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WJ 2013 05 PDF
WJ 2013 05 PDF
May 2013
WELDING JOURNAL • VOLUME 92 NUMBER 5 • MAY 2013
PUBLISHED BY THE AMERICAN WELDING SOCIETY TO ADVANCE THE SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND APPLICATION OF WELDING
AND ALLIED JOINING AND CUTTING PROCESSES WORLDWIDE, INCLUDING BRAZING, SOLDERING, AND THERMAL SPRAYING
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Features Departments
30 Not Your Father’s Gas Shielded Flux Cored Electrodes Editorial ............................4
From general usage to specialized applications, flux cored
Press Time News ..................6
electrodes have come a long way since their early
development News of the Industry ..............8
30 36
T. Myers
On the cover: The fast-freezing slag system of all-position FCAW electrodes al-
lows for better out-of-position welding capabilities. (Photo courtesy of The Lin-
coln Electric Co., Cleveland, Ohio.)
WELDING JOURNAL 3
Editorial May 2013_Layout 1 4/16/13 1:59 PM Page 4
EDITORIAL
Founded in 1919 to Advance the Science,
Technology and Application of Welding
Mark B. Gramelspacher
Chair, RWMA
4 MAY 2013
esab_FP_TEMP 4/11/13 2:45 PM Page 5
TAKE A
WARRIOR
™
INTO
BATTLE.
Ordinary welders go to work. Warriors do battle. And you’re a warrior – you’ve got the experience to
prove it. Now there’s an extraordinary machine that’s as rugged and reliable as you are. Introducing Warrior
by ESAB. Designed with input from real-world welders like you and brought to life by ESAB’s leading-edge
engineering. Warrior is built with inverter technology and features a high-duty cycle, read-anywhere display,
and glove-friendly controls to give you the power to be your best, anywhere, anytime.
PRESS TIME
NEWS
Publisher Andrew Cullison
GM Invests $332 Million for New Fuel-Efficient Powertrains
Editorial
General Motors Co., Detroit, Mich., will invest nearly $332 million in four manufac- Editorial Director Andrew Cullison
turing sites to produce more fuel-efficient engines and transmissions. Editor Mary Ruth Johnsen
The investment includes $215 million in Flint Engine Operations for a new small Associate Editor Howard M. Woodward
Ecotec gas engine, part of a new engine family that includes three- and four-cylinder Associate Editor Kristin Campbell
variants with displacements from 1.0 to 1.5 L; $55.7 million in Toledo Transmission Op- Editorial Asst./Peer Review Coordinator Melissa Gomez
erations for increased capacity and tooling to produce a new eight-speed automatic
transmission and an existing six-speed transmission; $31.7 million in Bay City Power- Publisher Emeritus Jeff Weber
train, including $19.2 million to produce components for a new V6 engine and $12.5
million to produce components for the small Ecotec gas engine; and $29.4 million in Design and Production
Bedford Castings, including $19 million to produce components for the small gas en- Production Manager Zaida Chavez
Senior Production Coordinator Brenda Flores
gine and $10.4 million to produce components for the new eight-speed and existing six-
Manager of International Periodicals and
speed transmissions.
Electronic Media Carlos Guzman
Also, GM is increasing powertrain investment in plants in Romulus and Saginaw,
Mich., to $646 million for supporting production of the new V6 engine. This consists of Advertising
a $41 million increase to $256 million for Saginaw Metal Castings Operations to pro- National Sales Director Rob Saltzstein
duce castings for the new V6 engine and a $5 million increase to $390 million for Ro- Advertising Sales Representative Lea Paneca
mulus Engine Operations to build the new V6 engines. Advertising Sales Representative Sandra Jorgensen
Combined, the two investments will retain about 1650 jobs at the six facilities. Senior Advertising Production Manager Frank Wilson
Subscriptions
Indiana Foundry Records One Million Worker Hours Subscriptions Representative Tabetha Moore
without a Lost Time Accident tmoore@aws.org
Bremen Castings Inc., Bremen, Ind., a family-owned foundry and machine shop, has American Welding Society
recorded one million worker hours without a lost-time accident, which is defined as an 8669 Doral Blvd., Doral, FL 33166
occurrence that resulted in a fatality, permanent disability, or lost time from work of (305) 443-9353 or (800) 443-9353
one day or shift. Publications, Expositions, Marketing Committee
“We’ve implanted strategies and procedures to make sure that each and every em- D. L. Doench, Chair
ployee is accountable for each other’s safety while at work,” said President J. B. Brown. Hobart Brothers Co.
He added the executive team analyzes “near miss” reports, filed by employees when S. Bartholomew, Vice Chair
they notice something amiss, to determine changes that would prevent accidents from ESAB Welding & Cutting Prod.
occurring in the future. J. D. Weber, Secretary
American Welding Society
D. Brown, Weiler Brush
Broadwind Energy Wins $49 Million in Tower Orders T. Coco, Victor Technologies International
L. Davis, ORS Nasco
Broadwind Energy, Inc., Cicero, Ill., recently announced $49 million in tower orders D. DeCorte, RoMan Mfg.
from U.S. wind turbine manufacturers. This includes the following: $35 million for tow- J. R. Franklin, Sellstrom Mfg. Co.
ers serving various domestic wind projects that will be produced in its Manitowoc, Wis., F. H. Kasnick, Praxair
facility for delivery during 2013 and $14 million for producing towers in its Abilene, Tex., D. Levin, Airgas
facility with delivery scheduled for the second half of 2013. E. C. Lipphardt, Consultant
“We’ve seen a significant improvement in activity, and we are quoting orders for 2014 R. Madden, Hypertherm
delivery as the wind energy industry recovers from the downturn at the end of 2012,” D. Marquard, IBEDA Superflash
said Peter C. Duprey, company president and CEO. J. F. Saenger Jr., Consultant
S. Smith, Weld-Aid Products
D. Wilson, Well-Dean Enterprises
National Safety Council Accepting Submissions N. C. Cole, Ex Off., NCC Engineering
for 2013 Robert W. Campbell Award J. N. DuPont, Ex Off., Lehigh University
L. G. Kvidahl, Ex Off., Northrup Grumman Ship Systems
The National Safety Council (NSC), Itasca, Ill., invites worldwide organizations to D. J. Landon, Ex Off., Vermeer Mfg.
apply for the 2013 Robert W. Campbell Award. Presented annually, it is given to an or- S. P. Moran, Ex Off., Weir American Hydro
ganization that integrates environmental, health, and safety management into the core E. Norman, Ex Off., Southwest Area Career Center
R. G. Pali, Ex Off., J. P. Nissen Co.
of its business operations and understands this is critical to its people, planet, and profit.
