OTHER DISCOVERIES INVOLVED IN GEODESY (HIGHLIGHTS)
Bouguer correction due to the roughly shape of the Earth.
• Eratosthenes – first estimate of the Earth’s size using the shadow
cast by the sun on a well in Syene, Egypt
• Ptolemy – world maps which influenced cartographers and
navigators of the Middle Ages
• Homer – disk-shaped Earth
• Pythagoras – sphere-shaped Earth
• Posidonius – estimation of the Earth’s radius by stellar observation
• Al-Biruni - estimation of the Earth’s radius by using a dip angles from
a mountain and the law of sines
• Al-Khwarizmi – accurately measure a length of 1 degree of latitude
by ropes.
• Willebrord Snellius – first triangulation to determine the figure of the
Earth
• Sir Isaac Newton – oblate spheroid shape of the Earth
• Jean-Dominuque Cassini – prolate spheroid shape of the Earth
• Jean Richer –increase of gravity from the equator to the poles
• Pierre-Simon Laplace – determined the attraction on a particle
outside it, which introduced the study of spherical harmonics:
instrument “heliotrope”.
• Alexis Claude Clairaut – theorem that permits the computation of
flattening from two gravity measurements at different latitudes.
• Friedrich Robert Helmert – geodesy as a proper science.
• Carl Gauss – concept of “geoid”.
• Sir George Airy – presented the Earth’s spheroid parameters - basis
for all national mapping in Great Britain.
Other Terminologies in Physical Geodesy:
• Luelen LaCoste – first portable gravimeter
• GRAIL – twin satellites used to measure the gravity field around
the moon
• Instrumental Drift – the variation in gravity due to the fact that
the gravimeter registers different readings in time, due to
mechanical, thermal and electric changes
• Tidal corrections – ACA for time varying gravitational
acceleration due to the motion of the sun and moon
• Theoretical gravity corrections – ACA for the shape and rotation
of the Earth
• Free air (True air) corrections – ACA for the variations in
gravitational acceleration with elevation
• Simple Bouguer (Bullard A) corrections – ACA for the average
density of rocks as a function of elevation.
• Spherical cap (Bullard B) corrections – ACA for the change in the
• Terrain (Bullard C) corrections – ACA for the exact formation of
the terrain and its influence on density distribution around the
gravity station.
• Isostatic corrections – ACA for the broad (long wavelengths)
variations in gravity due to isostatic compensation of the crust.
• Free-fall meter – measures the time an object falls and thereby
determine its acceleration
• Restricted fall meter – gravimeter that contains a mass attached
to a cantilever beam and suspended with metal or quartz spring.
• Lorand Eotvos – invented torsion pendulum
• Torsion Pendulum - used to measure the density of the
underlying rock strata and direction of the gravity.
• Eotvos torsion balance – sensitive instru, measures variations in
the force of gravity.
GEODETIC ASTRONOMY
Definition of terms CS = Celestial Sphere PL = Plumb Line
1. Celestial Poles – points on the surface of the CS pierced by the
extension of earth’s polar axis.
2. Zenith – point where the PL at the place of observation projected
above the horizon meets the CS
- vertically above the observer.
3. Nadir –point on the CS = beneath the observer = opposite to the
zenith
4. Great Circle – the trace in its surface of the intersection of a plane
passing through the center of the sphere.
5. Observer’s Horizon – a great circle on the sphere where a plane
perpendicular through a plumb at the place observation and
passing through the center of the earth, cuts the celestial sphere.
6. Observer’s Vertical – vertical line at the location of the observer
= coincides with the plumb line = is normal to the observer’s
horizon.
7. Celestial Equator – a great circle = perpendicular to the polar axis
of the CS
- extension on the plane of the earth’s equator outward
until it intersects CS
8. Vertical Circle – a great circle passing through the observer’s
zenith and any celestial body
9. Hour Circle – a great circle joining the celestial pole = passing
through a celestial body = whose plane is perpendicular to the
plane of the celestial equator
10. Observer’s Meridian – the great circle of the CS = passes through
the celestial poles and observer’s zenith.
