more access to (dairying, meat, poultry,
modern inputs animal products, bee
keeping, seri culture)
❑Increase in agriculture productivity
• Agro-forestry
❑Increase fodder availability = more yield of • Food-processing
milk industries, handicraft,
tourism
❑For Availability of alternative
employment in rural areas Solution to
❑Connectivity, transportation
network, 24x7 electricity required
❑Facility of crop-insurance, formal
banking to cushion against
economic crisis
Agro-practice in Drought-prone areas
• Development of agro-
Droughts infrastructure
• check-dams, tanks,
rain-water harvesting
systems, wells/tube
wells, cold storages
• Use of Soil
conservation
techniques

Agro-practice in Drought-prone areas

Agriculture income
Irrigation facility
Alternate livelihood
To fight
• Choice of crops
against
• No = Water intensive
Drought
crops like, rice, cotton,
sugarcane
• Yes = Less water
intensive crops – millets
(Jawar, Bajra, Ragi)
Agro-practice in Drought-prone areas Agro-practice in drought prone areas
Optimum use of water in • Drought-resistance
irrigation variety
- Drip irrigation • Conservation of soil
- sprinklers moisture – mulching
• Pre-monsoon ploughing
and soil dressing
• Deep drilling of seed
and fertilizers
• crop-rotation

Agro-practice in drought prone areas Drought-prone area development plan

• India –limited ❑Provide them:
irrigation potential – ❑Subsidies
there will be some
areas out of ❑Crop-insurance
irrigation network ❑PDS / Direct cash transfer
• Risk diversification: ❑Guaranteed employment
• Agro-silvi ❑Development of rural assets
• Pastoral system
❑Flood
❑Flood-prone areas Geological history of India
❑Problems – solution
Physiography of India
❑Drought
❑Drought-prone + Rainfed areas Indian weather: seasons
❑Solution to drought situation
Climatic regions of India

Soils of India

Soil

Soil Formation

Soil Profile

Soil Erosion - conservation

Soil-Salinity & conservation

 Soil Soil- forming factors: rocks
Desertification & • Soil made up of erosion
Prevention of parent rock
• It provides soil
minerals, texture,
Soils of India structure, pH value,
porosity
• Soft rocks – better soil
formation than hard
Land Use-Pattern in India rocks

Soil- forming factors Soil- forming factors: Climate

Climate: temp + rainfall
Agent of erosion
Rock Climate Relief • Dry region – wind
• Wet region –water
• Cold region – glacier
• Climate affect the type
Biota Time of erosion + intensity of
erosion
Soil- forming factors: Relief Soil- forming factors: Time
• Relief control the • Soil-formation long-term
climate and type of process
forest • All the factors need time to
• Steep gradient = thin, form the soil
under developed soil • After weathering – time
• Plain (low gradient) = decides maturity of soil
thick, well developed
soil

Soil- forming factors: Biota Transportation in soil

• Micro-organism help in
enrichment of soil Capillary leaching
• Roots of vegetation –
agent of weathering Upward Downward
• Humus content from movement of movement of
vegetation provide minerals minerals
nutrients to soil
Hot and dry Humid
climate condition
 Chemical Processes within soil Chemical Processes of soil: capillary
• In hot and dry climate
• Evaporation is faster
Hot-humid Latosol • Salts within the soil
Leaching come at the upper layer
(Humid) • Calcium salts
Cold-humid Podzol • Soil salinity

Chemical Processes within soil Chemical Processes of soil: Leaching

• In hot and humid
Capillary climate
• Heavy rainfall
Latosol
Soil Iron + Al • Silica within soil move
Leaching downward – but Iron
processes Silica and aluminum remain
Podzol at upper layer
Gleying • Acidic and reddish soil
• Lateritic soil
 Chemical Processes of soil: Leaching Soil
• In cold and humid Soil Formation
climate
• Iron and Aluminum
Silica move downward and Soil Profile
silica remain at upper
Iron + Al layer
Soil Erosion - conservation
• Gray in colour
• Podzoilic soil
• Low fertility Soil-Salination & conservation

Chemical Processes of soil: Gleying Soil Profile

• In swampy – peat soils
• Terai, Mangrove region
• Bluish in colour
• Excessive Potassium
salts
• Soil have different
layers with different
physical and chemical
properties
• Management of soil
horizons important for
soil conservation
Soil Profile
• Horizons of soil: Leaching capillary
• O = organic dust,
leaves, litter ❑A layer is leached ▪A layer is enriched
• A= top soil with ❑B layer enriched ▪A layer will have Calcium,
nutrients ❑Latosol A (Al, iron), B or Sodium salts
• E = transition zone (Silica)
• B = sub-soil ❑Podzol A (silica), B (Al,
• C = weathered rock iron)
material

Soil Profile Human induced reasons for Soil Erosion

• C = parent rock 1) Deforestation
• O and R not part of 2) Sand mining
functional soil 3) brick making
• Soil erosion = loss of 4) over-grazing
top soil (A and E)
5) Faulty-agro-
• B cannot support plant practices
life
• Extreme soil erosion =
loss of B also
 Faulty agro-practice Soil-conservation
❑Lack of crop-rotation. Exhaustion of soil
nutrition
❑Ploughing along the slope –with no barrier
– loss of top soil Structural Non-structural
solutions solution

Implications of soil erosion Structural solutions for soil conservation

1) Loss of top soil • On the slopes:
2) Ground water level lowered • Construction of
3) Natural vegetation dries up retaining wall
4) Rivers and canals siltation • Strengthen slopes of
river banks using stone
5) Frequency of flood and drought increase pitching or wire netting
6) Events of landslides increase
 Stone-pitching Wire-netting Tetra-pod Groin/Groyne

Structural solutions for soil conservation Non- Structural solutions

• On coastal areas: • Afforestation
• Tri-pods, tetra-pods • Discourage cultivation
• Groins (Groyne) on marginal lands
• Agro-forestry
• On rivers:
• Multi-purpose dams
Non- Structural solutions Strip Farming Mulching
• Along slopes:
• Terrace farming
• Contour bunding
• Basin listing

Non- Structural solutions Non- Structural solutions

• Agriculture practices: • To control wind erosion
• Soil mulching • Transverse farming
• Crop-rotation • Shelter belts
• Relay farming
• Strip farming
• Use of Bio-fertlizers
• Organic farming
 Soil Soil Salination: Reasons
Soil Formation 3) Faulty agro-practices
- Cultivation of water
intensive crops in dry
Soil Profile land
- over-irrigation
Soil Erosion - conservation - Rising of water table
- Salt accumulation in
top soil
Soil-Salinity & conservation

Soil salinity: Reasons Soil Salinity: Reasons

1) Arid regions: 4) Water see-page from
• Evaporation near by canal
• Salts on upper layer of
soil 5) Sea water intrusion in
2) Bad drainage the coastal ground
- Terai water reserves
- Basin topography of Ex. Area around gulf of
PN-HN Khambhat in GJ
- Black cotton soil
 Implications of Soil Salinity Structural solutions to soil salinity
❑Salts of sodium, Calcium and Manganese in 1) Washing of soil
top layer
- Fields are filled with
❑Soil fertility reduced – cultivation become water – salts dissolved
impossible – flush water
❑Choice of crop become limited only salt- - Not effective
resistant crop can be grown: cotton, barley
❑Quality of fodder reduced
❑Reduce infiltration on water into ground –
water-logging

