Inside the Earth

The Earth is made of many different and distinct

layers. The deeper layers are composed of heavier
materials; they are hotter, denser and under much
greater pressure than the outer layers.

Core: The Earth has a iron-nickel core that is about 2,100 miles in radius. The
inner core may have a temperature up to about 13,000°F (7,200°C = 7,500 K),
which is hotter than the surface of the Sun. The inner core (which has a radius
of about 750 miles (1,228 km) is solid. The outer core is in a liquid state and is
about 1,400 miles (2,260 km) thick.

Mantle: Under the crust is the rocky mantle, which is composed of silicon,
oxygen, magnesium, iron, aluminum, and calcium. The upper mantle is rigid
and is part of the lithosphere (together with the crust). The lower mantle flows
slowly, at a rate of a few centimeters per year. The asthenosphere is a part of
the upper mantle that exhibits plastic properties. It is located below the
lithosphere (the crust and upper mantle), between about 100 and 250 kilometers
deep.

Convection (heat) currents carry heat from the hot inner mantle to the cooler
outer mantle. The mantle is about 1,700 miles (2,750 km) thick. The mantle
gets warmer with depth; the top of the mantle is about 1,600° F (870° C);
towards the bottom of the mantle, the temperature is about 4,000-6,700° F
(2,200-3,700° C). The mantle contains most of the mass of the Earth. The
Gutenberg discontinuity separates the outer core and the mantle.

Surface and crust: The Earth's surface is composed mostly of water, basalt
and granite. Oceans cover about 70% of Earth's surface. These oceans are up to
3.7 km deep. The Earth's thin, rocky crust is composed of silicon, aluminum,
calcium, sodium and potassium. For a page on soil, click here.
The crust is divided into continental plates which drift slowly (only a few
centimeters each year) atop the less rigid mantle. The crust is thinner under the
oceans (6-11 km thick); this is where new crust is formed. Continental crust is
about 25-90 km thick. The lithosphere is defined as the crust and the upper
mantle, a rigid layer about 100-200 km thick. The Mohorovicic discontinuity is
the separation between the crust and the upper mantle.
 HOW FAST IS THE EARTH MOVING?
You can't measure the speed of an object by itself, it has to be measured
relative to something else (this was one of Einstein's realizations).
If we ask the question, "How fast the Earth is moving?" we have to specify that
we want the speed with respect to another object. Motion cannot be measured
without a reference point. We can ask how fast the earth is moving with respect
to its own axis, the Sun, the Milky Way Galaxy, or our Local Group of
galaxies.

The Complex Motion of the Earth

0.5 The Earth spins around its axis
   •How fast is the Earth spinning? as it orbits the Sun. Our entire
km/sec
   •How fast is the Earth revolving 30 Solar System slowly orbits
around the Sun? km/sec around the Milky Way Galaxy.
The Milky Way Galaxy
   •How fast is the Solar System belongs to the Local Group of
250
moving around the Milky Way galaxies, where it is also
km/sec
Galaxy? moving.
   •How fast is our Milky Way
300
Galaxy moving in the Local Group
km/sec
of galaxies?
HOW FAST IS THE EARTH SPINNING AROUND ITS AXIS?
The Earth is spinning around its axis. At the equator, the Earth's surface moves
40,000 kilometers in 24 hours. That is a speed of about 1040 miles/hr (1670
km/hr or 0.5 km/sec). This is calculated by dividing the circumference of the
Earth at the equator (about 24,900 miles or 40,070 km) by the number of hours
in a day (24). As you move toward either pole, this speed decreases to almost
zero (since the
circumference of
the spinning circle at
the extreme latitudes
approaches zero).

HOW FAST IS THE EARTH REVOLVING AROUND THE SUN?

The Earth orbits, on average, 93 million miles (149,600,000 km) from the Sun.
This distance is defined as one Astronomical Unit (AU). The Earth revolves
around the Sun at a speed of about 18.5 miles/sec (30 km/sec).

HOW FAST IS OUR SOLAR SYSTEM MOVING

WITHIN THE MILKY WAY GALAXY?
The sun is about 26,000 light-years from the center of the Milky
Way Galaxy, which is about 80,000 to 120,000 light-years
across (and less than 7,000 light-years thick). We are located on
on one of its spiral arms, out towards the edge. It takes the sun
(and our solar system) roughly 200-250 million years to orbit
once around the Milky Way. In this orbit, we (and the rest of the
Solar System) are traveling at a velocity of about 155 miles/sec
(250 km/sec).

HOW FAST IS THE MILKY WAY GALAXY MOVING

WITHIN THE LOCAL GROUP OF GALAXIES?
The Milky way Galaxy is just one galaxy in a group of galaxies
called the Local Group. Within the Local Group, the Milky Way
Galaxy is moving about 185 miles/sec (300 km/sec).

HOW IS THE MASS OF THE EARTH

DETERMINED?
How is the mass of the Earth determined? Newton, Galileo, Henry Cavendish,
and Eratosthenes contributed to this amazing calculation. This calculation is
done using Newton's Law of Gravity, which formulates the attractive force
(gravitational force) that two masses exert on each other:

F=GmM/r2

In Newton's equation, F is the gravitational force, G is a constant of

proportionality, M and m are the two masses exerting the forces, and r is the
distance between the two objects.

 G was calculated by Henry Cavendish in 1798, and was determined to be

6.67 x 10-11 m3/(kg sec2).
 Also needed is Newton's second law of motion, F=ma, where F is the
force applied to an object, m is the mass of the object, and a is its
acceleration due to the force.
 Galileo determined that the acceleration due to the force of gravity of
Earth was a constant equal to 9.8 m/sec 2 near the surface of the Earth.
 Lastly, you need to know the radius of the Earth; this was first calculated
by the Greek Eratosthenes thousands of years ago (by comparing
shadows in wells during the summer solstice about 230 B.C.).

CALCULATING THE MASS OF THE EARTH

1. F = GmM/r2 = ma, where F is the gravitational force, G is the gravitational
constant, M is the mass of the Earth, r is the radius of the Earth, and m is the
mass of another object (near the surface of the Earth).

2. GM/r2= a (The m's canceled out.) Now solve for M, the mass of the Earth.

3. M = ar2/G, where a=9.8m/sec2, r=6.4 x 10 6m, and G=6.67 x 10-11m3/(kg sec2).

4. M = 9.8 x (6.7 x 106)2/6.7 x 10-11 = 6.0 x 1024 kg

 THE PEOPLE BEHIND THE CALCULATION
ERATOSTHENES
Eratosthenes (276-194
BC) was a Greek scholar
who was the first person
to find the circumference
of Earth. He compared
the midsummer's noon GALILEI,
CAVENDISH, GALILEO
shadow in deep wells in
HENRY Syene (now Aswan on the Galileo Galilei NEWTON,
Henry Cavendish Nile in Egypt) and (1564-1642) was ISAAC
(1731-1810) was an Alexandria. He properly an Italian Isaac Newton
English chemist and assumed that the Sun's mathematician, (1642-1727) was an
physicist. Cavendish rays are virtually parallel astronomer, and English
discovered that (since the Sun is so far physicist. He was mathematician and
hydrogen gas was a away ). Knowing the the first person to physicist who
substance different distance between the two use a telescope to invented calculus
from ordinary air locations, he calculated observe the skies (simultaneously, but
(whose components the circumference of the (in 1609). Galileo independently of
he analyzed), Earth to be 250,000 stadia. discovered four Leibniz),
described the Exactly how long a stadia moons of Jupiter, formulated the laws
composition of water is unknown, so his accu observed the of gravitation and
(hydrogen and -racy is uncertain. He also phases of Venus, mechanics,
oxygen) and other accurately measured the studied sunspots, investigated the
important works. tilt of the Earth's axis and and discovered nature of light (he
Cavendish was the the distance to the sun and many other discovered that
first person to moon, and devised a way important sunlight is made of
determine Newton's for determining the prime phenomena. After light of different
gravitational constant numbers up to a given publishing the colors).
gravitational constant number (the Sieve). He many discoveries
and accurately made contributions to the he made using his
measured of the sciences and arts in many telescope,
Earth's mass and fields, like geography, including the
density. mathematics, astronomy, motion of the
chronography (calendars), Earth around the
music, and literature. He Sun (the
was a brilliant all-around Copernican
 scholar; although not the System), Galileo
top expert on any topic, he was accused of
was well-versed in all heresy by the
subjects, and therefore Inquisition (in
nicknamed "Beta" (which 1633).
is the second letter of the
Greek alphabet).

EARTH'S OCEANS
Oceans cover about 70% of the Earth's surface. The oceans contain roughly
97% of the Earth's water supply.
The oceans of Earth are unique in our Solar System. No other planet in our
Solar System has liquid water (although recent finds on Mars indicate that Mars
may have had some liquid water in the recent past). Life on Earth originated in
the seas, & the oceans continue to be home to an incredibly diverse web of life.
The oceans of Earth serve many functions, especially affecting the weather and
temperature. They moderate the Earth's temperature by absorbing incoming
solar radiation (stored as heat energy). The always-moving ocean currents
distribute this heat energy around the globe. This heats the land and air during
winter and cools it during summer.
WHY ARE THE OCEANS SALTY?
As water flows in rivers, it picks up small amounts of mineral salts from the
rocks and soil of the river beds. This very-slightly salty water flows into the
oceans and seas. The water in the oceans only leaves by evaporating (and the
freezing of polar ice), but the salt remains dissolved in the ocean - it does not
evaporate. So the remaining water gets saltier and saltier as time passes.
SALINITY
The salinity (salt content) of ocean water varies. The Parts per
oceans and seas contain roughly 5 x 10 16 tons of salts. Sea salts
Thousand
One cubic foot of average sea water contains 2.2 pounds chloride 19.3 o/oo
of salt. sodium 10.7 o/oo
The oceans are about 3.5% salt (by weight). Salinity is sulfate 2.7 o/oo
generally reported in terms of parts per thousand
magnesium 1.3 o/oo
(abbreviated o/oo), the number of pounds of salt per
calcium 0.4 o/oo
1,000 pounds of water; the average ocean salinity is 35
o/oo. potassium 0.4 o/oo
The saltiest water is in the Red Sea and in the Persian bicarbonate 0.15 o/oo
Gulf, which have a salinity of about 40 o/oo (due to very bromide 0.07 o/oo
high evaporation rates and low fresh water influx). The other 0.06 o/oo
least salty seas are in the polar regions, where both Total
35.08 o/oo
melting polar ice and a lot of rain dilute the salinity. Salinity
THE OCEANS
The Earth's oceans are all connected to one another. There are four oceans: the Pacific,
Atlantic, Indian, and Arctic. There are also many seas (smaller branches of an ocean);
seas are often partly enclosed by land. The largest seas are the South China Sea, the
Caribbean Sea, and the Mediterranean Sea.
Area (square Average Depth
Ocean Deepest depth (ft)
miles) (ft)
Pacific Ocean 64,186,000 15,215 Mariana Trench, 36,200 ft deep
Puerto Rico Trench, 28,231 ft
Atlantic Ocean 33,420,000 12,881
deep
Indian Ocean 28,350,000 13,002 Java Trench, 25,344 ft deep
Arctic Ocean 5,106,000 3,953 Eurasia Basin, 17,881 ft deep

WHAT CAUSES OCEAN WAVES?