N. Scotchmer, Ex Off., Huys Industries
“We are able to capture the best practices of our honorees through the development R. W. Shook, Ex Off., American Welding Society
of case studies detailing their continuous improvement process...we can then share these
lessons learned in boardrooms and classrooms worldwide,” said Janet Froetscher, NSC
president and CEO. Copyright © 2013 by American Welding Society in both printed and elec-
tronic formats. The Society is not responsible for any statement made or
Organizations can take a ten-question quiz at campbellaward.org/ready to determine opinion expressed herein. Data and information developed by the authors
whether they are ready to apply for the award. More information can be found at of specific articles are for informational purposes only and are not in-
tended for use without independent, substantiating investigation on the
campbellaward.org along with application criteria. Final submittals must be postmarked part of potential users.
by May 31.◆
MEMBER
6 MAY 2013
greiner_FP_TEMP 4/11/13 2:49 PM Page 7
• 3 Gantries: with plasma & oxy-fuel torches that can cut up to a 10-inch
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At Greiner, we’ve always been about absolute precision and constant • Structural Steel Fabrication
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could match. We continue to “super-size” our capabilities while doing more • Miscellaneous Metals
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NI May 2013_Layout 1 4/17/13 1:53 PM Page 8
NEWS OF THE
INDUSTRY
8 MAY 2013
NI May 2013_Layout 1 4/15/13 12:59 PM Page 9
This effort has seen support from the government and within the attracted participants from around the globe.
steel industry due to its potential for cutting down energy use Fu Chunyan of Beijing Railway Signal Co. Ltd. in China earned
and environmental emissions, particularly carbon dioxide. The first place. She won $1000; a new Metcal soldering station; a Man-
process utilizes direct gaseous reduction of fine iron concentrates tis inspection system; and a Sovella ESD footrest. In addition,
to make iron and is being powered by natural gas. second place went to Viengkeo (Gail) Sourivongs of Connecti-
Berry’s role in the project so far, and in the future, will be cut-based Imperial Electronic Assembly, and the third place prize
bringing the technology to life through designing and manufac- went to Wang He of China’s Changchun Institute of Optics.
turing the equipment, enabling practical application. The contestants built a functional electronics assembly within
a 1-h time limit that was judged in accordance with IPC-A-610E
Class 3 criteria, production speed, and overall electrical
IPC Crowns Winner of Hand Soldering functionality.
World Championship Upcoming hand soldering competitions are also planned for
Malaysia, Thailand, and India. For more details, visit
www.ipc.org/hsc.
PROFITS
10 MAY 2013
NI May 2013_Layout 1 4/16/13 8:28 AM Page 11
Industry Notes
• Camfil Farr Air Pollution Control (APC), Jonesboro, Ark., a
producer of dust and fume collectors to clean up industrial
processes, plus an American Welding Society and International
Thermal Spray Association member, will now operate as Cam-
fil Air Pollution Control (APC). The new Web address for the
company is www.camfilapc.com.
INTERNATIONAL
UPDATE
New Facility Supports Solid-State Laser the sales organization and customers with technical training semi-
nars and detailed research into material applications. It will also
Development provide materials analysis for other Sandvik business areas, specif-
ically Sandvik Construction and Sandvik Machining Solutions.
12 MAY 2013
fronius_FP_TEMP 4/11/13 2:49 PM Page 13
STAINLESS
BY DAMIAN J. KOTECKI
Q&A
14 MAY 2013
Stainless Q+A MAY_Layout 1 4/15/13 3:19 PM Page 15
duced into the melt and an argon-oxygen The second heat treatment involves References
gas mixture was forced into the melt. considerably lower temperature, but
Combustion of the carbon raised the tem- much longer time. The idea behind this 1. Krivsky, W. A. 1973. Stainless His-
perature of the melt and removed the car- second heat treatment is to allow the car- tory, Metallurgical and Materials Transac-
bon. As the carbon decreased, the oxygen bides to form, but to provide enough time tions, Vol. 4, No. 6, pp. 1439–1477.
content of the gas stream was decreased. at temperature to also allow chromium to 2. Folkhard, E. 1988. Welding Metal-
Then ferrosilicon was added to recover diffuse back into the chromium-depleted lurgy of Stainless Steels. Springer-Verlag,
some oxidized chromium from the slag. zones and eliminate them. This can re- Vienna.
The decarburization could be stopped at quire more than 100 h at a temperature
whatever carbon level was desired. The like 760°C (1400°F). Figure 2 illustrates
argon cost was more than offset by using the effect of temperature on chromium
cheap high-carbon ferrochromium in- carbide precipitation and on intergranular
stead of expensive low-carbon fer- corrosion (labeled “IC attack” in the fig- DAMIAN J. KOTECKI is president,
rochromium for the alloying. ure). It can be seen from this figure, re- Damian Kotecki Welding Consultants, Inc.