Soil-conservation from Salinity Structural solutions to soil salinity

2) Improving drainage
- Laying down of pipes
under ground
Structural Non-structural - Pump out excessive
water
solutions solution - expensive
 Structural solutions to soil salinity Soil
3) Lining of canals to Soil Formation
avoid seepage
4) Use of amendments
Chemicals like, Gypsum Soil Profile
or sodium pyrite to
recover soil Soil Erosion - conservation

Soil-salinity & conservation

Non-Structural solutions to soil salinity Soil

1) Discourage use of Desertification &
GW – instead water- Prevention
shed management or
rainwater harvesting
2) Agro-climatic
farming
Soils of India
3) Dryland farming,
grass farming, millet,
fodder Land Use-Pattern in India
 Desertification Desertification: solution
• Extreme form of land- • Construction of
degradation in semi- retaining walls
arid or sub-humid areas • Cultivation of trees on
• Expansion of desert the margins of desert
• RJ Thar desert – sand • Transverse farming
dunes evade the RJ • Cultivation of grass on
bagar region sandy land – sand
• Extension of desert dunes stabilization
eastward

Desertification: solution Soil

• Desertification cannot Desertification &
be reversed Prevention
• It can only be
prevented to be spread
in other areas
Soils of India

Land Use-Pattern in India

Soils of India Alluvial soil
1) Alluvial soil • Northern Plains, east
2) Red soil coast, GJ except
Kathiawar
3) Black soil
• From East to west:
4) Lateritic soil
• Fertility + Rainfall
5) Mountainous soil
decrease
6) Desert soil
• But Productivity +
7) Saline –alkaline soil technological
8) Mangrove soil advancement increase

Alluvial soil Alluvial soil

• Covers 42% of Indian
soil
• Deposition of rivers
• Most fertile
• Rich in organic
material, micro-
nutrients, well-drained
• Lacks Phosphorus
• East India: high
potential for 2nd Green
revolution
• Provide Irrigation +
modern agro-practice
• RJ plains: vulnerable to
desertification,
seepage from canal -
salinity
Red soil Red Soil
• Covers 25% of Indian • But most vulnerable to
soil area soil-erosion
• Most wide-spread • Arid regions – drought
• Formed due to erosion –prone= poverty
of granite and Gneissic
rocks having iron and • Land fallowing
Nickel • Brick-making –loss of
• Best-drained soil-least top soil
susceptible to water-
logging

Red Soil Question

Q. When you travel certain parts of
• Rich in lime, India, you will notice red soil. What is
phosphate, iron, the main reason for this colour? UPSC
Potash, humus
a) Abundance of Magnesium
• But lack in Nitrogen
and Phosphorus b) Accumulated humus
• It can support c) Presence of ferric oxide
maximum crop-diversity Prelims
d) Abundance of phosphate
• Important for food 2010
security and nutrition
balance Ans. C)
Black soil Black Soil
• Covers 15% of Indian • Areas:
soil • MH plateau, Kathiawar,
• Weathering of lava Vindhyan, Kaimur hills
rocks of Deccan
plateau • Northern part KN
• Rich in Ferro- uplands
magnesium-silicate,
lime and potash
• Lack Nitrogen and
Phosphorus

Black Soil Minerals in Indian soil

• Unique property: Soil Posses lacks
• High clay content Alluvial Soil Nitrogen, Potash, humus Poor in Phosphorus
• Cracks when dry and Black soil Potash and Humus Poor in Nitrogen
sticky when wet and Phosphorus
• Cracks allow air to Red soil Potash N, P and humus
reach into depth Laterite soil Potash and Iron in excess N, P and Calcium
• High water retentivity: Arid soil High Calcium N, humus
good for cotton
cultivation Saline Sodium, Potassium in N
excess
Latosol (lateritic soil) Lateritic soil: agriculture
• Covers 4.5% areas • Not suitable agriculture
• Alternate wet-dry • But suitable for sp.
weather Crops like Tapioca and
• Laterite = brick cashew nuts
• Rich in iron – support
tea, coffee and rubber
plantation with
fertilizers

Latosol (lateritic soil) Latosol (lateritic soil)

• Leaching of silica – • Rich in Bauxite
iron remain in the top • Eastern Ghats,
layer Telangana and KN
• Thick iron pans plateau
‘Petlands’
• Acidic soil
• Quickly eroded on
deforestation, mining
and plantation
Q. Which of the following statement Question Mountainous soil
regarding laterite soil of India are
correct? UPSC • Very thin layer of soil
1. They are red in colour • Under-developed soil
horizon
2. They are rich in nitrogen and
Potash • Soil at steep gradient
cannot support
3. They are well developed in RJ and Prelims agriculture
UP 2013 • Can support grassed of
4. Tapioca and Cashew nuts grow scrubs
well on these soil

Question Mountainous soil

a) 1,2 and 3
b) 2,3 and 4 UPSC • Podzolic soil
c) 1 and 4 • Under cold humid
d) 2 and 3 climate
• Leaching of iron –
silica remain at top soil
Ans. C) Prelims • Not good for
2013 agriculture but good for
forestry - lumbering
Mountainous soil
• Chelation =
• Leaves of coniferous
trees covered with
cheating agent – hard
to degrade
• Cold climate – slow
bacterial process
• Humus content is high
Desert Soil Mangrove soil
• Sandy, loose and friable
soil
• Coarse texture, low
water holding capacity
• Low nutrient, low
fertility
• Cannot support
agriculture
Desert soil
• Indian desert soil is
unique
• Its made up of alluvium,
fine loessic deposits
• Good in micro-nutrients
• Support agriculture
under irrigation
• Vulnerable to salinity
and desertification
• Along tidal region of
coastal areas
• Gleying process
• Swampy-peaty soil
• Bluish-green colour due
to sulphide
• Not suitable for
agriculture – but
support mangroves
Saline –Alkaline soil Soil
• Soil problem areas Desertification &
- Bad drainage in arid Prevention
areas
- Over-irrigation
- Canal areas Soils of India
- West RJ, PN-HN, terai
belt, Deccan region
Land Use-Pattern in India

Saline –Alkaline soil Land use pattern in India

2 stages: Total geo area = 328 ml
ha
• Calcification: moderate
aridity condition • Total reported area =
305 ml ha
• Calcium salts in upper • India – 17% of world
layer population on 2.4% of
• Saline soil: extreme land
arid condition • 9 different ways of land
• Sodium and Potassium use in India (Dept. Land
salts in upper layer resource)
 Land use pattern in India Forest cover in India
Land type Usage in % of total ❑Forest cover = 23-25%
reported area
❑Dense canopy forest = 8%
Forest 23% -25%
Net sown area 46%
❑NACC – target forest cover- 33%
Land not available for agriculture 15% ❑More forest = more rainfall = soil
Developmental land conservation = more ground water
Wasteland
Fallow land 12.5%
Pasture land 3.5%
Trees and grooves <1%

