NTS 111

Additional Lecture
Deformation of Crust

 Continental Drift Theory (Plate Tectonics), Alfred Wegener

 Supports the idea of continents being together (Pangaea)
1. What appears to be jigsaw puzzle fit of certain land masses
2. Terrestrial fossils scattered in different areas of the globe
3. Similar rock structure s found in continents separated by ocean
4. Evidence from ancient climate

History of the Earth

 Rocks – the recorder of time

Knowing the age of events:

 Relative dating
1. Law of Superposition - states that in an undisturbed sequence of rocks, the oldest
strata/layer will be found on the bottom side
2. Principle of Original Horizontality – states that sediments will assume horizontal
manner and will assume such orientation until lithification process preserves it.
3. Principle of cross-cutting relationships – when faults/fracture cut through rocks, the
event of faulting/fracturing is always younger than the rocks it cuts
4. Inclusion – pieces of rocks contained within another
5. Unconformities
 Angular conformity
 Disconformity
 Nonconformity
 Paraconformity

Fossils – preserved remains or traces of organism

Conditions Required to permit fossilization

1. Rapid burial – prevents the decomposition of the remains

2. Protective cover or medium – will prevent attack of organism living on dead organism and will
also prevent air and moisture from building up.
3. Possession of hard part or durable tissues – bones, teeth, shell and other hard parts of an
organism will most likely to preserved during fossilization.

Common types of Fossilization

1. Preservation without alteration

2. Preservation with alteration
3. Ichnofossils or Trace fossils

Absolute Dating

- Determine the numerical age of materials using radioactive isotopes

 Geologic Time Scale (GTS)– hierarchal set of divisions describing geologic time

Division of GTS
Eon – represents the biggest time division with two major units
 Phanerozoic – 542 million years to present
 Precambrian – formation of earth tp 542 million years ago

Era
Period
Epoch
Age

Natural Hazards, Mitigation and Adaptation

Hazards – are phenomena that have the potential to bring damage to humans and properties
Exposure – potential of human and properties to become exposed to hazards
Vulnerability – encompasses the mitigation efforts to reduce the effect of hazard which is dictated by a
number of factors such as poverty, indices, etc.
Risk – collective efforts of hazards, exposure and associated vulnerabilities
Disasters – occurrence of widespread damage from hazard which may include casualties and property
damages

Hazards
Earthquake – intense ground shaking or movement caused by sudden release of energy
Elastic rebound Theory
Stages

1. Original Position
2. Build – up Strain
3. Rupture or slippage
4. Release of Energy

Seismology – Study of seismic waves

 Seismic waves travel through the medium and are recorded by an instrument called
Seismometer

Body waves – come from focus and emanate in all direction through the interior of earth.
P-wave (Primary) – capable of travelling through solid rock and liquid medium
S-waves (Secondary) – can only travel through solids
Surface waves – travel only on the surface similar to water waves.

Magnitude – estimation of the amount of energy released at the source of an earthquake

Richter Scale – Scale for magnitude
Epicenter – geographic location where the source of earthquake or energy release is.
Earthquake Effect

1. Wave amplitude – highest point of shaking recorded on seismograph

2. Duration of vibration
3. Nature of bedrock – refers to nature of the materials where structures are built
4. Design of Structure – integrity of building to resist ground motion during an earthquake

Volcanic Eruption

Volcano Hazards

1. Lava
2. Pyroclastic Flow
3. Lahar
4. Gas
5. Ash

Volcano Monitoring – involve assessment of different volcanic phenomena that may point out to a
coming eruption.

Sign that volcano will erupt

1. Ground movement
2. Gas release
3. Anomalous thermal signatures
4. Chemical changes in nearby bodies of water

Hydrometeorological Phenomena and Hazards

Tropical Cyclones and Tornadoes

- Characterized by strong wind, heavy rains and a distinct low pressure center called eye

Tropical Cyclones and Tornado Hazards

1. Flooding – flow of water in areas that are normally dry

2. Storm surge – landward phenomenon of water rising above normal sea or tidal levels due to low
pressure

Monsoons – often describe as synonymous to sea breeze only at a larger scale

Amihan (Northeastern Monsoon)

Habagat ( Southwest Wind)

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