The winds cause waves on the surface of the ocean (and on lakes). The wind
transfers some of its energy to the water, through friction between the air
molecules and the water molecules. Stronger winds (like storm surges) cause
larger waves. You can make your own miniature waves by blowing across the
surface of a pan of water. Waves of water do not move horizontally, they only
move up and down (a
wave does not represent a
flow of water). You can
see a demonstration
of this by watching a
floating buoy bob up
and down with a wave; it
does not, however, move
horizontally
with the wave. Tsunamis
(sometimes
called tidal waves) are different from surface waves; they are usually caused by
underwater earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, or landslides.

WHAT CAUSES THE TIDES?

Tides are periodic rises and falls of large bodies of water. Tides are caused by
the gravitational interaction between the Earth and the Moon. The gravitational
attraction of the moon causes the oceans to bulge out in the direction of the
moon. Another bulge occurs on the opposite side, since the Earth is also being
pulled toward the moon (and away from the water on the far side). Since the
earth is rotating while this is happening, two tides occur each day. Isaac
Newton was the first person to explain tides scientifically.

WHY IS THE OCEAN BLUE?

The ocean appears blue because it is reflecting the blue color of the sky. On a
gray, cloudy day, the ocean appears gray.

The Water Cycle

 The Water Cycle (also known as the hydrologic cycle) is the journey water
takes as it circulates from the land to the sky and back again.

The Sun's heat provides energy to evaporate water from the Earth's surface
(oceans, lakes, etc.). Plants also lose water to the air (this is called
transpiration). The water vapor eventually condenses, forming tiny droplets in
clouds. When the clouds meet cool air over land, precipitation (rain, sleet, or
snow) is triggered, and water returns to the land (or sea). Some of the
precipitation soaks into the ground. Some of the underground water is trapped
between rock or clay layers; this is called groundwater. But most of the water
flows downhill as runoff (above ground or underground), eventually returning
to the seas as slightly salty water.

WHY ARE THE OCEANS SALTY?

 As

Oceans cover about 70% of the Earth's surface. The oceans contain roughly 97% of the Earth's water
supply.
water flows through rivers, it picks up small amounts of mineral salts from the
rocks and soil of the river beds. This very-slightly salty water flows into the
oceans and seas. The water in the oceans only leaves by evaporating (and the
freezing of polar ice), but the salt remains dissolved in the ocean - it does not
evaporate. So the remaining water gets saltier and saltier as time passes.

THE EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE

The Earth's atmosphere is a thin layer of
gases that surrounds the Earth. It
composed of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen,
0.9% argon, 0.03% carbon dioxide, and
trace amounts of other gases. This thin
gaseous layer insulates the Earth from
extreme temperatures; it keeps heat inside
the atmosphere and it also blocks the
Earth from much of the Sun's incoming
ultraviolet radiation.
The Earth's atmosphere is about 300
miles (480 km) thick, but most of the
atmosphere (about 80%) is within 10
miles (16 km) of the surface of the Earth.
There is no exact place where the
atmosphere ends; it just gets thinner and
thinner, until it merges with outer space.
Air Pressure:
At sea level, the air pressure is about 14.7
pounds per square inch. As your altitude increases (for example, if you climb a
mountain), the air pressure decreases. At an altitude of 10,000 feet, the air pressure is 10
pound per square inch (and there is less oxygen to breathe).
The Layers of the Atmosphere:
Thermosphere: The thermosphere is a thermal classification of the atmosphere. In the
thermosphere, temperature increases with altitude. The thermosphere includes the
exosphere and part of the ionosphere.
•Exosphere: The exosphere is the outermost layer of the Earth's atmosphere. The
exosphere goes from about 400 miles (640 km) high to about 800 miles (1,280 km). The
lower boundary of the exosphere is called the critical level of escape, where atmospheric
pressure is very low (the gas atoms are very widely spaced) and the temperature is very
low.
•Ionosphere: The ionosphere starts at about 43-50 miles (70-80 km) high and continues
for hundreds of miles (about 400 miles = 640 km). It contains many ions and free
electrons (plasma). The ions are created when sunlight hits atoms and tears off some
electrons. Auroras occur in the ionosphere.
•Mesosphere: The mesosphere is characterized by temperatures that quickly decrease as
height increases. The mesosphere extends from between 31 and 50 miles (17 to 80
kilometers) above the earth's surface.
•Stratosphere: The stratosphere is characterized by a slight temperature increase with
altitude and the absence of clouds. The stratosphere extends between 11 and 31 miles (17
to 50 kilometers) above the earth's surface. The earth's ozone layer is located in the
stratosphere. Ozone, a form of oxygen, is crucial to our survival; this layer absorbs a lot
of ultraviolet solar energy. Only the highest clouds (cirrus, cirrostratus, and
cirrocumulus) are in the lower stratosphere.
•Tropopause: The tropopause is the boundary zone (or transition layer) between the
troposphere and the stratosphere. The tropopause is characterized by little or no change in
temperature altitude increases.
•Troposphere: The troposphere is the lowest region in the Earth's (or any planet's)
atmosphere. On the Earth, it goes from ground (or water) level up to about 11 miles (17
kilometers) high. The weather and clouds occur in the troposphere. In the troposphere,
the temperature generally decreases as altitude increases.
Formation of the Atmosphere:
The Earth's atmosphere was formed by planetary degassing, a process in which gases like
carbon dioxide, water vapor, sulphur dioxide and nitrogen were released from the interior
of the Earth from volcanoes and other processes. Life forms on Earth have modified the
composition of the atmosphere since their evolution.

Why is the sky blue?

Sunlight is made up of all the colors of the
rainbow: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and
violet. The gas molecules in the atmosphere interact with the sunlight before
the light reaches our eyes.
The gas molecules in the atmosphere scatter the higher-energy (high frequency)
blue portion of the sunlight more than they scatter the lower-energy red portion
of the sunlight (this is called Raleigh scattering, named for the physicist Lord
John Rayleigh). The Sun appears reddish-yellow and the sky surrounding the
Sun is colored by the scattered blue waves.
When the Sun is lower in the horizon (near sunrise or sunset), the sunlight must
travel through a greater thickness of atmosphere than it does when it is
overhead, and even more light is scattered (not just blue, but also green, yellow,
and orange) before the light reaches your eyes. This makes the sun look much
redder.
Caution: Never stare directly at the Sun.

The Seasons and Axis Tilt

The Earth's seasons are not caused by the differences in the distance from the
Sun throughout the year (these differences are extremely small). The seasons
are the result of the tilt of the Earth's axis.
The Earth's axis is tilted from perpendicular to the plane of the ecliptic by
23.45°. This tilting is what gives us the four seasons of the year - spring,
summer, autumn (fall) and winter. Since the axis is tilted, different parts of the
globe are oriented towards the Sun at different times of the year.
Summer is warmer than winter (in each hemisphere) because the Sun's rays hit
the Earth at a more direct angle during summer than during winter and also
because the days are much longer than the nights during the summer. During
the winter, the Sun's rays hit the Earth at an extreme angle, and the days are
very short. These effects are due to the tilt of the Earth's axis.

Solstices
The solstices are days when the Sun reaches its farthest northern and southern
declinations. The winter solstice occurs on December 21 or 22 and marks the
beginning of winter (this is the shortest day of the year). The summer solstice
occurs on June 21 and marks the beginning of summer (solstice which means
“sun standing still” is the longest day of the year)

Equinoxes
Equinoxes are days in which day and night are of equal duration. The two
yearly equinoxes occur when the Sun crosses the celestial equator.
The vernal equinox occurs in March 21 (this is the beginning of spring in the
Northern Hemisphere and the beginning of fall in the Southern Hemisphere);
the autumnal equinox occurs in September 22 or 23 (this is the beginning of fall
in the Northern Hemisphere and the beginning of spring in the Southern
Hemisphere).
 All About Our Solar System
Our solar system consists of the sun, nine planets (and their moons), an asteroid
belt, and many comets and meteors. The sun is the center of our solar system;
the planets, over 61 moons, the asteroids, comets, meteoroids and other rocks
and gas all orbit the Sun.

The Planets
The nine planets that orbit the sun are (in order from the Sun): Mercury, Venus,
Earth, Mars, Jupiter (the biggest planet in our Solar System), Saturn (with
large, orbiting rings), Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto. A belt of asteroids (minor
planets made of rock and metal) orbits between Mars and Jupiter. These objects
all orbit the sun in roughly circular orbits that lie in the same plane, the ecliptic
(Pluto is an exception; it has an elliptical orbit tilted over 17° from the ecliptic).