Desired Land use pattern in India Desired Land use pattern in India
Land type Usage in % of Desired Land type Usage in % of Desired
total reported total reported
area area area area
Forest 23% -25% Land not 15%
Trees and grooves <1% available for
agriculture
Developmental
land
 Need for Developmental land
❑As Indian economy grows, urbanization
accelerate
❑Need more land to develop cities (100
Smart cities)
❑More Land needed for infrastructure (road,
railway, bridges) and industries
Fallow land
❑Reason for fallow land:
1) Rainfed area: lack of irrigation facility
2) Poverty – lack of investment
3) Lack of knowledge to reclaim the land
4) Land under judicial litigation

Desired Land use pattern in India Desired Land use pattern in India
Land type Usage in % Desired Land type Usage in % Desired
of total area of total area
reported reported
area area
Fallow land 12.5% Pasture land 3.5%
 Pastureland Desired Land use pattern in India
❑India has largest cattle population in the Land type Usage in % Desired
world but not largest in dairy production of total area
❑As disposable income of people increase – reported
increase in demand of dairy products
area
❑Animal protein important to reduce
Malnutrition, protein- deficiency Net sown area 46%
❑India has high potential to grow as dairy
giant

Desired Land use pattern in India Net sown area in India

Land type Usage in % of Desired ❑Net sown area (46%) ~ 141 ml ha
total reported
area ❑ world’s 10% agriculture land
area
❑we need agriculture land for food security
Forest 23% -25% for large population
❑But to increase the production we do not
Trees and grooves <1% need to increase the net sown area but need
Developmental 15% to increase productivity
land
Pasture land 3.5%
 Net sown area in India
❑China – largest grain producer + exporter
❑Its net sown area is 80 ml ha (India- 141 ml
ha)
❑India has more natural potential for
agriculture than China – fertile soil, tropical
climate
❑So, marginal land must be released from
agriculture – increase soil degradation
Net sown area in India
❑Use such land for afforestation or for
development purpose
❑But protect fertile land from diverting to
non-agriculture activity
Gross Sown Area
❑Total land under multiple cropping
❑India’s GSA ~ 199 ml ha
❑Out of 141 ml ha of net sown area only 58
ml ha of land grown more than once
❑Net Irrigated area = 63.6 ml ha
❑India needs to increase GSA and not NSA to
increase productivity
Cropping Intensity
❑CI = GSA/NSA (%)
❑India’s CI = 140%
❑India’s target CI = 160 %
❑Highest CI in India – Punjab (~187%)
 Importance of Agriculture in India
• Agriculture (+ fisheries
+ livestock + forest)
contribute 13.9% to
India’s GDP (2013-14)
Indian Geography
Economic geography • India’s ~ 51%
population depended
on agri + allied
activities

Features of Indian agriculture

❑Subsistence agriculture – rain-fed
Agriculture agriculture
❑Mixed agriculture (agro+ livestock/ fishery/
poultry)
❑Non-mechanized
❑Low per/person productivity
Mines and minerals ❑Division of land throughout generations –
land fragmentation
❑Food crop cultivation dominant
 Features of Indian agriculture
❑Low agro-investment –
❑Poor forward and backward linkages
❑Under-developed food-processing industry
❑Poor agro-infrastructure: Cold-storages,
refrigerated vans etc.
India’s targets
Make Agri. profitable
Improve Productivity
Sustainable Agriculture
Agriculture Efficiency
❑Agriculture efficiency = agri output / agri
input
❑But India’s agriculture is subsistence,
output not monetized
❑Input not monetized – family members as
labourers
Agriculture Productivity
❑Agriculture Productivity = weight/area or
Qt/ ha or Called yield
❑India – half or 1/3th of highest productivity
in the world (except sugarcane and wheat)
 Pattern in India’s productivity To increase Productivity
1) High productivity areas:
- High investment in input- machinery, HYV,
irrigation Improve CI
- PN-HN, Kaveri basin, Kashmir
2) Good potential areas:
- Fertile land, good rainfall, cheap labour seeds Nutrition irrigation Fin.
- Lower Gangetic plains, eastern coast

Pattern in India’s productivity

3) Low productivity areas: Nutrition
- Bad soil, low rainfall, frequent droughts,
difficult terrain (mountains/ plateaus) or
deserts Soil
- High crop failure, agrarian poverty conservation
- Techniques: Dryland agriculture, watershed
management
Chemical Organic
 3 things to consider: productivity
Water-use
efficiency ❑3 things to consider while improving
productivity
1) Conservation of natural resources
Non- - Judicious use of Chemical inputs
conventional
conventional - Fertilizers, pesticides, artificial hormones

Canal, Tube Watershed,

well rainwater harv.

3 things to consider: productivity

Forward Links 2) Character of Indian agriculture must not be
destroyed (labour intensive) – unemployment
- Modernization should not be at pre-harvest
side (sowing, weeding etc)
Marketing
- Modernization needed at post-harvest side.
I.e. storage, food-processing, marketing,
transportation, agro-research
Food-Proc.
Cold storages Transportation
Indu.
 3 things to consider: productivity Agriculture-season in India
3) No blind race to achieve high productivity • 3 main seasons of
- Target to achieve optimum and sustainable cultivation in India
target of productivity 1) Kharif
- Not to achieve highest productivity – it will 2) Rabi
exhaust our natural resources 3) Zaid

Major crops
Crop
Kharif crops Rabi crops Zaid crops
Mkt SOIL Monsoon Winter season Dry summer
season season
All crops except Wheat, gram, Vegetables and
Agri Rabi crops linseed, pea fruits
Fin. Water
and Mustard
Rice, sugarcane,
M/C Nutri. Bajra, Jawar
etc.
 Rice
• Major staple food
• India- largest area under
rice in the world
• temp =21-25 deg, warm
conditions
• Water intensive crop
• Grown in wetter parts
• Productivity is low
compared to wheat
Techniques to cultivate Rice
• Japanese
transplantation
technique
• Peninsular India – less
water intensive dry-
upland rice
• New SRI technique
Rice
• 60-70% from late
summer rice – Aman,
Sali, Afghani
• Peninsular plateau –
autumn rice – “Ours”
• East India – summer
rice – “Boro” and
“Palua”
Wheat
• Rabi crop
• Temp: 17-20 deg
• Not water intensive
crop
• Sub-tropical crop
• Productivity highest in
India- after green
revolution
Wheat producing areas
• Western disturbances crop Area of cultivation
help wheat ripening
• Wheat is grown in Moong Eastern Indian coast
winter in India (max area)
• North and north-
western part Arahar (Tuar) North India and MP
Urad (Black gram) South India
Gram (Chana) PN (Rabi crop)