It took about 15 years to fully debug the produced from Folkhard (Ref. 2), that He is treasurer of the IIW and a member of
AOD process, but since about 1970, the long times at intermediate temperatures the A5D Subcommittee on Stainless Steel
AOD process has been the preferred can be used to heal the damage from sen- Filler Metals, D1K Subcommittee on Stain-
method of stainless steel refining. It com- sitization. The advantages of this ap-
pletely dominates stainless steel refining proach over annealing and quenching is less Steel Structural Welding; and WRC
in the Western World. Today, I am told that distortion will be much less (in part Subcommittee on Welding Stainless Steels
that the price premium for 304L over 304 because no quench is required at the end and Nickel-Base Alloys. He is a past chair of
is about 1.5 to 2 cents/lb. That price dif- of the treatment) and scaling will not the A5 Committee on Filler Metals and Al-
ference is hardly worth considering in view occur although the steel will be oxidized. lied Materials, and served as AWS president
of the likelihood of sensitization when So cleanup afterward is less. But 100 h at
(2005–2006). Send questions to damian@
welding 304. 760°C is not cheap.
There is a second reason that 304 might In conclusion, use of 304 in a weldment damiankotecki.com, or Damian Kotecki,
be specified. Its specified minimum tensile that will see corrosive service is not a good c/o Welding Journal Dept., 8669 Doral
strength is 75 ksi (515 MPa) vs. 70 ksi (485 idea. The fix is expensive.♦ Blvd., Ste. 130, Doral, FL 33166.
MPa) for 304L, and the specified mini-
mum yield strength of 304 is 30 ksi (205
MPa) vs. 25 ksi (170 MPa) according to
ASTM A240. However, you can purchase
stainless steel that is dual certified as both
304 and 304L (i.e., it is below 0.03% car-
bon but still meets the higher strength re-
quirement of 304). That would take care
of the strength concern.
after graduation?
stainless steel) has been sensitized, there
are only two ways of removing the sensiti-
zation; both involve heat treatment, and
neither is very palatable. The first is a so- Employers want commercial divers that are internationally certified.
lution anneal followed immediately by
water quench. The annealing temperature
of about 1040°C (1900°F), for an hour or NICAL INS
CH TI
TE T
so, dissolves all of the chromium carbides
A
UT
CD
WELDING JOURNAL 15
Fellow Letter 2013_Layout 1 4/16/13 9:11 AM Page 16
I want to encourage you to submit nomination packages for those individuals whom you feel
have a history of accomplishments and contributions to our profession consistent with the standards
set by the existing Fellows. In particular, I would make a special request that you look to the most
senior members of your Section or District in considering members for nomination. In many cases,
the colleagues and peers of these individuals who are the most familiar with their contributions, and
who would normally nominate the candidate, are no longer with us. I want to be sure that we take
the extra effort required to make sure that those truly worthy are not overlooked because no obvious
individual was available to start the nomination process.
For specifics on the nomination requirements, please contact Wendy Sue Reeve at AWS
headquarters in Miami, or simply follow the instructions on the Fellow nomination form in this issue
of the Welding Journal. Please remember, we all benefit in the honoring of those who have made
major contributions to our chosen profession and livelihood. The deadline for submission is July 1,
2013. The Committee looks forward to receiving numerous Fellow nominations for 2014
consideration.
Sincerely,
Thomas M. Mustaleski
Chair, AWS Fellows Selection Committee
weld engineering_FP_TEMP 4/11/13 2:55 PM Page 19
RWMA
BY ROGER HIRSCH
Q&A
Q: I am trying to make resistance weld- table in the control and see that we are in range, the output of the welding trans-
ing seams using a single-phase constant the 25–30% range so I know I am not over- former is a series of very small heat pulses
current welding control and am having a working the welding machine. Do you and a lot of spaces in between. This
hard time holding the tolerance required have any suggestions? makes control of the process very sensi-
for this military project. We are using a tive. No matter how good your control is,
150-kVA seam welding machine with 3⁄8- A: The problem here is a misunder- it will be very difficult to achieve the de-
in.-wide welding wheels on 0.040-in. CRS. standing of how a resistance welding ma- sired results with this welding machine.
The welding transformer tap switch is set chine works. Because you are using the Welding machine size is also often mis-
to the #1 position. I checked the learn control in this very low heat percentage understood. The idea that you need a
Gentec is a total solution provider for your welding, cutting, and gas control needs.
20 MAY 2013
RWMA May 2013_Layout 1 4/16/13 2:01 PM Page 21
Fig. 3 — 30% weld heat. Fig. 4 — 460-V welding machine operating on a 230-V line
at 60% weld heat.
welding machine large enough to join the has no heat. The upper scan shows the each half cycle. The upper scan shows the
thickest metal can also mean it will be way RMS current that results from this firing. RMS current from this setting. A very
too large to do the smaller thickness com- Figure 3 shows what happens with a small change in this heat setting makes a
binations. Some of this problem can be heat setting of 30%, which is similar to large change in the RMS current, and a
overcome by using the welding machine your setup. Note that the amount of time control working in this range will be un-
with the transformer tap switch set at the that voltage is being conducted to the stable and cannot be accurate.
high settings for the thicker metal weld- welding transformer is very small com- A good rule of thumb is to use a resist-
ing, and then going to the low tap switch pared to the time of no voltage flow in ance welding machine with a transformer
setting for thin metals. Sadly, many of the
newer U.S.-made welding machines and
most of the imported welding machines
do not have a transformer tap switch and,
therefore, lose this ability.
To understand why using a welding ma-
chine at a very low heat percent setting is
a problem, you have to understand how a
welding control provides heat in response
to the program settings. The process is
called phase shifting. This is accomplished
by having the welding control fire the SCR
contactor (solid-state switch that conducts
voltage to the welding transformer) at dif-
ferent time delays in each half cycle of the
line power.
Used
If you want to use all of the line volt- Welders,
age, the control will turn on the SCR con-
tactor just after the current in the weld- Positioners,
ing transformer goes to zero. Since a weld-
ing transformer is an inductive device, this
Generators,
will happen a little after the line voltage
goes to zero.
Specialty
eci
ciiallt E
Equipment.
q ipm
Figure 1 shows a welding machine op-
erating at a 99% heat setting. The lower
red trace shows the current going into the
welding transformer primary. Note that
the current is conducted over the entire
sine wave of line power less a small notch
at each zero crossing. This would be about
the same as if you shorted the SCR con-
tactor and put the entire available line
voltage into the welding machine trans-
former. The upper blue scan shows the
RMS current created by this AC firing.