11. Vernal Equinox – point of zero declination of the ecliptic. a) 22 hours 26.12 min.
b) 24 hours 00’00’’
12. Ecliptic – intersection of the plane of the Earth’s axis and CS c) 23 hours 56.09 min.
d) 12 hours 00’00’’
13. Equinoctial Colure – hour circle passing through the vernal 5. The time required for one revolution of the mean sun is called.
equinox. a) Apparent solar day
b) Mean solar day
HOUR ANGLE SYSTEM c) Mean solar time
• Local Hour Angle (orange) d) Apparent solar time
6. Equation of time is expressed as.
✓ measured clockwise
a) Apparent solar time – mean solar time
✓ from the upper branch of the meridian of observation
b) Apparent solar day – mean solar day
✓ to the meridian of the celestial body c) Mean solar time – apparent solar day
• Sidereal Hour Angle (red-violet) d) Apparent solar time – apparent solar day
✓ measured clockwise 7. When will autumnal equinox occur.
✓ from the meridian of the First Point of Aries or Vernal a) June 22 each year
Equinox b) Sept. 23 each year
✓ to the meridian of the body. c) July 4 each year
d) March 21 each year
• Greenwich Hour Angle (yellow)
8. When will summer solstice occurs?
✓ measured clockwise a) Jan 4 each year
✓ from the Greenwich meridian b) Sept 23 each year
✓ to the meridian of the celestial body. c) June 22 each year
• Longitude (black) – the longitude of the place of observation. d) July 6 each year
• Right Ascension (lower black) 9. How many months between the summer solstice from the autumnal
✓ angle taken counterclockwise equinox?
a) 6 months
✓ from the Vernal Equinox
b) 3 months
✓ to the meridian of the celestial body.
c) 9 months
d) 7 months
ADDITIONAL NOTES ABOUT TIME: 10. What is the difference between mean solar time and true solar time at any
▪ Time is derived from both heavenly body and the meridian used. particular instant?
▪ Local time is later at east of the meridian, earlier at west of a) equation of time
meridian. b) right ascension of the mean sun
▪ Positive hour angle values are measured from east to west, c) sidereal time
d) right ascension of the true sun
positive right ascension value is measured from west to east.
▪ Negative values are drawn on the opposite direction.
OTHER TERMINOLOGIES ABOUT ASTRONOMY
▪ Local mean time is used to determine difference in longitudes. o Circumpolar star – star which rotates around the celestial north pole =
▪ The sun has a constant time of upper culmination and lower never goes below the observer’s horizon.
culmination. Starts do not. This varies per day. o Octantis – star listed as closest to the south celestial pole.
▪ The Laplace correction (c) is always added when converting solar o Uranography – geography of the heavenly bodies.
time and sidereal time. o Ephemeris – an astronomical almanac containing tables giving the
computed positions of the sun, planets and various stars for everyday of
a given period.
SAMPLE BOARD EXAM QUESTIONS
o Analemma – graph or plot that shows the position of the Sun in the sky
1. A time required for one apparent revolution of a true sun about the earth is
at a single location and at the same time of the day throughout a year.
called.
a) Apparent solar day
Terminologies in Map Projection
b) Sidereal time
▪ Globes – have a spherical base upon which printed gores are pasted
c) Mean solar time
- Its mouth in a wooden or metal stands with its axis titled
d) Mean solar day
about 23.5 degrees from the vertical.
2. How many times per year will the apparent solar time be the same as civil
▪ Globe Gores – crescent-shaped pieces of paper = wet and stretched to
time.
conform the spherical base of a globe.
a) 2 times
▪ Analemma – used to show where the sun is directly overhead for each
b) 4 times
day of the year when the Local Mean Time is 12 noon on the meridian.
c) Once only
▪ Orthodrome – it is the shortest distance between points on the Earth’s
d) 3 times
surface which crosses successive meridians at different angles.
3. How much longer is the apparent solar day compared to a sidereal day.
▪ Loxodrome – called rhumb line, is one that has the same compass
a) 3 min and 56 sec.
direction along its length.
b) 5 min and 42 sec.
▪ Grid Azimuth – the angle in the plane of projection between the straight
c) 10 min and 12 sec.
line and central meridian of a rectangular coordinate system.
d) 12 min and 42 sec.
4. A sidereal day equals how many hours and minutes of mean solar time?