Pulses Problems: pulse cultivation

• Lentils and grams ❑After Green revolution, cultivation of rice
• Major source of and wheat promoted
vegetable protein ❑High MSP on grains
❑Pulsed pushed to marginal lands
❑Pulse production declined / stagnant
❑High pulse import
 Govt. schemes for pulse cultivation Jawar (Sorghum)
❑Introduction of Dryland agriculture program • Jawar – 3th most imp
to encourage pulse cultivation crop after rice and
❑RKVY – 60k pulse village prog. wheat
❑National Food security Mission include • Kharif + Rabi Crop
pulses • Suitable for rainfed
areas
❑Target: 4 mT pulse production
• Require around 30 cm
rainfall – dry situation
• MH, MP, KN, AP

Millets Bajra
Need less rainfall (dry • Kharif crop
crops) • 40-50 cm rainfall +
• Entirely grown under warm climate
subsistence farming • Bright sunlight after
• Grown for fodder crops light shower
• Very nutritious and • MH, GJ, UP = Bajara
affordable
• Important for Nutrition
security
• But least preferred
Ragi Cotton: producing areas
• Drier part – rainfed • Traditional cotton areas
crop • Western India
• 20-30 deg temp • But high profitability
• KN largest producer shift to PN and Kaveri
(more than 50%) basin regions
• Over-irrigation in dry
seasons – soil salinity

Cotton Textile industries in India

• Dry crop – not much ❑One of the most important industry in India
rain needed
❑Labour intensive
• But adequate and
timely supply of water ❑Backward linkages with agriculture
to roots ❑During British era, Bombay developed 1st
• Black soil- highly water center for textile industries
retentive- keep roots
moist ❑Mumbai, Amaravati, Vardha-pune, Satara-
• Dry regions of black Nagpur
soil
 MH region
❑Black soil – cotton producing regions
❑Mumbai port (import of machinery and coal
+ export of textile)
❑Cheap labour from surrounding regions
❑Finance from rich Parsis and Gujarati
merchants
❑Mumbai- agglomeration – inertia more
development
Shift to Gujarat
❑Mumbai- congestion, strong labour union
❑Ahmedabad – located at heart of cotton
growing regions
❑Ahmedabad – emerging market, cheap
labour supply
❑More impetus After development of Kandla
❑Ahmedabad, Bharuch, Vadodara, Surat
Shift to Tamil Nadu
❑Earlier Inadequate amount of raw materials
❑After development of railway, supply of raw
material
❑Lack of coal – power. Development of HEP
❑Coimbatore, Salem, Tuticorin, Pondicherry
Question
Q. Tamil Nadu is a leading producer
of mill-made cotton yarn in the
country. What could be the reason? UPSC
1. Black cotton soil is the
predominant type of the soil in
the state
2. Rich pool of skilled labour is Prelims
2010
available
Which of the above is/are correct?
 Question Question
a) 1 only Q. A state in India has following
b) 2 only characteristics:
UPSC UPSC
c) Both 1 and 2 1. Northern part is arid, semi-arid
d) Neither 1 nor 2 2. Its central part produces cotton
3. Cultivation of cash crops is
predominant over food crops
Ans. B) Prelims Prelims
Dominant soil type in TN is red soil 2010 2011
Which one of the following states
has all of the above characteristics?

Soil in TN Question
a) Andhra Pradesh
b) Gujarat UPSC
c) Karnataka
d) Tamil Nadu

Ans. b) Prelims
Predominant crops in GJ: cotton, 2011
tobacco, ground nut, castor seed
 Question Sugar cane areas
Q. Analyse the factors for highly
centralised cotton textile industry in • Traditional sugarcane
India. (5) UPSC
areas- Northern plains
Factors: • North India- sub-
1) Raw material tropical variety – low
sugar content-
2) Energy source Mains • Sugar factories shut in
3) Cheap labour 2013 winter season
4) Finance
5) Market

Sugarcane Sugar cane areas

• Water intensive cash- • From northern Plains,
crop Shift to
• Reliable cash crop than 1) south India
cotton 2) PN-HN
3) Western India
 Sugar cane areas: South India Oil-seeds
• Ground nut, sun-flower,
❑Tropical variety – coastal areas; humidity mustard, palm-oil, soya-
❑High sugar content, high yield oil
❑Sugar factories open year around • Low productivity issue
❑Skilled disciplined labour similar to pulses and
❑Sugarcane –need effective post-harvest millets
management
❑Better work in cooperative sector
❑South India organized cooperative sector

Question
Q. Do you agree that there is a Oil-seed Oil content Producing states
growing trend of opening new sugar
mills in southern states of India? UPSC Ground nut 40-50% oil GJ, AP, TN
Discuss with justification. (5) Sesame 45-50% oil GJ (India is the
largest)

Mains Rape seed and 25-45% oil UP, RJ, PN (India

2013 Mustard (Rabi) is the largest)

Linseed (Rabi) 35-45% oil MP, UP and Bihar

Castor seed 50% GJ (2/3th), AP
 Problems: oil-seeds Tea
❑Traditionally low productivity in oil-seed • Need high rainfall
production >200cm
❑Input intensive + price volatility • Tea- roots cannot
tolerate water-logging
❑Farmers aversion to cultivate oil-seeds
Grown on slopes –
❑Important for vegetable fat 1) Himalayan slopes
❑Import from SE Asian countries 2) Nilgiri
❑Highest import bill in food-basket India largest producer –
70% domestically
consumed

Govt. promotion : oil-seeds Tea: plantation

❑Mission on Oil-seed and oil-palm • Introduction by British
❑Increase oil-seed production 4.5% per year • India- largest producer
❑But yet not matched with edible oil demand • Labour intensive sector
❑Govt. introduced ‘Yellow Revolution’ to • Important for women
promote oil-seed cultivation employment
 Question Jute
Q. Whereas British planters has
developed tea gardens all along • Grown in high rainfall
shiwaliks and lesser Himalayas from UPSC
and humid areas
Assam to Himachal Pradesh, in • Water-intensive crop
effect they did not succeed beyond • Traditional area
Darjeeling area. Explain. (10)
• Hugli basin
Mains
• Shifted to Godavari
2014
basin

1) Disappearance of lesser him in Question Retting of Jute

east
2) Steep-slope – absence of UPSC
soil/fertile soil
3) Heights – low temp (frost)
4) Low population density
5) Difficult terrain – transportation Mains
issues 2014
6) Far away from ports (Kolkata or
Chittagong)
 Jute
❑Once it was called ‘golden fiber’ – highest
FOREX earner crop in India
❑Germany- synthetic fiber – demand declined
❑Today not so important
❑Need more research and innovation to
promote jute
❑Ecological than synthetic fiber
Spices in KR
❑Largest producer of Pepper, Cardamom,
Ginger, areca-nut
❑Hot, Humid climate (200-250 cm rainfall)
❑1000-1200m height of Western Ghats
❑loamy lateritic soils
❑KN, TN are other important spice producer
states