This RMS current is proportional to the
output of the welding transformer.
Figure 2 shows a current scan for a heat
setting of 50%. Note that about half of the reddarc.com 1-866-733-3272
sine wave is being used, and the other half
For info go to www.aws.org/ad-index
WELDING JOURNAL 21
RWMA May 2013_Layout 1 4/16/13 2:01 PM Page 22
tap switch setting that will produce the de- form a nugget. When you try to make the and compensate for any slight misalign-
sired RMS welding current when the con- second spot weld, some of the voltage ment of the parts.
trol’s heat setting is between 60 and 90%. being conducted from the upper to the Another big advantage to using pro-
The recommended upper limit of 90% is lower electrode finds an easy path through jections on this part is that you can use flat
to allow the welding control to have the the fused metal of the first weld nugget. electrodes. These electrodes will have
ability to increase heat to compensate for This is called shunting. Because of shunt- much longer life than a small spot weld-
incoming line voltage variations. It also ing, the second weld will be considerably ing electrode, and weld strength will not
allows for changes in the welding machine weaker than the first weld. When you do be dependent on how well the electrodes
secondary impedance as ferrous metal of the third and fourth welds, the same prob- are dressed.◆
the part is being pushed into the welding lem continues, but at an even greater level
machine throat. of strength loss.
There are several solutions to this type Making four welds this close together
of control problem: will, if you are lucky, produce a total
The first is to set the welding machine strength of about 11⁄2 times that of a single
transformer tap switch to a lower number weld. And since the diameter of each weld
and then use a higher weld heat setting. nugget will be small enough to fit into this
Unfortunately, in your case, you are al- tab, the total strength of all four welds will
ready at the lowest setting. be very low as you have observed. ROGER HIRSCH is past chair of the
Next, use the correct size welding ma- The solution is to use welding projec- RWMA, a standing committee of the
chine for the job. If you have a smaller tions on the tabs. This will allow the weld- American Welding Society. He is also
kVA seam welding machine, move the job ing current to make good separate welds president of Unitrol Electronics, Inc.,
there. As an example, a 75-kVA seam at each projection in one pass of the weld- Northbrook, Ill., a manufacturer of re-
welding machine will probably find the ing machine, and the strength of the over- sistance welding controls and process
proper heat setting in the 60% range to all joint will be much closer to the strength water chillers. Send your comments
give control back to the system. of a single projection multiplied by the and questions to Roger Hirsch at
If this is not possible, and if you are number being used. Roger@unitrol-electronics.com, or
working on a 460-V power line, connect In this case, since you are welding a flat by mail to Roger Hirsch, c/o Welding
the welding machine to a 230-V line with tab to a curved surface, it would be best Journal, 8669 NW Doral Blvd., Suite
the results as shown in Fig. 4. Be sure to to use two oval-shaped projections placed 130, Doral, FL 33166.
change the voltage select jumpers in the at right angles to the radius of the part.
control to 230 V. Now you will be in the This will allow the maximum weld area
60% range since the line voltage ampli-
tude will be lower and you will be using
more of each ½ cycle of this line voltage
to create the desired RMS current for
welding. This will not increase the load on
the power lines since the turns ratio of the Change of Address?
welding transformer will remain the same.
Note that you can operate a 460-V Moving?
transformer on a 230-V line, but you can-
not operate a 230-V transformer on a 460-
V line without damaging the transformer. Make sure delivery of your Welding Journal is not interrupted. Con-
Compare this to Fig. 3, which shows tact the Membership Department with your new address informa-
the same transformer operating on 460 V tion — (800) 443-9353, ext. 204; mtrujillo@aws.org.
at a 30% weld heat setting. You can eas-
ily see how much more stable the process
is when more of each half-cycle of current
is being used.
22 MAY 2013
otc daihen_FP_TEMP 4/11/13 3:09 PM Page 23
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r standby
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ARC WELDING M U LT I - P U R P O S E
FD-H5 FD-B4 FD-B4L FD-V6 FD-V6L FD-B15 FD-V20 FD-V50 FD-V166 FD-V210
Hand welded samples using the DP-400 pulsed MIG welding machine
System Transforms GMA hammer, 100 2-mm pins, and a replace- gonomics have been developed and tested
ment slide hammer knurled locking cam. with professional welders and the Finnish
Gun into Stud Welding Tool Institute of Occupational Health. When
The Eastwood Co. a welder uses the pistol grip with the han-
www.eastwood.com dle, its cable passes above the wrist and
(800) 343-9353 its center of gravity is closer to the elbow.
When welding with the product in a hori-
GMAW Gun Handle Reduces zontal or vertical position, the upper arm
Strain on Shoulders, Arms is lower. The pistol grip does not require
any squeezing of the handle; it allows a
relaxed hold. The cable passing over the
lower arm balances the handle. It is com-
patible with most Abicor Binzel®, Tbi®,
and Kemppi® torches.
The company’s GMA stud weld system Ergowelder Oy Ltd.
transforms any Tweco®-style GMA gun www.ergowelder.com
into a stud welding tool, which enables +358 (0)44 2779953
users to remove dings in doors, hoods,
deck lids, or quarter panels. After the pins
are welded into place using the product,
Catalog Showcases Line
pull the metal flush with the slide ham- of Women’s Welding Gear
mer, cut and grind the pins, and a prop- The company’s GMAW gun handle al-
erly shaped surface ready to finish is lows two working positions, traditional The 2013 Welding Gear catalog intro-
achieved. It includes a GMA stud nozzle and pistol grip. It also reduces strain on duces the new Jessi Combs women’s line,
attachment, precision-balanced slide shoulders and arms. The handle’s er- which includes the VIKING™ 1840 Series
24 MAY 2013
P and P May 2013_Layout 1 4/15/13 3:09 PM Page 25
Thermacut, Inc.