The inner planets (those planets that orbit close to the Sun) are quite different
from the outer planets (those planets that orbit far from the Sun).
 The inner planets are: Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars. They are
relatively small, composed mostly of rock, and have few or no moons.
 The outer planets include: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto.
They are mostly huge, mostly gaseous, ringed, and have many moons
(again, the exception is Pluto which is small, rocky, and has one moon).

Small Bodies
There are other smaller object that orbit the Sun, including asteroids, comets,
and meteoroids.
  Asteroids (also called minor planets) are rocky or metallic objects, most
of which orbit the Sun in the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter.
 Comets are small, icy bodies that orbit the sun. They have very long
tails.
 Meteoroids are small bodies that travel through space. They are stony
and/or metallic and are smaller than asteroids. Most are very tiny.

Introduction to The Sun

Our sun is a star located at the center of our Solar System. It is a huge, spinning
ball of hot gas and nuclear reactions that lights up the Earth and provides us
with heat.
The sun's absolute magnitude (its intrinsic brightness) is +4.83. Its stellar type
is G (a star that absorbs strong metallic lines in its spectrum).
The Greeks called the Sun "Helios"; the Romans called it "Sol."

HOW FAR AWAY IS THE SUN?

Our sun is a medium-sized yellow star that is 93,026,724 miles (149,680,000
km or 1 Astronomical Unit) from the Earth.

The Earth is closest to the Sun (this is called perihelion)

around January 2 each year (91.4 million miles = 147.1
million km); it is farthest away from the Sun (this is called aphelion) around
July 2 each year (94.8 million miles = 152.6 million km).
THE TEMPERATURE OF THE SUN
The Sun's core can reach 10 to 22.5 million°F. The surface temperature is
approximately 9,900°F (5,500°C). The outer atmosphere of the Sun (which we
can see during a solar eclipse) gets extremely hot again, up to 1.5 to 2 million
degrees. At the center of big sunspots the temperature can be as low as 7300 °F
(4300 K, 4000 °C). The temperature of the Sun is determined by measuring
how much energy (both heat and light) it emits.

COMPOSITION OF THE SUN

The Sun is made up of about 2 x 1030 kilograms of gas. It is composed of about
75% hydrogen and 25% helium. About 0.1% is metals (made from hydrogen
via nuclear fusion). This ratio is changing over time (very slowly), as the
nuclear reactions continue, converting smaller atoms into more massive ones.
Since the Sun formed 4.5 billion years ago, it has used up about half of its
initial hydrogen
supply.

The Origin of Our Solar System - How the Sun and the
Planets Formed
A Globule of Gas:
Our solar system formed about 5 billion years ago, from an enormous cloud of
dust and gas, a nebula. The Sun, like other stars, was formed in a nebula, a
cloudy patch of dust and gas (mostly hydrogen). If a nebula is within the galaxy
it is called a galactic nebula and if outside the galaxy it is called extragalactic
nebula.These stellar nurseries are abundant in the arms of spiral galaxies (like
our galaxy, the Milky Way). In a galaxy, the stars tend to congregate in groups
is called star clouds arranged in long spiral arms.
In the stellar nursery, dense parts of the clouds undergo gravitational collapse
and compress to form a rotating gas globule.
The globule is cooled by emitting radio waves and infrared radiation. It is
compressed by gravitational forces and also by shock waves of pressure from
supernova or the hot gas released from nearby bright stars. These forces cause
the roughly-spherical globule to collapse and rotate. The process of collapse
takes from between 10,000 to 1,000,000 years.

A Central Core and a Protoplanetary Disk:

As the collapse proceeds, the temperature and pressure within the globule
increases, as the atoms are in closer proximity. Also, the globule rotates faster
and faster. This spinning action causes an increase in centrifugal forces (a
radial force on spinning objects) that causes the globule to have a central core
and a surrounding flattened disk of dust (called a protoplanetary disk or
accretion disk). The central core becomes the star; the protoplanetary disk may
eventually coalesce into orbiting planets, asteroids, etc.
Protostar:
The contracting cloud heats up due to friction and forms a glowing protostar;
this stage lasts for roughly 50 million years. If there is enough material in the
protostar, the gravitational collapse and the heating continue.

A Newborn Star and a Solar System:

When a temperature of about 27,000,000°F is reached, nuclear fusion begins at
the core of the Sun. This is the nuclear reaction in which hydrogen atoms are
converted to helium atoms plus energy. This energy (radiation) production
prevents further contraction of the Sun.
Young stars often emit jets of intense radiation that heat the surrounding matter
to the point at which it glows brightly. These narrowly-focused jets can be
trillions of miles long and can travel at 500,000 miles per hour. These jets may
be focused by the star's magnetic field.
Later, the Sun stabilizes and becomes a yellow dwarf, a main sequence star
which will remain in this state for about 10 billion years. After that, the
hydrogen fuel is depleted and the Sun begins to die.

The Ecliptic of Our Solar System

Our solar system is almost flat, forming a plane. This plane is called the ecliptic
of our solar system. The ecliptic is the plane of Earth's (and most of the other
planets) orbit about the Sun. In the course of a year, the sun appears to trace a
path in the sky along the ecliptic. The constellations of the Zodiac lie along the
ecliptic. The Zodiac is a circular band extending 8 deg. on each side of the ecliptic. It is
divided into 12 sections of 30 deg. each.

Inclination is the angle between the plane

of an orbit and the plane of the ecliptic.
Orbital inclination is abbreviated as i.

The ecliptic is inclined at 23-27’ from the

plane of the equator. The Earth's axis is
tilted at a 23.5° angle from the ecliptic
(which causes the seasons). The planet
Pluto's orbit deviates more than any other
planets from the plane of the ecliptic, with
an inclination of 17° from the ecliptic.

Ecliptic = the path that the sun appears to take among the stars due to the
annual revolution of the earth in its orbit. It is a great circle on the celestial
sphere inclined at an angle of 23 deg.27’ to the celestial equator. This angle
is known as OBLIQUITY OF THE ECLIPTIC. The cycle of obliquity is
about 41,000 years while the eccentricity of the ecliptic has a cycle of
100,000 years.

Our Solar
System's
Location
in the Milky Way Galaxy
From the Earth,
Our solar system is located in the outer reaches of the our Milky Way
Milky Way Galaxy, which is a spiral galaxy. The Milky Galaxy is visible as
a milky band that
stretches across the
night sky. It is
easier to see when
you are far from
bright city lights.
Way Galaxy contains roughly 200 billion stars. Most of these stars are not
visible from Earth. Almost everything that we can see in the sky belongs to the
Milky Way Galaxy.

The sun is about 26,000 light-years from the center of the Milky Way Galaxy,
which is about 80,000 to 120,000 light-years across (and less than 7,000 light-
years thick). We are located on one of its spiral arms, out towards the edge. It
takes the sun (and our solar system) roughly 200-250 million years to orbit
once around the Milky Way. In this orbit, we (and the rest of the Solar System)
are traveling at a velocity of about 155 miles/sec (250 km/sec). The path
followed by the sun towards Vega is called the Sun’s way.
To reach the center of the Milky Way Galaxy starting from the Earth, aim
toward the constellation Sagittarius. If you were in a spacecraft, during the trip
you would pass the stars in Sagittarius one by one (and many other stars!).
Since we're inside the Milky Way Galaxy and we've never sent a spacecraft
outside our Galaxy, we have no photographs of the Milky Way Galaxy. Radio
telescope data does, however, let us know a lot about it.
The arms of the Milky Way are named for the constellations that are seen in
those directions. The major arms of the Milky Way galaxy are the Perseus
Arm, Sagittarius Arm, Centaurus Arm, and Cygnus Arm; our Solar System is
in a minor arm called the Orion Spur. The central hub (or central bulge)
contains old stars and at least one black hole; younger stars are in the arms,
along with dust and gas that form new stars.

The great rift is a series of dark, obscuring dust clouds in the Milky Way. These
clouds stretch from the constellation Sagittarius to the constellation Cygnus.

The Milky way Galaxy is just one galaxy in a group of galaxies called the
Local Group. Within the Local Group, the Milky Way Galaxy is moving about
300 km/sec (towards the constellation Virgo). The Milky Way Galaxy is
moving in concert with the other galaxies in the Local Group (the Local Group
is defined as those nearby galaxies that are moving in concert with each other,
independent of the "Hubble flow" expansion).
 Solar Eclipses
A solar eclipse happens when the moon blocks our view of the sun. This
happens when the Moon is exactly between the Sun and the Earth.
The longest solar eclipses occur when the Earth is at aphelion (farthest from the
Sun, making the solar disc smaller) and the Moon is at perigee (closest to the
Earth, making the Moons apparent diameter larger).

Stages in a Total Solar Eclipse

BAILY'S BEADS:
Baily's beads (often spelled Bailey's beads) are bead-like bursts of light that
appear about 15 seconds before and after totality during a solar eclipse. Baily's
beads are caused by light shining through valleys on the edge of the moon.
They were named for the British astronomer Francis Baily (1774-1844), one of
the founders of the Royal Astronomical Society.
DIAMOND RING:
The "Diamond Ring" is a large burst of light that appears a few
seconds before and after totality.
TOTALITY:
Totality is the short part of an eclipse when the moon entirely
blocks the Sun. Totality usually lasts for just a few minutes (no
more than 8 minutes in any one location on Earth).
What We Can See During Totality
During a total solar eclipse some parts of the Sun that we normally
can't see become visible,including the corona (the outermost layer
of the sun's atmosphere). The corona is mostly X-ray emissions (which we can't
see), but light from the photosphere is scattered by the loose electrons in the
corona's plasma and we can see this. Normally, the intensely bright light of the
photosphere (the visible disk of the Sun) dominates the corona and we don't see
the corona. During an eclipse, the moon blocks the photosphere, and we can see
the faint, scattered light of the corona (this part is called the K-Corona).
In the few minutes of totality, we can see the coronal streamers, polar plumes,
and prominences.
Types of Solar Eclipses
 Partial Solar Eclipse - A partial solar eclipse is when the Moon only
covers part of the solar disc.
 Total Solar Eclipse - A total solar eclipse is when the Moon appears to
cover the entire solar disc. Total solar eclipses are only visible from
a very small area on Earth, a narrow track that moves across the
Earth's surface (as the Earth rotates). The partial phase of a total
eclipse lasts about an hour. In any one place, totality (when the solar
disc is entirely covered) lasts no more than 8 minutes. During
totality, the sky is dark enough to see stars in the sky.
 Annular Eclipse - During an annular eclipse, the sun looks like an
"annulus" or ring. The ring is visible when the Moon does not
entirely cover the disk of the Sun during a solar eclipse. This type of
eclipse happens when the Sun is at perihelion (closest to the Earth,
making the solar disc appear larger) and the Moon is at apogee (farthest
from the Earth, making it look smaller).