Spices Question
Q. Following are the characteristics
• India was known for its of an area in India
UPSC
spices since ancient 1. Hot and Humid climate
times 2. Annual rainfall 200 cm
• Slopes of western
Ghats (largest- KR) 3. Hill slopes up to an altitude of
1100m
• Assam (Cardamom) Prelims
• RJ (chili)
4. Annual range of temperature 15 2010
deg to 30 deg
• AP (turmeric)
 Question Question
Which one of the following crops are Ans. C)
you most likely to find in the area Paddy and Jute
described above? UPSC UPSC
a) Mustard
b) Cotton
c) Pepper Prelims Prelims
d) Virginia tobacco 2010 2011

Ans. C)

Q. The lower Gangetic plains is Question Seed Mission

characterized by humid climate with ❑Seed Mission (12th Plan) by Min. of agri
high temperature throughout the UPSC
year. Which one the following pairs ❑For major 45 crops
of crops is most suitable for this ❑To increase production of certified quality seeds
region? ❑To enhance the seed replacement rate (SRR).
a) Paddy and cotton ❑To upgrade quality of farm saved seeds
Prelims
b) Wheat and Jute ❑ To establish a seed reserve at regional levels to
2011
c) Paddy and Jute meet requirement during natural calamities
d) Wheat and cotton ❑Up-gradation of public sector seed producing
agencies.
 Seed Bill, 2004
❑To Replace seed act, 1966
❑To regulate production, distribution and sale
of seeds
❑All varieties of seeds for sale have to be Indian Geography
registered. Economic geography of India
❑The seeds are required to meet certain
prescribed minimum standards.

Seed Bill, 2004

❑Transgenic varieties of seeds can be
registered only after clearance under the Agriculture
Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
❑If a registered variety of seed fails to
perform, the farmer can claim compensation
from the producer or dealer.
Mines and minerals
❑Setting up a compensation committee that
shall hear and decide these cases.
 Major Crops of India
Crop

Mkt Land

Sugarcane Tea Jute

Fin. Agri Water

Ext. Nutri.

M/C Spices

Major Crops of India Seed Mission

❑Seed Mission (12th Plan) by Min. of agri
❑For major 45 crops
❑To enhance the seed replacement rate (SRR).
Rice Wheat Pulses ❑To upgrade quality of farm saved seeds
❑To increase production of certified quality seeds
❑To establish a seed reserve at regional levels to
meet requirement during natural calamities
❑Up-gradation of public sector seed producing
Millets Oil-seeds Cotton
agencies.
 Seed Bill, 2004
Crop
❑To Replace seed act, 1966
❑To regulate production, distribution and sale Mkt Land

of seeds
❑All varieties of seeds for sale have to be
registered. Fin. Agri Water

❑The seeds are required to meet certain

prescribed minimum standards.
Ext. Nutri.

M/C

Seed Bill, 2004 Land issues: Land size

❑Transgenic varieties of seeds can be ❑Large net sown area (~141ml ha)
registered only after clearance under the ❑High pressure on land
Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
❑Per capita availability of land = 0.32 ha
❑If a registered variety of seed fails to ❑World avg. = 2 ha
perform, the farmer can claim compensation
from the producer or dealer. ❑Average operational holding = 1.23 ha
❑Setting up a compensation committee that
shall hear and decide these cases.
 Reasons for Land issues in India British era: land issues

Social system intermediaries Money lenders

High land revenue Bonded labour

British policies sun-set law Famine-hunger

Ancient Land Revenue system in India After Independence: Land Reforms

❑Symbiotic relation with ruler and farmers
❑Non-exploitative and non-interference
❑Akabar’s Mansabdari system- devised by
Todalmal – continued till Tuqluq
❑British dismantled this system
❑J.C Kumarappa committee:
❑Objectives:
1) Elimination of intermediaries
2) Tenancy reforms ( security of tenure-ship,
ownership rights)
3) Land consolidation
4) Modernize land records
 Land reforms: agenda 1
❑Abolition of Zamindaari
❑Delay in implementation, legal loopholes
❑Corruption at local level
❑Informally still exist in some parts of India
sp. Eastern India
Land reforms: agenda 2
❑Tenancy reforms:
❑Land rent reduced to 10-15%
❑Security of tenure to tenets through lease or
rent-agreements
❑But lack of land records – no confirmation
of ownership of land, illiteracy, poverty in
tenets
Land reforms: agenda 3
❑Land-ceiling:
❑An upper limit was set for zamindar to keep
the land- surplus land taken over by govt.
❑Benaami transaction, corruption at local
level, factious ownership
❑Lack of computerization of land records
Land reforms: agenda 4
❑Land consolidation:
❑Small per capita land holding
❑Difficulty in profitable, mechanized
agriculture
❑Low productivity, low agro-investment
1) Exchange of lands to increase operational
holding- but mutual trust needed
2) Cooperative farming - failed
 Status of land reforms in states Diversity in Indian agriculture
❑Not all states can successfully implement Economic Climatic
the land reforms Agro- status
❑Only states like, PN, HN, GJ, MH and
status condition
southern states partially successful Landless
❑Farmers in Eastern Indian states still not Farm size
labour
Soil, rainfall
free from clutches of zamindaars, bonded
labour and exploitation of farmers
❑Farmers of east India – small land holding Tech. Big/marginal
temperature
or landless labourers- high agrarian poverty advancement farmers

Agro-climatic Planning
❑Planning approach for better agro-
productivity
Land reforms
❑Encouraging farming practice which is
suitable for local climate and local
British policies physiographical situation of the place
❑FAO definition = a land unit delineated in
terms of major climate and growing period,
Historic situation which is climatically suitable for certain
range of crops
 Agro-climatic regions: parameters Agro-climatic regions
❑India – diverse climatic conditions 8) Central plateau
❑Divisions are based on natural conditions 9) Western plateau and
1) Climate (rainfall, temperature) hills
2) Soil (texture, nutrition, fertility, water 10) Southern plt +hills
holding capacity) 11) East coast plain +
hills
3) Water availability – surface and
12) East coast + hills
groundwater
13) Gujarat plains
4) Terrain – slope/plain

Agro-climatic regions Agro-climatic regions

1) West Himalayas 14) Western Dry region
2) East Himalayas 15) The island regions
3) Lower Ganga plain
4) Mid-Ganga plain
5) Upper Ganga plain
6) Trans-Ganga plain
7) Eastern Plateau and
hills
 Objectives under Agro-climatic planning
Crop
Maximum Productivity

Agro-practices Technology- research

Mkt Land

Conservation of resources
Fin. Agri Water
Water-use efficiency Choice of crops

Economic benefits to farmers Ext. Nutri.