www.thermacut.com
(800) 932-8312
26 MAY 2013
P and P May 2013_Layout 1 4/15/13 3:10 PM Page 27
Earplugs Available in
Three Damping Levels
The DI Red 25 dB is
a CE-certified indus-
trial hearing protection
earplug that incorpo-
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nology. Available in
three damping levels,
this universal plug pro- Manufacturin
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uring
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product allows air to enter the ear, reduc-
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Welding
elding Wire
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terchangeable and upgradable to custom types of grinding, blending, deburring, COBALT
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cludes usage tips; easy-to-read charts with
Crescendo sizes, shapes, and specifications; and QR
www.crescendo-hearingprotection.com codes to video demonstrations. New prod- NICKEL
(305) 463-9304 ucts include Type 27 Max Flex cotton-fiber
wheels and rubber-mounted points. The
Abrasives Catalog Includes catalog can be requested from the infor-
mation below or can be downloaded from
HARDFACE
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The company’s 2013–2014 Time Sav-
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Rex-Cut Abrasives
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28 MAY 2013
harris_FP_TEMP 4/11/13 2:51 PM Page 29
BY TOM MYERS
TOM MYERS is a senior
applications engineer,
The Lincoln Electric Co.,
Cleveland, Ohio,
www.lincolnelectric.com.
E
lectrodes for the gas shielded, flux atively few variations in the formulations that was in essence a “one-size-fits-all”
cored arc welding (FCAW-G) of electrodes within a specific American product. This philosophy was partially
process were first developed in the Welding Society (AWS) classification. In successful in meeting the demands of the
late 1950s. Over the next 40 years or so, many cases, one particular electrode was welding market during this time. How-
manufacturers refined and improved intended to be used for a variety of ap- ever, today’s structural engineers and in-
these products, offering a fairly limited plications. Oftentimes it was intended to dustrial designers are increasingly speci-
line of carbon steel and low-alloy steel be used with either 100% carbon dioxide fying higher-strength, lower-weight steels
electrodes for either all-position welding (CO 2) shielding gas or a mixed argon for cost savings and productivity consid-
or flat and horizontal only (i.e., in-posi- (Ar)/CO2 shielding gas. erations, making these base materials a
tion) welding — Fig. 1. Back then, the general manufacturing popular choice in many industries.
During this time, there also were rel- philosophy was to develop an electrode These new specifications demand the
30 MAY 2013
Myers Feature May 2013_Layout 1 4/12/13 2:53 PM Page 31
need for low-alloy FCAW-G electrodes tion of new materials, combined with de- spool, and with the use of a wire feeder
that produce welds with increased ten- mands for more customized, efficient and welding gun, be fed continuously into
sile and yield strengths (compared to car- electrodes, manufacturers have been re- the weld joint.
bon steel electrodes) for welding these turning to their R&D drawing boards to Flux cored electrodes fall into two
higher-strength steels. Other applica- develop new gas shielded, flux cored con- fundamentally different categories: self-
tions require electrodes that produce sumables. shielded, flux cored electrodes (FCAW-
welds with improved impact properties. S) and gas shielded, flux cored electrodes
Generally, electrodes needed to produce Fundamentals and (FCAW-G).
welds with low-temperature toughness of Gas shielded, flux cored electrodes in-
at least 20 ft·lbf (27 J) at a test tempera- Advantages of FCAW corporate a double shielding system by
ture of 0°F (–18°C) or –20°F (–29°C). Electrodes using an external shielding gas as well as
Some applications now require these a slag system. The shielding gas is re-
same absorbed energy values at temper- Flux cored electrodes were originally quired to protect the arc and molten
atures of –40°F (–40°C) or even lower. developed as a higher productivity exten- metal from the atmosphere. It also re-
Similarly, operator demand for just sion of shielded metal arc welding sults in exceptionally smooth arc charac-
the “right” application-specific, flux (SMAW) electrodes. They are, in fact, teristics, compared to self-shielded elec-
cored electrode has steadily increased like a SMAW electrode turned inside out. trodes. They use either a rutile slag sys-
over the past five to ten years to keep up They consist of a steel tube (i.e., outer tem or a basic slag system. The rutile sys-
with a growing desire for increased weld steel sheath) with flux inside the tube or tem is the most common and is charac-
productivity, performance, and quality, at the electrode’s core, hence the name, terized by a smooth arc with complete
not to mention aesthetics. “flux core.” Because of this design, the slag coverage of the weld. The basic slag
Because of this increased specifica- electrode can be wound onto a coil or system, while producing a globular metal
WELDING JOURNAL 31
Myers Feature May 2013_Layout 1 4/12/13 2:54 PM Page 32
32 MAY 2013
Myers Feature May 2013_Layout 1 4/12/13 2:54 PM Page 33
WELDING JOURNAL 33
Myers Feature May 2013_Layout 1 4/12/13 2:54 PM Page 34
FCAW-G electrodes were needed with a that produces mechanical properties that
different type of slag system. These high- are so robust that they tip the scale on
deposition or “HD” electrodes have very operability.
fast freezing slag systems that better sup- Think of the three key components of
port higher wire feed speed welding electrode design as a triangle — Fig. 5.
procedures. On one side, you have operability. On the
Additionally, many industries have second side, you have mechanical prop-
had increased requirements for weld erties. On the third side, you have dif-
metal with improved impact properties. fusible hydrogen levels.