Solar Rotation
The Sun rotates around an axis which is roughly
perpendicular to the plane of the ecliptic; the Sun's rotational
axis is tilted by 7.25° from perpendicular to the ecliptic. It
rotates in the counterclockwise direction (when viewed from
the north), the same direction that the planets rotate (and orbit
around the Sun).
The Sun's rotation period varies with latitude on the Sun
since it is made of gas. Equatorial regions rotate faster than
polar regions. The equatorial regions (latitude = 0 degrees)
rotate in about 25.6 days. The regions at 60 degrees latitude rotate in about 30.9
days. Polar regions rotate in about 36 days.
THE MOON
The moon is Earth's only natural satellite. The moon is a cold, dry orb whose
surface is studded with craters and strewn with rocks and dust (called regolith).
The moon has no atmosphere. Recent lunar missions indicate that there might
be some frozen ice at the poles.
The same side of the moon always faces the Earth because the period of
rotation on its axis is equal to the period of its revolution around the earth. The
far side of the moon was first observed by humans in 1959 when the unmanned
Soviet Luna 3 mission orbited the moon and photographed it. Neil Armstrong
and Buzz Aldrin (on NASA's Apollo 11 mission, which with Michael Collins)
were the first people to walk on the moon, on July 20, 1969.
If you were standing on the moon, the sky would always appear dark, even
during the daytime. Also, from any spot on the moon (except on the far side of
the moon where you cannot see the Earth), the Earth would always be in the
same place in the sky; the phase of the Earth changes and the Earth rotates,
displaying various continents.

THE MOON'S ORBIT

The moon is about 238,900 miles (384,000 km) from Earth on average. At its
closest approach (the lunar perigee) the moon is 221,460 miles (356,410 km)
from the Earth. At its farthest approach (its apogee) the moon is 252,700 miles
(406,700 km) from the Earth.
The moon revolves around the Earth in about one month (27 days 8 hours)
known as the Sidereal Month It rotates around its own axis in the same amount
of time thus same side of the moon always faces the Earth; it is in a
synchronous rotation with the Earth.
The Moon's orbit is expanding over time as it slows down (the Earth is also
slowing down as it loses energy). For example, a billion years ago, the Moon
was much closer to the Earth (roughly 200,000 kilometers) and took only 20
days to orbit the Earth. Also, one Earth 'day' was about 18 hours long (instead
of our 24 hour day). The tides on Earth were also much stronger since the moon
was closer to the Earth.
SAROS
The saros is the roughly 18-year periodic
cycle of the Earth-Moon-Sun system.
Every 6,585 days, the Earth, Moon and
Sun are in exactly the same position. When
there is a lunar eclipse, there will also be
one exactly 6,585 days later.
 SIZE
The moon's diameter is 2,140 miles (3,476 km),
27% of the diameter of the Earth (a bit over a quarter of the Earth's diameter).
The gravitational tidal influence of the Moon on the Earth is about twice as
strong as the Sun's gravitational tidal influence. The Earth:moon size ratio is
quite small in comparison to ratios of most other planet:moon systems (for
most planets in our Solar System, the moons are much smaller in comparison to
the planet and have less of an effect on the planet).

MASS AND GRAVITY

The moon's mass is (7.35 x 10 22 kg), about 1/81 of the Earth's mass.
The moon's gravitational force is only 17% of the Earth's gravity. For example,
a 100 pound (45 kg) person would weigh only 17 pounds (7.6 kg) on the Moon.

The moon's density is 3340 kg/m 3. This is about 3/5 the density of the Earth.

TEMPERATURE
The temperature on the Moon ranges from daytime highs of about 130°C =
265°F to nighttime lows of about -110°C = -170°F

ATMOSPHERE
The moon has no atmosphere. On the moon, the sky is always appears dark,
even on the bright side (because there is no atmosphere). Also, since sound
waves travel through air, the moon is silent; there can be no sound transmission
on the moon.

MARE
Mare (plural maria) means "sea," but maria on the moon are plains on the
moon. They are called maria because very early astronomers thought that these
areas on the moon were great seas. The first moon landing was in the Mare
Tranquillitatis (the Sea of Tranquility). Maria are concentrated on the side of
the moon that faces the Earth; the far side has very few of these plains.
Scientists don't know why this is so.

CRATERS AND RILLES

 The surface of the moon is scarred by millions of (mostly circular) impact
craters, caused by asteroids, comets, and meteorites. There is no
atmosphere on the moon to help protect it from bombardment from
potential impactors (most objects from space burn up in our atmosphere).
Also, there is no erosion (wind or precipitation) and little geologic activity
to wear away these craters, so they remain unchanged until another new
impact changes it.
These craters range in size up to many hundreds of kilometers, but the most
enormous craters have been flooded by lava, and only parts of the outline
are visible. The low elevation maria (seas) have fewer craters than other
areas. This is because these areas formed more recently, and have had less time
to be hit. The biggest intact lunar crater is Clavius
which is 100 miles (160 km) in diameter.
A rille is a long, narrow valley on the surface of the
moon. Hadley Rille is a long valley on the surface
of the moon. This rille is 75 miles (125 km) long,
1300 feet (400 m) deep, and almost 1 mile (1500 The lunar crater Aristarchus
m) wide at its widest point. It was formed by ( on the NW edge of the
molten basaltic lava that carved out a steep channel Oceanus Procellarum). This
huge, circular crater is 25
along the base of the Apennine Front (which was miles (40 km) in diameter and
explored by the Apollo 15 astronauts in 1971). 2.2 miles (3.6 km) deep (from
rim to floor). There is a lot of
MOON OR DOUBLE PLANET? ejecta (material thrown from
The Earth and the Moon are relatively close in size the crater at impact)
(4:1 in diameter, 81:1 in mass), unlike most surrounding the crater.
planet/moon systems. Many people consider the Earth and Moon to be a double
planet system (rather than a planet/moon system). The moon does not actually
revolve around the Earth; it revolves around the Sun in concert with the Earth
(like a double planet system).

LIBRATION
Libration is a rocking movement of the Moon. Librations cause us to view the
Moon from different angles at different times, enabling us to see about 59
percent of the Moon's surface from Earth, even though the same side always
faces us. There are librations due to variations in the rate of the Moon's orbital
motion (libration in longitude) and to the inclination of the Moon's equator with
respect to its orbital plane (libration in latitude). There is also an apparent
libration due to an observer on Earth viewing the Moon from different angles
as the Earth rotates (diurnal libration, which occurs each day).
 TWO LUNAR MONTHS
The sidereal and synodic lunar months have different lengths. The sidereal
month is the amount of time it takes the Moon to return to the same position in
the sky with respect to the stars; the sidereal month is 27.321 days long. The
synodic month is the time between similar lunar phases (e.g., between two full
moons); the synodic month is 29.530 days long.
LUNAR EXPLORATION
There have been many missions to the moon, including orbiters missions and
moon landings. NASA's Apollo missions sent people to the moon for the first
time. Apollo 11's LEM (Lunar Excursion Module) landed on the moon on July
20, 1969 with Neil Armstrong and Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin (Michael Collins was
in the orbiter). Neil Armstrong was the first person to set foot on the moon. His
first words upon stepping down the Lunar Module's ladder onto the lunar
surface were, "That's one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind."
Aldrin described the lunar scenery as "magnificent desolation." Apollo 12-17
continued lunar exploration.

MOON ROCKS
NASA astronauts have retrieved 842 pounds (382 kg) of
moon rocks (in many missions), which have been
closely studied. The composition of the moon rocks is
very similar to that of Earth rocks. Using radioisotope
dating, it has been found that moon rocks are about 4.3
Astronaut Buzz Aldrin's
billion years old. footprint on the moon's
Sea of Tranquility, from
THE ORIGIN OF THE MOON the Apollo 11 mission in
Most scientists believe that the moon was formed from 1969.
the ejected material after the Earth collided with a Mars-
sized object. This ejected material coalesced into the moon that went into orbit
around th Earth. This catastrophic collision occurred about 60 million years
after Earth itself formed (about 4.3 billion years ago). This is determined by the
radioisotope dating of moon rocks

BLUE MOON
When two full moons occur in a single month, the second full moon is called
a "Blue Moon." Another definition of the blue moon is the third full moon
that occurs in a season of the year which has four full moons (usually each
season has only three full moons.)
 LUNAR ECLIPSE
Duration of Lunar Eclipses
During an average total
lunar eclipse, the moon is
within the Earth's umbra for
about an hour. This is called
totality.

Frequency of Lunar
Eclipses
Since the plane of the
moon's orbit is inclined
about 5°: from the plane of
the Earth's orbit, lunar
eclipses are relatively
infrequent. There are about
two lunar eclipses each year
(visible somewhere on
Earth).

A lunar eclipse occurs when the Earth's shadow falls on the moon. Lunar
eclipses occur, on average, about every 6 months.
Types of Lunar Eclipses
 Total Eclipse - When the entire moon enters the Earth's umbra (the
darkest part of its shadow), this is called a total eclipse.
 Partial Eclipse - When only part of the moon enters the Earth's umbra,
this is called a partial eclipse.
The Phases of the Label the Moon Phases
Moon
As the moon circles the Earth, the shape of the moon appears to change; this is
because different amounts of the illuminated part of the moon are facing us.
The shape varies from a full moon (when the Earth is between the sun and the
moon) to a new moon (when the moon is between the sun and the Earth).