Diversification within agri. Non-crop options M/C

ICAR: National Agro-research Project Irrigation

• Soil
degradation,
• Landless
labours, ❑Present level of irrigation – 63.6 ml ha out
salinity, GW
issues
marginal
farmers of 141 ml ha
Ecological
Socio- ❑India’s 55% net sown area is rain-fed, thus
economic
status
status low productivity
❑To increase productivity, cropping intensity
Cropping Bottlenecks
or Gross area production – expansion of
system to growth irrigation network is necessary
• Rainfed • Natural or
farming, human
shifting induced
agriculture reasons?
 Types of Irrigation in India Canal Irrigation
❑Multi-purpose river valley projects =
drinking water, irrigation, HEP, navigation,
Canal irrigation fishing
❑River water storage system = reservoir
Tank Irrigation ❑Water divergence system = canal
❑Water application network = small channels
Tube-well irrigation ❑But least efficient irrigation system

Canal Irrigation Problems of canal irrigation

• One of the oldest way ❑Efficiency of canal system depend upon
of irrigation in India dam and its application network
• Easy to construct in ❑Problems of canals:
soft rocks areas – like
1) Silting
in northern plains than
in peninsular plateau 2) Seepage losses
3) Evaporative losses
4) Submergence of lands
5) Prone to disputes
 Under-use of canal waters
❑Under-use of canal waters
❑Total installed irrigation potential – 90-100
ml ha but actual usage 70-80 ml ha
❑Govt. formulated command-area
development program to encourage farmers
to use canal waters
Command area dev. Prog.
1) Development of on-field activities (field-
channels, field leveling, field-grading)
2) Supply of improved seeds, fertilizers,
pesticides, improved methods
3) Agro-credit and services
4) Post-harvest infra (cold storages)
5) Forming of “Paani-panchayats”- to resolve
water issues

Reason for under-usage of canals Tank irrigation

1) Problems of water supply in canals • Artificial ponds of
2) Not all farmers can construct field massive size
application channels from the canals • Up to 3-4 acre of area
(small land, poverty, tech) • Popular in southern
3) To use canal water needs, field- leveling India / peninsular
and field grading plateau
• Temple town in south
4) Lack of warabandhi irrigation system India
 Tanks in south India Tube wells
❑Difficult to construct canals in hard rocks of • Most convenient,
peninsula cheap method where
❑Ancient practice to tank in south India rainfall is less or not
reliable
❑Common tank among the temple town
• No evaporative or
❑Small channels to agriculture fields seepage losses
❑Locally constructed and managed • No need of application
❑But dry, semi-arid regions: network
❑Susceptible to evaporative losses

Decline of tank irrigation Problems with Tube-wells

❑Construction of massive tanks declined
❑Farmers of arid, semi-arid regions –poor
(rain-fed farming)
❑Construction and maintenance of tanks
costly
❑Ignorance to traditional practice
❑Tube –wells give false sense of surplus –
misuse of ground water
❑Electricity, tube wells on subsidy
❑Lowering water table
❑Over-use of ground water –soil salinity
 Status of various irrigation techniques New Schemes for Irrigation development
Irrigation 1950-51 2009-10 status •Watershed
techniques Neeranchal development in
Canals 40% 30% country
Tanks 15-17% <4%
Tube wells 30% >60% Pradhan Mantri •Expedite stalled small
Krishi Sinchayee and major irrigation
Yojana projects

Crop

Mkt Land

Rain water Watershed

Drip-irrigation
Harvesting management
Fin. Agri Water

Ext. Nutri.

Sprinklers Mulching M/C

 Soil-Nutrients
NPK: Nutrient based subsidy
❑Ideal N:P:K ratio should be 4: 2: 1 (N:P:K)
❑But in reality= 8.2: 4.2: 1
❑High production and usage of Urea because
of high subsidy + out of NBS
❑Other nutrients neglected
❑Nitrate pollution in soil and water
Soil Health Cared scheme
❑ State Governments to issue soil health
cards to all farmers in the country.
❑Soil health card will provide information to
farmers on nutrient status of their soil +
recommendation on appropriate dosage of
nutrients - for improving soil health and its
fertility.
❑ Soil Health status will be assessed
regularly in a cycle of 3 years
Problems of chemical fertilizers
❑Soil and water pollution
❑Marine pollution – eutrophication – Algal
bloom
❑High Nitrate in drinking water – stomach
cancer
❑Unless the soil gets enough humus,
chemicals harden the soil and reduce its
fertility in the long run
 Organic Farming Vermi-compost
❑Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana to • Mixture of Earth-worms +
promote organic farming decomposed food or
❑Discourage the use of chemical fertilizers vegetable waste
and pesticides • Break down of organic
matter by earth worm
❑Promote traditional practice of farming, use
of bio-fertilizers, vermi-compost etc. • Water-soluble, nutrient-
rich, moist organic
❑Sustainable method of agriculture (crop- fertlizers
rotation, water-efficiency)

Green Manure Benefits of Vermi-compost

Prior to the sowing of ❑Increase soil-aeration
the crop seeds, sun ❑Enrich soil with micro-organism
hemp or guar are grown
and then mulch + ❑Improve soil water retentivity
ploughing them into the ❑Improve root-growth in plants
soil. ❑Easy to produce at affordable way
helps in enriching N, P
in soil
Discourage weeds
Discourage leaching
 During 2nd FYP
Crop
❑2nd FYP – Mahalanobis model – impetus to
Mkt Land heavy industries
❑Agriculture was deliberately ignored
❑Capital industries – no immediate results –
Fin. Agri Water high investment, long gestation period,
❑1961-62 Sino-India war
❑Droughts
Ext. Nutri. ❑Food crisis- hunger, famine
M/C ❑Urged for food import from USA- PL 480

After Independence Green Revolution

❑1st FYP- all the sectors of economy was ❑Launched in 1965-66 as HYV program
given equal importance ❑Model: Philippines and Mexico
❑After independence net sown area ❑M.S. Swaminathan brought HYV developed
expansion till 1st FYP by Norman Borlaug
❑Then it reached saturation – no space for
more expansion
❑Needed focus on high productivity to
increase expansion
 Objective of Green Revolution
❑Manage food crisis
❑Develop self-sufficiency in food production
❑Modernization of agriculture
❑Develop agro-industry interface
Green Revolution
❑Level -1: modernization of agro-practice
❑HYV, irrigation, chemical fertilizers,
pesticides, mechanization
❑Level -2: crop-specific, region-specific
❑Target: wheat crop and region: PN-HN and
western UP
❑Farmers of this region – rich, risk taking
ability, large farm size, willing to adopt new
technology
Benefits of Green Revolution
❑Increase in agro-productivity
❑Productivity in wheat increased 4 times
❑Improvement in overall food-crop production
❑1950-51 – production was 50 ml ton
❑1990s – 200 ml ton
❑Improvement was carried out in jawar,
sugarcane, potatoes
❑Milk, poultry, fishing
Benefits of Green Revolution
❑Boost to growth of fertilizer industries
❑Expansion of irrigated lands
❑Tube-well revolution
❑Roads, markets, cold storages in NW India
❑Not a single incidence of famine in India
after Green Revolution
 Criticism of approach of Green Revo.
❑Crop-specific and region-specific
❑Increased disparity
❑But that policy was according to need of the
time
❑The mistake was - The success of green
revolution was not spread to other areas
To spread Green Revolution in other areas
❑Need channels for dissemination
❑According to soil, climate and water-
availability
❑Modification in technologies and selection
of crop according to need of the local area
❑Creation of infra, regulations, monitoring,
awareness
De-merits of Green Revolution
❑Inter-crop and inter-regional disparity
❑Pulse- millets –oil-seeds were neglected
❑Agro-modernization did not reached to
drylands and poor regions
❑Large farmers became rich, small and
marginal farmers neglected
❑Input-intensive agro-practice: excessive use
of water, fertilizers – soil erosion, salinity,
pollution
Question
Q. Why did Green revolution in India
virtually by-pass the eastern region,
despite fertile soil and good UPSC
availability of water? (10)
Mains
2014
While spreading Green Revo. - other areas National Food Security Mission
❑No to input intensive agriculture practice
❑Within the limit of local natural resources
❑Focus on all agro-crops + non-crop agro-
activities Targets