The original one-size-fits-all FCAW-G Targeted product development has al-
electrodes were designed to produce lowed manufacturers to design “families”
welds with a minimum low-temperature of FCAW-G electrodes, each aimed for
toughness of 20 ft-lbf (27 J) at 0°F or 20 different applications in specific indus-
ft-lbf (27 J) at –20°F. Some industries, Fig. 5 — Manufacturers must bal- try segments. Each family balances the
such as offshore and pipeline fabrication ance three components when they three sides of the design triangle to avoid
(Fig. 4), often require FCAW-G elec- design an FCAW-G electrode — op- compromising any one of those compo-
trodes that produce welds with a mini- erability, mechanical properties, nents and, thus, delivers a robustly per-
mum low temperature toughness of 20 and diffusible hydrogen levels. forming electrode.
ft-lbf (27 J) at –40°F. These more strin-
gent requirements have necessitated the Application-Specific
need for new FCAW-G electrodes with order to produce optimum operator ap-
improved impact properties. peal and the targeted mechanical prop- FCAW Electrodes
In other cases, FCAW-G electrodes erties. They either will be for use with
have been increasingly used on weld- 100% CO2 or a mixed blend, consisting Today, manufacturers of FCAW elec-
ments that must be stress relieved after of 75– 85% Ar/balance CO 2 (with 75% trodes offer broad product lines, with
welding. In general, after postweld heat Ar/25% CO2 the most popular blend). many electrodes designed for specific ap-
treatment (PWHT), the tensile and yield The required shielding gas is now also plications and industries. Examples of
strength of the weld drops to a certain incorporated into the electrode’s AWS more specialized FCAW-G electrodes in-
degree. When the weld from a one-size- classification number. For example, the clude ones designed for the following
fits-all FCAW-G electrode is stress re- “C” in an E71T-1C classified electrode uses:
lieved, you can run the risk of the tensile specifies that it is for use with CO2 shield- • with one specific type of shielding gas
and yield strengths dropping below the ing gas, while the “M” in an E71T-1M such as UltraCore® 71C and Ultra-
minimum specified levels. Therefore, classified electrode specifies that it is for Core® 71A85 from The Lincoln Elec-
PWHT applications have led to the need use with mixed shielding gas. Electrodes tric Co.
for more specialized FCAW-G electrodes that are still designed for use with either
that have an altered chemical formula- type of shielding gas are dual classified, • for higher-strength steels (i.e., 80-,
tion. These electrodes are designed to such as “E71T-1C/E71T-1M.” 90-, and 100-ksi minimum tensile
have a minimal drop in tensile and yield Furthermore, operator appeal of low- strength).
strength after stress relief. alloy FCAW-G electrodes also has im- • “HD” type for high-deposition, out-of-
With such changeable factors as proved. A welder can weld with a carbon position capability (i.e., UltraCore®
shielding gas, diffusible hydrogen levels, steel FCAW-G electrode or a low-alloy HD-C and HD-M).
deposition rate needs, and mechanical FCAW-G electrode and not really see a
property requirements, as well as differ- difference in arc performance. This re- • for exceptionally high deposition rates
ent grades of steel, coming into play in sults from the fact that manufacturers in the flat and horizontal positions.
the FCAW-G arena, the scope and ver- have succeeded in coming up with a stan-
• for improved low-temperature tough-
satility of a one-size-fits-all electrode has dard slag system for families of elec-
ness properties.
become increasingly narrower. This chal- trodes. Individual electrodes can be mod-
lenges manufacturers to meet stringent ified for different applications by tweak- • “SR” type for stress-relieved applica-
mechanical properties on a consistent ing the alloy formulation in the elec- tions.
basis with traditional multipurpose trode’s core so that welders and fabrica-
• for pipe welding applications such as
FCAW-G electrode design. tors will see similar operating character-
Pipeliner® 81M, 101M, and 111M.
istics, no matter the application.
New Approach to Design • for chromium-molybdenum (Cr-Mo)
Electrode Design steels.
To meet various industry-specific re-
quirements and operator demands for Producing a successful FCAW-G elec- Welders now have a broad choice of
mechanical properties, performance, and trode comes down to balance in the de- electrodes designed for a variety of spe-
aesthetics, manufacturers now are sign and manufacture of the electrodes. cific applications and industries, expand-
designing and producing application- Manufacturers have worked to develop ing the range of use, as well as overall
targeted, next-generation FCAW-G con- FCAW-G consumables that consistently quality and productivity. With improved
sumables with specific industries in mind. meet mechanical properties, without operating characteristics and perform-
In addition, many of the FCAW-G compromising quality and aesthetics. ance, these enhanced, highly efficient
electrodes today have been designed for They do so without taking it to the ex- products are truly not our fathers’ flux
use with only one type of shielding gas in treme. They avoid creating an electrode cored electrodes.◆
34 MAY 2013
weld aid_FP_TEMP 4/11/13 2:55 PM Page 35
Welding Resources
for When You’re
on the Go
A search found plenty
of free, easy-to-use,
welding-related apps
S
ure you can play games, work on a
crossword puzzle, count calories,
track your exercise regimen, and
of each of their offerings to clarify the im-
portant features to consider when shop-
ping for these items.
1 Help for Selecting
Power Generators.
manipulate photos through any number While many full-featured apps can be
of applications (apps) on your smart downloaded free of charge, some free This well-organized, easy-to-use app
phone or tablet, but can your work bene- apps are “Lite” versions that offer basic details Multiquip’s line of MQ Power
fit from the use of an app? It so happens versatility to promote purchasing the WhisperWatt Super-Silent portable 5- to
that when you Google “welding apps,” “Full” version. Although some are lim- 450-hp generators designed to provide
you’ll discover a lengthy list for download ited in scope, a Lite version may be worth power under the harsh conditions at con-
to both Android and Apple smart phones checking out since the information it of- struction sites, entertainment venues,
and tablets. fers may be all you require for your daily and disaster-recovery operations. The
Many apps are intuitive and require needs. data are intuitively organized into com-
no instruction to use. The topics include A bonus to using mobile apps is their pact files that permit uncluttered viewing
selecting equipment, inspection data, potential educational value. You can eas- of images and text on the small smart-
weld joint design, calculators, code stan- ily “experiment” with different metals, phone screens.
dards, test questions, safety, etc. After material thicknesses, processes, etc., to Opening the app for the first time
the initial downloading, most apps func- get a feel for how various processes work. (Fig. 1) reveals a “Begin” button. Once
tion without an Internet connection. Following are brief descriptions of a tapped, it opens a screen that scrolls
Apps usually begin by asking you to cross section of welding-related apps through 19 sizes of generators from 5 to
answer a few questions to define your sit- available for free downloading onto your 450 hp.