Definitions:

BLUE MOON
CRESCENT MOON
When two full moons occur in a single month, the
A crescent moon is part way
second full moon is called a "Blue Moon." Another
between a half moon and a new
definition of the blue moon is the third full moon that
moon, or between a new moon
occurs in a season of the year which has four full moons
and a half moon.
(usually each season has only three full moons.)

FULL MOON
A full moon appears as an entire circle in the sky. The full moon is given different names,
depending on when it appears. For example, the "Harvest moon" is the full moon that
appears nearest to the Autumnal Equinox, occurring in late September or early October.
Some other full moon names (by month) include:
January Moon After Yule, Wolf Moon, or Old Moon
February Snow Moon or Hunger Moon
 March Sap Moon, Crow Moon, or Lenten Moon
April Grass Moon or Egg Moon
May Milk Moon or Planting Moon
June Rose Moon, Flower Moon, or Strawberry Moon
July Thunder Moon or Hay Moon
August Grain Moon or Green Corn Moon
September Fruit Moon or Harvest Moon
October Harvest Moon or Hunter's Moon
November Hunter's Moon, Frosty Moon, or Beaver Moon
December Moon Before Yule or Long Night Moon.

HALF MOON NEW MOON

GIBBOUS MOON A half moon looks like half a circle. It The new moon is the phase
A gibbous moon is is sometimes called a quarter moon of the moon when the
between a full moon (this Moon has completed one quarter moon is not visible from
and a half moon, or of an orbit around the Earth from Earth, because the side of
between a half moon either the full or new position and one the moon that is facing us
and a full moon. quarter of the moon's surface is is not being lit by the sun.
visible from Earth).

Moonrise from Earth:

The moon rises and sets every day, appearing on the horizon just like the sun.
The time depends on the phase of the moon. It rises about 30 to 70 minutes
later each day than the previous day, so the moon is out during daytime as often
is it's out at night. At the time of the new moon, the moon rises at about the
same time the sun rises, and it sets at about the same time the sun sets. As the
days go by (as it waxes to become a crescent moon, a half moon, and a gibbous
moon, on the way to a full moon), the moon rises during daytime (after the sun
rises), rising later each day, and it sets at nighttime, setting later and later each
night. At the full moon, the times of moonrise and moonset have advanced so
that the moon rises about the same time the sun sets, and the moon sets at about
the same time the sun rises. As the moon wanes (becoming a half moon and a
crescent moon, on the way to a new moon), the moon rises during the night,
after sunset, rising later each night. It then sets in the daytime, after the sun
rises. Eventually, the moon rises so late at night that it's actually rising around
sunrise, and it's setting around sunset. That's when it's a new moon once again.
 TIDES
Tides are periodic rises and falls of large bodies of water. Tides are caused by
the gravitational interaction between the Earth and the Moon. The gravitational
attraction of the moon causes the oceans to bulge out in the direction of the
moon. Another bulge occurs on the opposite side, since the Earth is also being
pulled toward the moon (and away from the water on the far side). Since the
earth is rotating while this is happening, two tides occur each day.
Isaac Newton (1642 -1727) was the first person to explain tides scientifically.
His explanation of the tides (and many other phenomena) was published in
1686, in the second volume of the Principia.

The Sun's Interaction with the

Tides
Spring Tides
Spring tides are especially strong tides (they
do not have anything to do with the season
Spring). They occur when the Earth, the Sun,
and the Moon are in a line. The gravitational
forces of the Moon and the Sun both contribute to the tides.
Spring tides occur during the full moon
and the new moon.

The Proxigean Spring Tide is a rare,

unusually high tide. This very high tide occurs when the
moon is both unusually close to the Earth (at its closest
perigee, called the proxigee) and in the New Moon phase
(when the Moon is between the Sun and the Earth). The
The eccentricity of the orbit of the
moon in this illustration is greatly
exaggerated.
proxigean spring tide occurs at most once every 1.5 years.

Neap Tides
Neap tides are especially weak tides. They occur when the gravitational forces
of the Moon and the Sun are perpendicular to one another (with respect to the
Earth). Neap tides occur during quarter moons.

ASTRONOMICAL UNIT
An astronomical unit, or AU, is equal to the mean (average)
distance from the Earth to the Sun, which is about 92,957,000 miles
(149,600,000 km).
AU, Astronomical Unit
Planet Average Distance from the Sun
(measured in AU)
Mercury 0.39
Venus 0.723
Earth 1.0
Mars 1.524
Jupiter 5.203
Saturn 9.539
Uranus 19.18
Neptune 30.06
Pluto 39.53

STAR TYPES
Star Classification
 Stars are classified by their spectra (the elements that
they absorb) and their temperature. There are seven main
types of stars. In order of decreasing
temperature, O, B, A, F, G, K, and M.
O and B stars are uncommon but very
bright; M stars are common but dim..
The Sun is a as
a G2V type
An easy mnemonic for remembering these is: "Oh be a fine girl, star, a yellow
kiss me." dwarf and a
main sequence
Hertzsprung - Russell Diagram star.
The Hertzsprung -Russell (H-R) Diagram is a graph that plots stars color
(spectral type or surface temperature) vs. its luminosity (intrinsic brightness or
absolute magnitude). On it, astronomers plot stars' color, temperature,
luminosity, spectral type, and evolutionary stage. This diagram shows that there
are 3 very different types of stars:
 Most stars, including the sun, are "main sequence stars," fueled by
nuclear fusion converting hydrogen into helium. For these stars, the
hotter they are, the brighter. These stars are in the most stable part of
their existence; this stage generally lasts for about 5 billion years.
 As stars begin to die, they become giants and supergiants (above the
main sequence). These stars have depleted their hydrogen supply and are
very old. The core contracts as the outer layers expand. These stars will
eventually explode (becoming a planetary nebula or supernova,
depending on their mass) and then become white dwarfs, neutron stars,
or black holes (again depending on their mass).
 Smaller stars (like our Sun) eventually become faint white dwarfs (hot,
white, dim stars) that are below the main sequence. These hot, shrinking
stars have depleted their nuclear fuels and will eventually become cold,
dark, black dwarfs.

Spectral Classes
Average Average Average
Approximate
Star Mass Radius Luminosity Main
Color Surface Examples
Type (The (The (The Sun = Characteristics
Temperature
Sun = 1) Sun = 1) 1)
O Blue over 25,000 K 60 15 1,400,000 Singly ionized 10 Lacertra
helium lines (H
I) either in
 emission or
absorption.
Strong UV
continuum.
Neutral helium
11,000 - Rigel
B Blue 18 7 20,000 lines (H II) in
25,000 K Spica
absorption.
Hydrogen (H)
lines strongest
7,500 - 11,000 Sirius,
A Blue 3.2 2.5 80 for A0 stars,
K Vega
decreasing for
other A's.
Ca II
absorption.
Blue to 6,000 - 7,500 Canopus,
F 1.7 1.3 6 Metallic lines
White K Procyon
become
noticeable.
Absorption lines
of neutral
White
5,000 - 6,000 metallic atoms Sun,
G to 1.1 1.1 1.2
K and ions (e.g. Capella
Yellow
once-ionized
calcium).
Metallic lines,
Orange 3,500 - 5,000 Arcturus,
K 0.8 0.9 0.4 some blue
to Red K Aldebaran
continuum.
Some molecular
0.04 Betelgeuse,
M Red under 3,500 K 0.3 0.4 bands of
(very faint) Antares
titanium oxide.

Subtypes
Within each stellar type, stars are placed into subclasses (from 0 to 9) based on
its position within the scale.

The Yerkes Luminosity Classes: (by William Wilson Morgan and Philip
Keenan)
TYPE Star
Ia Very luminous supergiants Luminosity is the total brightness of a
Ib Less luminous supergiants star (or galaxy). Luminosity is the total
II Luminous giants amount of energy that a star radiates
III Giants
each second (including all wavelengths
of electromagnetic radiation).
IV Subgiants
V Main sequence stars (dwarf stars)
VI Subdwarf
VII White Dwarf
In the Yerkes classification scheme, stars are assigned to groups according to
the width of their spectral lines. For a group of stars with the same temperature,
the luminosity class differentiates between their sizes (supergiants, giants,
main-sequence stars, and subdwarfs).

Main Sequence Stars - Young Stars

Main sequence stars are the central band of stars on the Hertzsprung-Russell
Diagram. These stars' energy comes from nuclear fusion, as they convert
Hydrogen to Helium. Most stars (about 90%) are Main Sequence Stars. For
these stars, the hotter they are, the brighter they are. The sun is a typical Main
Sequence star.
DWARF STARS
Dwarf stars are relatively small stars, up to 20 times larger than our sun and up
to 20,000 times brighter. Our sun is a dwarf star.
YELLOW DWARF
Yellow dwarfs are small, main sequence stars. The Sun is a yellow dwarf.

RED DWARF
A red dwarf is a small, cool, very faint, main sequence star whose surface
temperature is under about 4,000 K. Red dwarfs are the most common type of
star. Proxima Centauri is a red dwarf.

Giant and Supergiant Stars - Old, Large Stars

RED GIANT
A red giant is a relatively old star whose diameter is about 100 times bigger
than it was originally, and had become cooler (the surface temperature is under
6,500 K). They are frequently orange in color. Betelgeuse is a red giant. It is
about 20 times as massive as the Sun about 14,000 times brighter than the Sun,
and about 600 light-years from Earth.

BLUE GIANT
A blue giant is a huge, very hot, blue star. It is a post-main sequence star that
burns helium.

SUPERGIANT
A supergiant is the largest known type of star; some are almost as large as our
entire solar system. Betelgeuse and Rigel are supergiants. These stars are rare.
When supergiants die they supernova and become black holes.