❑Encourage crop-diversification (for Capacity

nutritional security) Building

❑“Evergreen Revolution” = sustainable

agriculture

National Food security Mission Targets under NFSM

❑Launched in 2007
❑Ministry of agriculture
❑NFSM of 12th plan has 5 components;
1) Rice
2) Wheat
3) Pulses 10 mT 8 mT 4 mT 3 mT
4) Millets (coarse cereals) Rice Wheat Pulse Coarse
5) Commercial crops – cotton, sugarcane and cereals
Jute
 Farm Field schools For Evergreen Revolution

Farm mechanization

Resource conservation techniques Agriculture

Efficient water application tools Pricing

Investment R&D Agro-trade
policy
Cropping system based training

NFSM: Capacity Building For Evergreen Revolution

❑Cluster demonstration: new techniques- Agriculture
direct seeded rice/line transplanting/SRI;
❑Demonstration on front-line technology on
Investment R&D Pricing policy Agro-trade
hybrid varieties, distribution of improved
varieties/hybrids
Farm Lab to field
FCI Reforms APMC act
consolidation connection

Make in India Lab to industry

Balanced MSP FPI
Skill India connection
 Development of Agro-Extension
Crop
Farmer Student
Mkt Land ARYA
FIRST READY
Create
Fin. Agri Water Farmer-scientist
linkage
Agro- education
employment
opportunities for
youth in agri.

Ext. Nutri. Training+ demo

Entrepreneur skill
dev.
M/C

Agricultural Extension
Crop
❑Agriculture education and awareness
❑Veterinary education and research Mkt Land

❑Information dissemination
❑Training and capacity building Fin. Agri Water

Ext. Nutri.

M/C
 National crop-insurance Prog.
❑Merging National agriculture Insurance
scheme, Weather based Crop Insurance
scheme and Coconut, Palm Insurance
HYV mechanization fertilizers
scheme
❑The scheme is available for all farmers
❑It covers all crops – cereal, millets, pulses,
horticulture, oil seeds
❑10% premium subsidy for small and medium
farmers
irrigation Soil conservation Storage of produce

Finance NABARD’s initiatives

❑Kisan Credit card scheme
❑It gives crop loans, term-loans and
consumption loans
❑KCC-> smart card to use as ATM
❑Risk coverage to KCC holder against
accidental death (50k)or permanent
disability (20k)
❑“Long Term Rural Credit Fund” for
refinancing Cooperative Banks and Regional
Rural Banks
❑“PRODUCE” - NABARD’s Producers’
Organization Development Fund for
Producer’s development and upliftment
❑“Price Stabilization Fund” to mitigate price
volatility in the agriculture produce
 Solution to agro-Marketing
Crop
• Direct contract farming
Mkt Land Amend APMC Act

• Direct sale of fruits and vegetables

Kisan Mandi by farmers to consumers
Fin. Agri Water
• Direct marketing of produce
FPO • Cooperative marketing
Ext. Nutri.
Unified National • Elimination of inter-state barriers
M/C Market

Problems of Agro-marketing in India Unified National Market

❑Large no. of middle men
❑Lack of grading and standardization
❑Inadequate transport system
❑Lack of storage infra
❑Lack of credit facility to farmers
❑Lack of market info to farmers
❑Indian farmers receive 25% of the retail
price of their produce (US farmers get 70%)
❑Sarkaria commission and Punchi
commission recommended inter-state trade
and commerce commission
❑SC in Atiabari tea co. Vs state of Assam =
free movement and exchange of goods
throughout the territory of India is essential
for the economy of the nation and for
sustaining and improving living standards of
the people
 Storage Infrastructure
❑Grameen Bhandaran Yojana
❑Private Entrepreneurs Guarantee scheme by
FCI
❑For construction of go-downs through PPP
❑Guarantee full capacity rents for 10 years
❑Storage capacity should be enough to meet
4 months’ requirement of PDS
❑100% FDI allowed in warehouse
development
Marketing
❑Forward Market Commission (FMC) has set
up e-portal AGMARKNET
❑Real time whole sale prices of agricultural
commodities on the e-portal
❑Connected with most of the APMC markets,
mandis and Kisan Vikas Kendras, state
agriculture marketing boards

Storage Infrastructure
Crop
❑Warehouses, private or of CWC or SWC,
have to be registered with WDRA whichever Mkt Land
want to issue warehouse negotiable receipt
❑The ware house receipt is a tool for trade at
commodity exchange or to get loans at Fin. Agri Water
commercial rates.
❑Benefits of receipt encourage farmers to
store their produce in warehouse Ext. Nutri.

M/C
 Livestock
Dairy Fishery
Livestock
❑India accounts for about 17% of the cattle
population
❑64% of the buffalo population
❑Rate of increase in milk production = 4.2%
which is higher than the growth rate of
population (1.2% -2013).
❑Per capita availability of milk is 281gm per
day (2013-14) > 186gm/Day (Asia)
❑ 294gm/Day (world average)
Dairy Development: Amul
❑Farmers of kheda district with help of
Sardar Patel and Morarji Desai organised a
cooperative union.
❑It registered as kheda district cooperative
milk producers’ union ltd. in 1946
❑ Tribhuvandas Patel persuaded farmers
door to door to join the milk cooperative
❑Dr. vergese Kurien who led white revolution,
led the cooperative between 1950 to 1973
Success of Amul
❑Amul was first dairy to produce cheese and
baby food from buffalo milk
❑Amul provides artificial insemination, veterinary
facilities, insurance cover and quality green
fodder to the farmers of the union
❑IRMA was founded in Anand for professional
managers for rural development projects
❑In 1974, Gujarat cooperative milk marketing
federation ltd. – apex organization of the union
to look after marketing
 National Dairy Development Board
❑In 1964, Lal Bahadur Shashtri initiated all
states to set up cooperative dairies based on
Anand pattern
❑In 1965 he created NDDB with kurien as his
chairman and HQ at Anand
Operation Flood
❑NDDB launched operation flood launched in
1970 to replicate Anand pattern in other part
of the country
❑The operation made India – world’s largest
milk producer, surpassing USA in 1998
❑Today India’s milk output is 17% of world’s
output
Phase I: Operation flood
❑Mother dairies : in 4 metro cities
❑Production- collection and marketing from
rural hinterlands of metro cities
Phase II: Operation flood
❑Increase sheds and outlets
❑Thousands of milk cooperatives and milk
producers covered
❑“RAKSHA” vaccine developed for cattle
health
 Phase III: Operation flood Success of Cooperatives
❑ Increase infrastructure for procurement Cooperative farming Cooperative dairy
❑R&D animal health and nutrition – for
enhanced productivity for milch animals ❑Land size ▪Individual farmer submit
❑Fertility of land the milk container
❑Feed, veterinary service, artificial ▪Gets money according to
insemination service ❑Investment
weight and quality of milk
❑Knowledge-expertise
❑ Dairy education for members of union ▪Bonus or share from the
❑Hard-work
profit to cooperative
❑Agro-tools members