uation, then open a scroll-down page smart phone or tablet. To search for these Tapping the hp size of your choice
with the answers or recommended set- and other apps, just Google your topic opens a screen showing the several volt-
tings, data chart, a table, equipment set- or the app’s name. You can often find age ranges available for that size genera-
tings, required filler metals, etc. useful apps offered on welding equip- tor. Tapping a voltage range opens a page
The apps offered by equipment and ment manufacturers’ Web sites. Check illustrating the recommended generator
consumables manufacturers make it easy for new apps online occasionally, since including its prime, standby, and voltage
to compare the features and capabilities they are added and updated daily. dip ratings. Tapping that page opens a
HOWARD WOODWARD (woodward@aws.org) is associate editor, MARY RUTH JOHNSEN (mjohnsen@aws.org) is editor, and KRISTIN
CAMPBELL (kcampbell@aws.org) is associate editor of the Welding Journal. CARLOS GUZMAN (cguzman@aws.org) is editor of the
Welding Journal en Español.
36 MAY 2013
Woodward et al feature May 2013_Layout 1 4/15/13 8:26 AM Page 37
3
menu listing pages detailing this genera- App Provides Fast trial airborne contaminants.
tor’s specifications, dimensions, weights, Access to Respirator
engine specifications, trailer require-
ments, various options, plus a “Docu-
Info. the iPhone, this app is expected to be
ments” file that opens to offer a number available in December for Android-
This app from 3M is designed for in-
of PDF spec sheets and equipment based smart phones.
dustrial hygienists and safety profession-
brochures. A “Contact Us” button also
als who want rapid access to respirator
appears on this page that when touched
opens into a short form for writing an e-
mail message to the company.
guide information on their smart phones.
The guide identifies facepieces, car-
tridges, and filters including an overview
4 Pipefitter’s Reference
App.
of qualitative fit-testing protocols and The opening screen details (Welded)
A
5 Ultrasound Calc Lite
Version App.
WELDING JOURNAL 37
Woodward et al feature May 2013_Layout 1 4/15/13 8:27 AM Page 38
ues from the menu of Diameter, Thick- The Norton Abrasives grinding app of-
fers calculators for a coolant, dressing pa- Fig. 6 — The ShopFloorTalk app has
ness, Inside Diameter, and Length. As
rameter, and wheel speed. The portable many forums, including one for welding
an example, typing in 6-in. diameter,
grinder product selector has areas for se- processes.
0.25-in. wall, and 25-ft length displays a
table listing the parameters with a total lecting the application, material, and pri-
mary/secondary attributes. Postal codes ing, fabrication, machining, and general
weight of 384.9 lb.
can be entered in the distributor locator metalwork of all kinds — Fig. 6.
lookup. The application inquiry features The welding and metalworking fo-
38 MAY 2013
Woodward et al feature May 2013_Layout 1 4/15/13 8:27 AM Page 39
formation into ESAB’s Welding Parame- The Welding Pro app by Certilas Ned-
ters Set-Up Guide and receive data that erland BV, a maker of welding consum-
Fig. 7 — Lindquist’s app acts as a ref- can be used to set up their welding ma- ables in The Netherlands, provides weld
erence guide to work around tool pro- chine and adjust it to their specific ap- cost calculations for fillet welds, and sin-
duction needs. plication requirements. gle-V, double-V, and double bevel butt
joints — Fig. 10. It allows users to quickly
today? An A–Z list has keywords from compare labor, gas, and filler metal costs.
aluminum extrusion tooling to zinc die
cast dies. By clicking on each term, sug-
gested materials from low to high pro-
13 Help with Interpreting
Industrial Radiographs.
Users pick the type of weld they will be
making (fillet or groove), then select
welding process, amperage, duty cycle,
duction value are found. Another area The Code 313 app (Fig. 9) is a calcu- type of electrode, etc. Users also desig-
for materials can also be explored. lator for interpreting industrial radi- nate whether they are welding steel,
In addition, users can obtain a ographs in accordance with ASME B31.3, stainless steel, or aluminum. While the
quote/order, discover the company’s his- Process Piping. The app’s developer app is set up for metric units and euros,
tory, and find contact details. warns that the app does not replace the a tap on the settings button allows users
The app is compatible with the iPhone code itself, nor the need to have the code, to switch to Imperial Standard units and
(3GS, 4, 4S, and 5); iPod touch (3rd, 4th, but is a calculator to help you verify your dollars. It also displays the most recent
and 5th generations); and iPad. own interpretation. To use the app, you calculations and users can designate cer-
tain calculations as “favorites” that can
WELDING JOURNAL 39
Woodward et al feature May 2013_Layout 1 4/15/13 8:27 AM Page 40
15 Troubleshoot
Resistance Spot
Welding.
16 Growing Catalog of
Welding Calculators. 17 Look Up Cut Charts
and Error Codes.
AxonCalc has developed a series of The Thermal Dynamics Cut Chart is
The Resistance Spot Welding Trou- app calculators for welding, mechanical, designed for the company’s Ultra-Cut
bleshooting App by Miyachi Unitek of- and materials engineering — Fig. 12. The series of high-precision automated
fers a quick guide to solving common Welding AxonCalc app includes the fol- plasma systems — Fig. 13. The app of-
problems found in the RSW process — lowing calculators: Carbon Equivalent fers a cut chart for Ultra-Cut with
Fig. 11. The sharp interface is simple to and Composition Parameter (PCM), Pre- DPC3000 and error codes for all Ultra-
use and is well laid out. There are four Heat and Interpass Temperature, Maxi- Cut as well as Auto-Cut systems — Fig.
main menus or tabs: Instructions, Guide- mum Hi-Lo at Internal Diameter for 13.