Faint, Virtually Dead Stars:

WHITE DWARF
A white dwarf is a small, very dense, hot star that is made mostly of carbon.
These faint stars are what remains after a red giant star loses its outer layers.
Their nuclear cores are depleted. They are about the size of the Earth (but
tremendously heavier)! They will eventually lose their heat and become a cold,
dark black dwarf. Our sun will someday turn into a white dwarf and then a
black dwarf. The companion of Sirius is a white dwarf.

BROWN DWARF
A brown dwarf is a "star" whose mass is too small to have nuclear fusion occur
at its core (the temperature and pressure at its core are insufficient for fusion).
A brown dwarf is not very luminous. It is usually regarded as having a mass
between 1028 kg and 84 x 1028.

NEUTRON STAR
A neutron star is a very small, super-dense star which is composed mostly of
tightly-packed neutrons. It has a thin atmosphere of hydrogen. It has a diameter
of about 5-10 miles (5-16 km) and a density of roughly 10 15 gm/cm3.

PULSAR
A pulsar is a rapidly spinning neutron star that emits energy in pulses.

Binary Stars:
DOUBLE STAR
A double star is two stars that appear close to one another in the sky. Some are
true binaries (two stars that revolve around one another); others just appear
together from the Earth because they are both in the same line-of-sight.

BINARY STAR
A binary star is a system of two stars that rotate around a
common center of mass (the barycenter). About half of all stars
are in a group of at least two stars.

Polaris (the pole star of the Northern Hemisphere of Earth) is

part of a binary star system.

ECLIPSING BINARY
An eclipsing binary is two close stars that appear to be a single star varying in
brightness. The variation in brightness is due to the stars periodically obscuring
or enhancing one another. This binary star system is tilted (with
respect ot us) so that its orbital plane is viewed from its edge.
X-RAY BINARY STAR
X-ray binary stars are a special type of binary star in which one of the stars is a
collapsed object such as a white dwarf, neutron star, or black hole. As matter is
stripped from the normal star, it falls into the collapsed star, producing X-rays.

Variable Stars - Stars that Vary in Luminosity:

CEPHEID VARIABLE STARS
Cepheid variables are stars that regularly pulsate in size and change in
brightness. As the star increases in size, its brightness decreases; then, the
reverse occurs. Cepheid Variables may not be permanently variable; the
fluctuations may just be an unstable phase the star is going through. Polaris and
Delta Cephei are examples of Cepheids.

MIRA VARIABLE STAR

Some Mira Variable Stars Magnitude Range Period (days)
R Carinae 3.9-10.5 308.7
R Centauri 5.3-11.8 546.2
Mira
3.4-9.3 332.0
(Omicron Ceti)

A Mira variable star is a variable star whose brightness and size cycle over a
very long time period, in the order of many months. Miras are pulsating red
giants that vary in magnitude as much as a factor of many hundred (by 6 or 8
magnitudes). Mira variables were named after the star Mira, whose variations
were discovered in 1596.

BRIGHT STARS AND THE STARS CLOSEST TO

EARTH
LUMINOSITY
Luminosity is the total brightness of a star or galaxy.

ABSOLUTE AND APPARENT MAGNITUDE

Rank Star Absolute Apparent Distance from
Magnitude Magnitude Earth
(light-years)
. The Sun +4.8 -26.72 .
1 Sirius (in Canis Major) +1.4 -1.46 8.6
 2 Canopus (in Carina) -2.5 -0.72 74
Rigel Kentaurus (Alpha
3 +4.4 -0.27 4.3
Centauri) (in Centaurus)
4 Arcturus (in Boötes) +0.2 -0.04 34
5 Vega (in Lyra) +0.6 0.03 25
6 Capella (in Auriga) +0.4 +0.08 41
7 Rigel (in Orion) -8.1 +0.12 900
8 Procyon (in Canis Minor) 2.8 +0.38 11
9 Archenar (in Eridanus) -1.3 +0.46 75
10 Betelgeuse (in Orion) -7.2 +0.50 1,500
11 Hadar (in Centaurus) -4.3 +0.61 300
12 Altair (in Aquila) +2.3 +0.77 17
13 Acrux (in Crux) -3.8 +0.79 270
14 Aldebaran (in Taurus) -0.2 +0.85 65
15 Antares (in Scorpius) -4.5 +0.96 400
... ... ... ... ...
20 Deneb (in Cygnus) -7.2 +1.25 1,500
-- Proxima Centauri (in
+15.5 +11.05 (var.) 4.3
Centaurus)

Apparent magnitude is a measure of the brightness of a celestial object as

seen from Earth. The lower the number, the brighter the object. Negative
numbers indicate extreme brightness. The full moon has an apparent magnitude
of -12.6; the sun's is -26.8. We can see objects up to 6th magnitude without a
telescope. Apparent magnitude is abbreviated m. This system of rating the
brightness of celestial objects was developed by the Greek astronomer
Hipparchus in 120 B.C.

Absolute magnitude is a measure of the inherent brightness of a celestial

object. This scale is defined as the apparent magnitude a star would have if it
were seen from a distance of 32.6 light-years (10 parsecs). The lower the
number, the brighter the object. Negative numbers indicate extreme brightness.

SOME BRIGHT THAT CAN BE SEEN FROM EARTH

ANTARES
(Alpha Scorpii) Antares (meaning "Rival of Mars") is the brightest star in
Scorpius, one of the constellation in the zodiac. Antares is a M1.5Iab variable
red supergiant star that is about 520 light-years from Earth and is about 230
times as big as the Sun. This incredibly massive, old, low-temperature (3500 K)
 star is the 15th brightest star in the sky; it has a visual (apparent)
magnitude of +0.96 (var.) and an absolute magnitude of -5.2.

ARCTURUS
(Alpha Boötis) Arcturus is the brightest star in the constellation Boötes
(the herdsman). It is a red giant (spectral type K1.5IIIp) that is the fourth
brightest star in the sky. Arcturus is 34 light-years from Earth. It has an
apparent magnitude of -0.04 and an absolute magnitude of 0.2.

BETELGEUSE
(pronounced "beetle juice") Betelgeuse (alpha Orionis) is the second-brightest
star in the constellation Orion and one of the brightest stars in the sky. It is a
supergiant star, reddish in color, and over 600 million miles in diameter (almost
1,000 times bigger than the Sun but cooler than the Sun). If Betelgeuse were at
the center of our Solar System, it would extend beyond the orbit of Jupiter. It is
520 light-years from Earth. It is a variable star, varying in magnitude from 0.3
to 1.2 over a period of about 7 years, averaging about 0.70. It is the only star
(other than our sun) for which we have surface images.

DENEB
Deneb (which means "tail" in Arabic) is the brightest star in the constellation
Cygnus (the swan); Deneb is also referred to as alpha Cygni, and is the
tail of the swan. This young, bright, blue supergiant star is about 1,500
light years away. Deneb is about 60,000 times more luminous than the
sun!

POLARIS
Polaris (alpha UMi) is the current pole star for the Northern Hemisphere;
it is 1 degree from the exact Northern celestial pole. In 1780, Sir William
Herschel discovered that Polaris was a double star with a faint companion
star. Polaris is a blue-green Cepheid variable star (its size brightness
changes periodically, with period of 3.969778 days; it varyies between mag
1.92 and 2.07). Polaris has a relatively dim companion star (9th magnitude).
Polaris' distance from Earth has been estimated to be from 360 to 820 light
years. At its brightest, Polairs is about 6,000 to 10,000 times brighter than our
Sun. It is the larger star at the end of the handle of the Little Dipper (Ursa
Minor). Polaris is also called the Lodestar or the Cynosure.

ORION
Orion, also known as "The Hunter," is a constellation in the zodiac. The
brightest stars in Orion are Rigel, Betelgeuse, and Bellatrix. The
 Horsehead Nebula and the nebulae M42 and M43 are also in this
constellation.

RIGEL
Rigel (beta Orionis) is the brightest star in the constellation Orion and one of
the brightest stars in the sky. It is a blue (very hot) supergiant, over 60 million
miles in diameter (almost 100 times bigger than the sun). It is more than 50,000
times more luminous than the Sun. It has an absolute magnitude of -7.1 and an
apparent magnitude of +0.12. It is over 900 light-years from Earth.

SIRIUS
Sirius (meaning "scorching" in Greek), also known as the dog star, is the
brightest star in the sky (except for the sun). It is in the constellation Canis
Major (The Great Dog). Sirius is a main sequence star that is about 70 times
more luminous than the sun. It is about 8.6 light-years from Earth. It has an
apparent magnitude of -1.46 and an absolute magnitude of +1.4. Sirius has a
companion star (called the Pup), which is a white dwarf.

THE STARS CLOSEST TO THE

EARTH
Star Distance (in light-years) Apparent Magnitude

Proxima Centauri (in Centaurus) 4.2 +11.0

Alpha Centauri A and B (in Centaurus) 4.3 -0.3
Barnard's Star (in Ophiuchus) 6.0 +9.5
Wolf 359 (in Leo) 7.7 +13.5
Lalande 21185 (in Ursa Major) 8.1 +7.5
Sirius A 8.6 -1.46
Sirius B (in Canis Major) 8.6 -xx
Luyten 726-8 8.4 +12.5
Luyten 726-8 8.4 xx
UV Ceti (in Cetus) 8.4 xx
Ross 154 9.4 +10.5
Ross 248 10.4 +12.3
Luyten 789-6 (in ) 8.4 +12.5
Epsilon Eridani (in Eridanus) 10.8 +3.7
Ross 128 10.9 +11.1

MORE ABOUT SOME OF THE STARS CLOSEST TO THE EARTH

The closest star to us is the Sun!
THE ALPHA CENTAURI SYSTEM
The Alpha Centauri system is in the star system that is closest to the Earth. The
closest star to us is Proxima Centauri, also known as Alpha Centauri C
(because it is the dimmest star in the Alpha Centauri system). Proxima Centauri
is about 4.2 light-years from the Sun. It has an absolute magnitude of 15.5 and
an apparent magnitude of +11.05 (variable). Its spectral type is M5.5Vc.
The stars Alpha Centauri A and Alpha Centauri B are close binary stars.
SIRIUS
Sirius (which means "scorching" in Greek), also known as the dog
star, is the brightest star in the sky (except for the sun). It is in the
constellation Canis Major (The Great Dog). Sirius is a main
sequence star that is about 70 times more luminous than the sun. It
is about 8.6 light-years from Earth. It has an apparent magnitude of
-1.46 and an absolute magnitude of +1.4. Sirius has a companion
star (called the Pup), which is a white dwarf.