Outcome of Operation flood National Livestock Mission

❑It increased milk supply and income of the ❑Introduced in FY 2014-15
farmers, mainly small and landless farmers ❑Dept. of Animal husbandry and dairying,
❑women empowerment – Operation flood Ministry of Agriculture
take assistance from SEWA and established
6000 women dairy cooperative societies ❑Fodder and feed development -> to meet
❑To NDDB has indigenous expertise in animal scarcity of animal feed resource
health, animal nutrition, artificial
insemination, Management Information
System (MIS), dairy engineering and food
technology
 Fodder development
❑Feed Security Bill on the lines of Food
Security Bill.
1) To decide the milk pricing policy
2) Milk Credit Card at minimum rate of
interest
3) Setting up Gobar Bank (fertilizer+ biogas)
4) Collection centres for urine of cow so
that it becomes an additional source of
income for farmers.
5) Marketing facility for cow products
Veterinary health: issues
❑Need for universal vaccination of cattle on
regular basis
❑Improve the condition of semen banks
❑Issue of shortage of veterinary doctors,
veterinary colleges and universities. -
absence of govt. grant to veterinary
institutes
Indigenous cattle
❑Indigenous cattle breed are vulnerable to
extinction
❑India, total 83% of cow population is indigenous
❑But there is decline in indigenous cattle
population by 8% in 2007
❑There are 37 recognised indigenous cattle
breed in India
❑ Examples- Gir, rathi, Sahiwal, Kasaragod,
Kankrej, Amrithmahal
Challenges: indigenous cattle breed
❑Excessive cross-breeding
❑farm-mechanisation – utility of drought
breeds decreased
❑Decline of grazing grounds
❑Fragmentation of agricultural
landholdings
❑ shift to cash crops such as rubber
 Importance of Indigenous cattle breed
❑Indigenous cattle breeds are better than exotic
cattle breed
❑ reasons:
❑They are adapted to arid weather conditions, -
crossbred cattle require regular supply of
fodder.
❑lower feed intake
❑disease resistance
❑easier management
❑suitable for drought work
Indigenous cattle
❑the average milk yield is lower than hybrid
but their quality of the milk is very rich
❑They produce quality compost manure for
areca nut, rice and coconut farms.
❑They can be fed on kitchen leftovers,
straw, local grass and agricultural by-
products
❑Existing superior indigenous breed can
provide research input to develop better
breed on the future
To conserve Indigenous cattle breed
Rashtriya Kamdhenu Breeding
centre
Rashtriya Gokul Mission
Rashtriya Kamdhenu Breeding centre
❑2 kamdhenu breeding centres- one each in
Northern India and southern India
❑There will be Nucleus herds of all indigenous
breeds
❑They will be repositories of indigenous germ-
plasm and source of certified genetics in the
country
❑Certified germ-plasm will be made available to
farmers, breeding institutes and trust
maintaining indigenous breeds
 Rashtriya Gokul Mission
❑It is a project under National Programme for
Bovine Breeding and Dairy Development
(BBDD)
❑37 indigenous breeds of cattle and 13
buffalo breeds
❑It aims to conserve Indigenous Breeds in a
scientific manner.
❑Develop indigenous breeds for higher
productivity

Rashtriya Gokul Mission Livestock

❑The objectives:
❑Superior nutrition and enhancing the milk
production and productivity of indigenous
bovines
❑up gradation of indigenous bovine germ-
plasm
Dairy Fishery
❑to distribute the disease-free, high genetic
merit bulls of indigenous breeds for natural
service.
 Fishery development Largest producer of Marine fishing
Gujarat

Kerala

Maharashtra
Marine Inland Tamil Nadu
fishing fishing
Andhra Pradesh

Marine fishing Problems of Marine fishing

❑Indian ocean – least exploited of all oceans
in the world in terms of fishing
❑India: 75% of marine fish production come
from west coast
❑Poverty among fishing community
❑India’s off-shore and deep-sea fishing is very
poor
❑Low use of technology – landing, freezing,
canning, transport
❑Poor infra – cold storages, mechanised
boats
❑Marine fishing – seasonal (monsoon and
tropical cyclone hinder fishing)
 Deep Sea fishing Comparison marine and inland fishing
• Large mechanized ❑Growth of inland fishing faster than marine
fishing vessel fishing
• Large net/ gears ❑After the year of 2000 – production under
• On –board inland fishing is more than marine
Refrigeration facilities
• GPS system

Open sea cage farming Inland fishing

• Floating cage in open ❑Rivers, lakes, canals, deltas, backwaters,
sea lagoons, estuaries
• Hatchery produced
seedlings in cage
• Fishes are fed by
fishermen+ patrolling
• Central Marine fishery
institute provide skills
to fishermen
 Largest producer of Inland fishing Blue Revolution
West Bengal ❑Started during 1970s – 5th FYP
❑ Govt. set up Fish farmers development
Agency
Gujarat ❑Later on Brackish water fish farmers
development agency was set up
Kerala ❑Objective:
❑Adoption of new technique of fish breeding,
Andhra Pradesh fish rearing, fish marketing and fish export
❑It led to increase in production of Shrimp –
Maharashtra Nellor of AP – Shrimp capital of India

Largest producer of Inland fishing Brackish water aqua-culture

❑WB : Ganga delta, large demand • Carp culture
❑GJ: low local demand, 97% export/ other introduction in 1980s
states • Artificial brackish
water ponds – carp
❑KR: lakes and lagoons -85% of produce is
culture
processed – intensively fished area
• AP, PN, HN, MH
❑AP: fishing cooperatives – supply to WB
• AP: >73% of carp
production (shrimp,
prawn)
 Brackish water aqua-culture: Issues
• See-page from the
Fishing
brackish water ponds
• Soil salinity and ground
water salinity of
surrounding regions mechanization Bio-tech sustainable

Modern Eco-friendly
Germ-plasm
trawlers techniques

Potential in fishing sector Modernization of

fishing sector
❑Breeding of High value fin-fish and shell-fish
❑Ornamental fish breeding
New generation Hygiene and
❑Organic aqua-farming Trawlers and gears
Trade
quality control
❑Upgradation of technology in cold water fish
species Finance to fishing
Processing-
packaging-
❑Development of water-recirculating units community
marketing

❑Development of technology for inland saline

areas Information
Storage facilities
awareness