GALAXIES

A galaxy is a huge group of stars, dust, gas, and other celestial bodies bound
together by gravitational forces. There are spiral, elliptical, and irregularly
shaped galaxies. Galaxies contain anywhere from 100,000 to
3,000,000,000,000 stars.
There are three major types of galaxies: spiral (with arms), elliptical (no arm),
and irregular (without rotational symmetry). Galaxies radiate a continuous
spectrum of energy. Some radiate radio waves, X rays, and infrared, and
ultraviolet (UV) radiation.
The Earth, Sun and the rest of our solar system are a tiny part of the Milky Way
Galaxy, a spiral galaxy.

The Milky way Galaxy is just one galaxy in a group of galaxies called the
Local Group. Within the Local Group, the Milky Way Galaxy is moving about
300 km/sec (towards the constellation Virgo).
The galaxy that is nearest to our galaxy may is the Sagittarius Dwarf
galaxy, which is about 24 kiloparsecs or 80,000 light years from us. The
Large Magellanic Cloud is another close galaxy; it is about 50 kiloparsecs
from us.
CONSTELLATIONS
A constellation is a group of stars that, when seen from Earth, form a
pattern. The stars in the sky are divided into 88 constellations.
The brightest constellation is Crux (the Southern Cross). The constellation with
the greatest number of visible stars in it is Centaurus (the Centaur - with 101
stars). The largest constellation is Hydra (The Water Snake) which extends
over 3.158% of the sky.
There are also asterisms, smaller apparent star patterns within a constellation,
like the Big Dipper (in Ursa Major), the Little Dipper (in Ursa Minor),
Keystone (in Hercules), and the Pleiades (in Taurus).

The 88 Constellations:

The 12 Constellations of the The Constellations of the

Zodiac Northern Hemisphere
The zodiac is a band of 12 constellations
along the ecliptic. (some are seasonally visible
Aquarius, the water bearer in the Southern
Aries, the ram Hemisphere):
Cancer, the crab
Capricorn, the goat Andromeda, the princess
Gemini, the twins Antlia, the pump
Leo, the lion Aquila, the eagle
Libra, the scales Auriga, the chariot driver
Pisces, the fish Bootes, the herdsman
Sagittarius, the archer
Scorpius, the scorpion
Taurus, the bull
Virgo, the virgin
The Constellations of the
Southern Hemisphere
(some are seasonally visible
in the Northern
Hemisphere):
Apus, the bird of paradise
Ara, the altar
Carina, the ship's keel
Centauras, the centaur
Chamaeleon, the chameleon
Circinus, the compass
Crux, the southern cross
Dorado, the swordfish
Eridanus, the river
Grus, the crane
Hydrus, the water snake
Indus, the Indian
Lepus, the rabbit
Mensa, the table
Musca, the fly
Norma, the surveyor's level
Octans, the octant
Pavo, the peacock
Phoenix, the phoenix
Pictor, the easel
Reticulum, the net
Triangulum Australe, the southern
triangle
Tucana, the toucan
Vela, the ship's sails
Volans, the flying fish
Caelum, the chisel
Camelopardalis, the giraffe
Canes Venatici, the hunting dogs
Canis Major, the big dog
Canis Minor, the little dog
Cassiopeia, the queen
Cepheus, the king
Cetus, the whale
Columba, the dove
Coma Berenices, Berenice's hair
Corona Australis, the southern
crown
Corona Borealis, the northern crown
Corvus, the crow
Crater, the cup
Cygnus, the swan
Delphinus, the dolphin
Draco, the dragon
Equuleus, the little horse
Fornax, the furnace
Hercules, the hero
Horologium, the clock
Hydra, the water snake
Lacerta, the lizard
Leo Minor, the little lion
Lupus, the wolf
Lynx, the lynx
Lyra, the harp
Microscopium, the microscope
Monoceros, the unicorn
Ophiuchus, the sepent holder
Orion, the hunter
Pegasus, the flying horse
Perseus, the Medusa killer
Pisces Austrinus, the southern fish
Puppis, the ship's stern
Pyxis, the ship's compass
Sagitta, the arrow
Sculptor, the sculptor
Scutum, the shield
 Serpens, the snake
Sextans, the sextant
Telescopium, the telescope
Triangulum, the triangle
Ursa Major, the big bear
Ursa Minor, the little bear
Vulpecula, the little fox

CONSTELLATION FAMILY
There are many families of constellations, constellations that are either close to one
another or have some other relationship. Some constellation families include the Zodiac
(the 12 constellations representing the signs of the Zodiac), the Ursa Major Family (10
constellations, including Ursa Major, Ursa Minor Canes Venatici, Bootes, Coma
Berenice, Corona Borealis, etc.), the Perseus Family (9 constellations, including
Cassiopeia, Cepheus, Andromeda, Perseus, etc.), the Hercules Family (19 constellations,
including Hercules, Sagitta, Aquila, etc.), the Orion Family (5 constellations, including
Orion, Canis Major, Canis Minor, Monoceros, and Lepus), the Heavenly Waters (9
constellations, including Delphinus, Columba, Equuleus, Vela, Puppis, etc.), the Bayer
Group (11 constellations, including Hydrus, Dorado, Volans, Apus,etc.), the La Caille
Family (13 constellations, including Norma, Fornax, Circinus, etc.).
Some Constellations:

ANDROMEDA
Andromeda (the princess, the daughter of The sun passes through Aquarius from mid-
Cassiopeia) is a northern hemisphere
constellation. Alpha Andromeda (called
Sirrah, meaning "Horse's navel") is the same
as Delta Pegasi (from the constellation
Pegasus).
AQUARIUS
[Abbreviation: Aqr] Aquarius (the water
bearer) is a constellation of the zodiac. This
faint constellation is seen along the ecliptic.
February until mid-March. There are many
interesting celestial objects in this large
constellation, including globular clusters
(M2 and M72), planetary nebulae (NGC
7009 and NGC 7293), the star group M73, a
double star (zeta Aqr). Aquarius is the
radiant for the meteor showers: March
 Aquarids, Delta Aquarids, Eta Aquarids, and
Iota Aquarids. Alpha Aquarii (the brightest
star in Aquarius) is called Sadalmelik
(meaning the Lucky One of the King) and
beta Aquarii (the second-brightest star in
Aquarius) is named Sadalsuud (meaning the
Luckiest of the Lucky); they are twin
supergiants.

ARIES BIG DIPPER

[Abbreviation: Ari] Aries (the ram) is a constellation
of the zodiac located along the ecliptic between Pisces
and Taurus. This tiny, faint constellation is seen just
north of the ecliptic. The brightest star in Aries (Alpha
Ari) is Hamal, the second-brightest star (Beta Ari) is
Sharatan, the third-brightest star (Gamma 2 Ari) is
Mesarthim, and the fourth-brightest is Botein (Delta
Ari)
The Big Dipper is a group of 7
stars (it is an asterism and not a
constellation) contained in the
Northern Hemisphere
constellation Ursa major (The
Great Bear).

CANCER
[Abbreviation: Cnc] Cancer (the crab) is a very faint
constellation of the zodiac that is shaped like a crab.
BOÖTES Cancer is seen along the ecliptic and is located
Boötes (the herdsman) is a large between Leo and Gemini. At the center of the crab's
constellation in the northern shell is a huge open cluster, the Beehive cluster,
hemisphere. The brightest star in also known as Praesepe (M44). The open cluster
Boötes is Arcturus, a red giant that is M67 is nearby. The brightest star in Cancer is
the fourth brightest star in the sky. Acubens (meaning claw); the second-brightest is Al
Tarf (meaning tip).
 CANIS VENATICI
Canes Venatici (The Two Hunting Dogs or
greyhounds [of the herdman Boötes]) is a
small Northern Hemisphere constellation near
CANIS MAJOR Ursa Major and Boötes. The brightest star in
Canis Venatici is Cor Caroli (alpha CVn), a
Canis major (The Great Dog) is a
blue-white star (magnitude 2.9) with a
constellation near Orion. The brightest
companion star (magnitude 5). The Whirlpool
star in Canis Major (and the brightest star
Nebula (M51), the Sab galaxy (M94) and the
in the sky) is Sirius, also known as the dog
globular cluster M3 (magnitude 6) can be
star. Canis Major is one of the
found in Canis Venatici. The Canes
constellation Orion's hunting dogs
Venaticids meteor shower occurs from
(together with Canis Minor).
January 13 - January 30. Canes Venatici was
named by the Polish astronomer Johannes
Hevelius in 1690.

CASSIOPEIA
CAPRICORNUS Cassiopeia is an easily-seen constellation that
[Abbreviation: Cap] Capricornus (the is in the far northern sky. It circles the
goat) is a constellation of the zodiac. polestar (Polaris) throughout the year and also
Capricorn is seen along the ecliptic straddles the Milky Way. The five major stars
between Sagittarius and Aquarius. The of Cassiopeia (also known as "The Lady of
brightest stars in Capricornus are Prima the Chair") are shaped like a "W" (or an "M,"
Giedi (Alpha 1 Cap) and Secunda Giedi depending on your orientation). All of the
(Alpha 2 Cap). The globular cluster M30 stars in Cassiopeia are all less than second
is in Capricorn. magnitude brightness. The brightest star in
Cassiopeia is Schedar (alpha CAS), which is a
multiple star that is pale rose in color and
varies in magnitude from 2.2 to 2.8
magnitudes. The second-brightest, called
 Caph (beta CAS), is a white star of magnitude
2.4. Cassiopeia contains two open clusters,
M52 (magnitude 7.3) and M103 (magnitude
7.4). The strongest radio source, Cassiopeia
A, emanates from Cassiopeia; it is the
remnant of a supernova which ocurred about
A.D. 1660, and is 10,000 light years from us.
The constellation Cassiopeia was named for
Cassiopeia, the mother of Andromeda (and
the wife of Cephus) in Greek mythology.

CEPHEUS
Cepheus is a house-shaped constellation in
the Northern Hemisphere. It is a circumpolar
constellation; it never dips under the horizon
in the Northern hemisphere. Errai (Gamma CETUS
Cephei) is a third-magnitude orange Cetus is a constellation that straddles the
subgiant star that will become the Earth's celestial equator. Cetus means whale, and is
north polar star in 2,000 years. Cepheus is abbreviated Cet. The first-known variable
next to the constellations Andromeda and star Mira, is Omicron Ceti.
Perseus. Cepheus was named after King
Cepheus in Greek mythology, and is
abbreviated Cep.

CRUX
Crux (or Crux Australis) is the scientific name
COLUMBA of the Southern Cross constellation. This well-
Columba (the dove, abbreviated Col) is a known, cross-shaped Southern Hemisphere
small constellation in the Southern constellation is on the Australian flag. The
Hemisphere. This constellation pictures a brightest star in Crux is Acrux (alpha Cru), a
dove holding an olive branch in its double-star system at the base of the cross. The
 mouth. Columba is a member of the
"Heavenly Waters," a family of
constellations. Columba was named by
the astronomer Bayer, but was
second-brightest star is Becrux or Mimosa
populatized by the French astronomer
(Beta Cru); the third-brightest is Gacrux
Augustin Royer in 1679 (before that,
(Gamma Cru). The Jewel Box (also known as
Colmba's stars have been included in the
Kappa Crucis) is an open cluster of about 100
constellation Canis Major). Alpha Col
stars in the Southern Cross. Crux lies on the
(the brightest star in Columba) is called
Milky Way and is surrounded by the
Phaet; beta Col (the second-brightest star
constellation Centaurus on three sides.
in Columba) is called Wezn. The
globular cluster NGC 1851 and the blue
magnitude 5 star (mu Col, a "runaway
star") are in Columba.

CYGNUS
Cygnus (the swan) is a constellation that is
shaped like a large cross. It is also known
as the Northern Cross. It is seen along the
Milky Way in the northern hemisphere. At
its tail is the very bright star Deneb, (alpha
Cygni) and at its head is the double star
Albireo, (beta Cygni).
DRACO
Draco (from the dragon in Greek mythology)
is a constellation in the Northern Hemisphere.
It is the radiant of the Quadrantids and
Draconids (meteor showers). Draco is near the
northern celestial pole; the tail of Draco is
between the Big Dipper and the Little Dipper.
The brightest star in the Draco is Thuban; it is
located in the dragon's tail. (Thuban means
"dragon or serpent" in Arabic. Thuban was the
Earth's pole star about 5,000 years ago.) The
second-brightest star in the Draco is Rastaban
(which means "head of the dragon or
serpent").

ERIDANUS
[Abbreviation: Eri] Eridanus (the
River) is a southern constellation that
is may have been named for the river
Nile, the river Euphrates, or for the
river of tears wept by the mythical
Heliades. Eridanus is located near the GEMINI
[Abbreviation: Gem] Gemini (also known as "The
 constellations Fornax and Lepus. The
brightest star in Eridanus, alpha Eri, is
Achernar (meaning "end of the
river"); it is the 9th brightest star in
Twins") is one of the constellations of the zodiac,
the sky (magnitude 0.46). The second-
located along the ecliptic between Taurus and
brightest, beta Eri, is Cursa (meaning
Cancer. The brightest stars in Gemini are Castor (a
"chair/footstool of Orion" ). The third-
sextuple star - three double stars) and Pollux (a 1st
brightest, gamma Eri, is Zaurak
magnitude yellow star). The open cluster M35 is
(meaning "boat" ). The fourth-
located in Gemini. The Geminid meteor shower
brightest, delta Eri, is Rana (meaning
seems to radiate from Gemini.
"frog" ). The fifth-brightest, zeta Eri,
is Zibal (part of the "Ostrich's Nest").
Eridanus was one of the original 48
constellations first noted by Ptolemy

HERCULES
Hercules is a Northern
Hemisphere constellation that is
the fifth largest in the sky. It is
named for Hercules, the legendary
hero of Greek mythology. The
brightest of its rather dim stars is
Ras Algethi (alpha Her), a variable
red supergiant. The four stars of
the central trapezoid within
Hercules, epsilon Her, zeta Her,
eta Her and pi Her, form the
asterism called Keystone. The
globular star cluster M13 is
located on the western part of the
Keystone. The Tau Herculid
meteor shower seems to radiate
from Hercules.
LEO
[Abbreviation: Leo] Leo (the lion) is a constellation of
the zodiac that is shaped like a lion. Leo is seen along
the Milky Way in the Northern Hemisphere along the
ecliptic between Virgo and Cancer. The brightest star
(Alpha Leo) in Leo is Regulus (meaning "little king").
The second-brightest star (Beta Leo) is Denebola
(meaning "tail of the lion"), and the third-brightest
star (Gamma 1 Leo) is Algieba (meaning "forehead").
The spiral galaxies M65, M66, M95, M96, and the
elliptical galaxy M105 are nearby.
 LIBRA LUPUS
[Abbreviation: Lib] Libra (the balance) is a Lupus (the wolf) is a constellation in
constellation of the zodiac. Libra is seen along the the Southern Hemisphere. It is
ecliptic between Virgo and Scorpius. The brightest located between Centaurus to the
star (Alpha 2 Lib) in Libra is Zuben Elgenubi, the west, Scorpius to the northeast. The
second-brightest star (Beta Lib) is Zuben open star cluster NGC 5822 is in
Elschemali, the third-brightest star (Gamma Lib) is Lupus.
Zuben Elakrab, and the fourth-brightest star (Delta
Lib) is Zuben Elakribi.

LYRA
Lyra (the lyre) is a small, bright constellation in ORION
the Northern Hemisphere. The brightest star in Orion, also known as "The Hunter," is
Lyra is Vega (meaning "falling eagle") which has a constellation. The brightest stars in
a white color and is the fifth brightest star in the Orion are Rigel. Betelgeuse, and
sky. Bellatrix. The Horsehead Nebula and
the nebulae M42 and M43 (called the
Orion nebula) are also in this
constellation.
 PERSEUS
Perseus is a constellation in the Milky
Way in the Northen Hemisphere. It is
abbreviated Per. Perseus' major star is
PEGASUS alpha Per, called Marfak or Algenib; it
Pegasus (the flying horse) is a large northern is an F5 supergiant. Beta Per is the
hemisphere constellation. Delta Pegasi is shared eclipsing binary Algol. Perseus was a
with the constellation Andromeda. 51 Pegasi (51 hero in Greek mythology who killed
Peg), off the Great Square of Pegasus, is a nearby, the monstrous Medusa. Each year in
Sun-like star that has been found to have an August, the Perseid meteor shower
orbiting planet. radiates from this constellation's
northern part.

PISCES
[Abbreviation: Psc] Pisces (the fish) is a faint
equatorial constellation of the zodiac. Pisces
is seen along the ecliptic between Aries and
Aquarius. The brightest star in Pisces (Alpha
Psc) is Al Rischa (or Alrisha), the second-
brightest-star (Beta Psc) is Fum al Samakah.
The spiral galaxy M74 is in Pisces.
SAGITTARIUS
[Abbreviation: Sgr] Sagittarius is the ninth
constellation of the zodiac. To the
ancients, it represented a centaur (half-
man, half-horse) archer who was aiming at
the Scorpion (the next constellation) which
bit Orion. Its central section (the archer's
chest) also resembles a teapot. The center
of the Milky Way Galaxy is in the
direction of Sagittarius. Many meteor
showers, including the Sagittariids, seem
to radiate from Sagittarius. The brightest
star in Sagittarius (Alpha Sgr) is Rukbat
 (which means "knee" in Arabic).

SCORPIUS
[Abbreviation: Sco] Scorpius (the
scorpion) is a constellation of the zodiac.
This constellation is seen along the
ecliptic between Libra and Sagittarius.
The brightest star in Scorpius is Antares,
a red supergiant star that is about 500
light-years away from Earth and is about
230 times as big as the Sun. The second-
brightest (Beta 1 Sco) is Graffias.
SOUTHERN CROSS
Crux is the scientific name of the Southern
Cross constellation. This well-known, cross-
shaped Southern Hemisphere constellation is
on the Australian flag. The brightest star in
Crux is Acrux, a double-star system at the base
of the cross. This constellation lies on the
Milky Way and is surrounded by the
constellation Centaurus on three sides. It is
abbreviated Cru.

TAURUS
[Abbreviation: Tau] Taurus (the bull) is a
constellation of the zodiac. This constellation is seen URSA MAJOR
along the ecliptic between Aries and Gemini. The Ursa major (The Great Bear) is a
brightest star (Alpha Tau) in Taurus is Aldebaran, well-known constellation in the
which is one of the bull's eyes (Aldebaran is the 13th Northern Hemisphere that contains
brightest star in the sky). The second-brightest star in the 7 stars of the Big Dipper.
Taurus (Beta Tau) is Alnath, the third brightest
(Gamma Tau) is Hyadum I.
 URSA MINOR
Ursa minor (The Little Bear) is a VIRGO
Northern Hemisphere constellation [Abbreviation: Vir] Virgo (the virgin) is a
that is also known as the Little constellation of the zodiac. It is located along the
Dipper. This group of stars starts at ecliptic between Leo and Libra. Virgo is seen along
Polaris, the pole star of the Northern the ecliptic. The brightest star in Virgo is Spica
Hemisphere (meaning "ear of wheat"). Virgo is the second-
largest constellation (of the 88 constellations), after
Hydra.