lines, Troubleshoot, and Info. By tapping Pipes, Hi-Lo at Internal Diameter at Spe- Under the best cut division, users can
on the Troubleshoot tab, the user is able cific Location for Pipes, and Arc Weld- select the appropriate material type, in-
to choose from a variety of possible symp- ing Heat Input Calculator. cluding aluminum, mild steel, and stain-
toms or problems: overheating of weld- Designed with a legible and attractive less, along with the thickness (gauge, in.,
ment, discoloration, weak weld, insuffi- interface, the AxonCalc calculators are or mm). Corresponding options will ap-
cient nugget, metal expulsion, sparking, easy to navigate and use. For example, pear, and some materials have multiple
inconsistent welds, electrode damage, the Arc Welding Heat Input calculator options. Entering error codes will enable
and electrode sticking. Solutions are pre- viewing troubleshooting suggestions.
sented in four categories: material, elec- Also, there are sections linking to the
trode, weldhead, and power supply. Victor Technologies Cutting & Welding
Additionally, the user selects one of YouTube channel and locating technical
four priority levels, according to the most
likely cause of the problem. For exam-
ple, if overheating of weldment is the
most likely cause of the problem, select
Priority 1 and the app reveals that it may
be caused by excess time. This suggestion
appears in the Power Supply Related
field. Tap on this field and a possible so-
lution is shown (in this case, “Decrease
weld time in steps of 5–10% ...”).
Although the solutions presented in
this app are brief and may not cover all
variables, it’s a good starting point for
professionals and a worthwhile tool for
educational purposes. This Miyachi
Unitek app is available for iPad, iPhone,
and Android.
has fields for inputting current, voltage, Fig. 13 — The Thermal Dynamics Cut
and travel speed alone or travel speed Chart features areas for looking up a cut
and time. The results, which can be chart along with error codes.
copied onto the device’s memory or
e-mailed directly from the application,
are displayed in both kJ/in. and kJ/mm.
This free app contains demos of all support in Australia, Canada, China, Eu-
the welding calculators, which lets the rope, South East Asia, and the United
user try them before committing to buy, States.
and the company has plans to expand the The app is compatible with the iPhone
Fig. 11 — By tapping on the Troubleshoot collection regularly. Additional app (3GS, 4, 4S, and 5); iPod touch (3rd, 4th,
tab, the user is able to choose from a va- demos can be found on the company’s and 5th generations); and iPad. It re-
riety of possible symptoms or problems. Web site: www.axoncalc.com. quires iOS 5.0 or later.◆
40 MAY 2013
arc one_FP_TEMP 4/11/13 2:43 PM Page 41
Improving Surfacing
Performance with GMAW
BY JAIR CARLOS DUTRA,
The synchronized polarity gas metal EDUARDO BIDESE PUHL,
arc welding technique shows NELSO GAUZE BONACORSO, AND
REGIS HENRIQUE GONCALVES E SILVA
promise for applying coatings where JAIR CARLOS DUTRA, EDUARDO BIDESE PUHL
the risk of perforating the base (eduardopuhl@labsolda.ufsc.br), and
REGIS HENRIQUE GONCALVES E SILVA are with
Federal University of Santa Catarina — UFSC
material is a critical factor Mechanical Engineering Department, Florianópolis,
Brazil. NELSO GAUZE BONACORSO is with Federal
Institute of Education, Science and Technology of
Santa Catarina, Metal Mechanics Department,
Florianópolis, Brazil.
new technique for the production case of coating applications, beside the polarity, a welding condition tradition-
Table 1 — Weld Beads Obtained in the Flat Position on an ABNT 1020 Carbon Steel Plate (AWS ER70S-6) Wire with Diameter of
1.2 mm, Mixture of Ar and O2, Welding Speed of 348 mm/min, and Current of 250 A
Test Polarity Feed Speed (m/min) Weld bead appearance Cross section
1 DCEP 7.2
2 DCEN 11.7
42 MAY 2013
Puhl et al May 2013_Layout 1 4/12/13 2:56 PM Page 43
WELDING JOURNAL 43
Puhl et al May 2013_Layout 1 4/12/13 2:56 PM Page 44
44 MAY 2013
Puhl et al May 2013_Layout 1 4/12/13 2:56 PM Page 45
Fig. 6 — The equipment setup for demonstrating the validity of the synchronized polarity gas metal arc welding technique.
Setting up the System IMC SAP-V4.01) (Ref. 6) — Fig. 6. application time for DCEN was twice
The welding power source was pro- that of DCEP. Despite the occurrence of
The tests performed to demonstrate grammed to operate in GMAW mode spattering (Fig. 7A), a regular weld bead
the validity of the SP-GMAW technique with the current imposed instead of the with an average width of 15.4 mm and
simulated the recovery of the thickness voltage. This produces better dynamics maximum height of 3.1 mm was obtained.
of a worn low-carbon steel workpiece for the alternating polarities. The shield- The maximum penetration (Fig. 7B) was
through the addition of 1.2-mm-diame- ing gas used was a mixture of 98%Ar only 0.5 mm and the dilution was approx-
ter ER70S-6 wire in the flat welding po- + 2%O 2 with a flow rate of 13 L/min imately 13%.
sition. The equipment used for the tests that was recommended by researchers The oscillograms of the voltage and
consisted of a microprocessor-controlled (Ref. 1). current of the electric arc, as well as the
welding power source (Model IMC In- Table 2 shows the parameters of the wire feed speed (Fig. 8), were captured
versal 450) with its respective wire movement and of the welding used to during the production of this particular
feeder, a Cartesian XY manipulator produce the weld bead shown in Fig. 6. weld bead. The temporal behavior of the
(Model SPS Tartílope V2F), and a This deposit was obtained using the push electric arc voltage indicates that short
portable data-acquisition system (Model technique with an angle of 10 deg. The circuiting does not occur. The spattering
observed can be explained by the projec-
tion of drops of the electric arc to the out-
side of the weld pool due to the inversion
Table 2 — Values for the Parameters Applied in SP-GMAW of the direction of the weld torch move-
ment. This inversion of movement occurs
Parameters Values during the application of DCEP polarity
and at both lateral ends of the trajectory
Weld speed (mm/min) 436
Oscillation frequency (Hz) 1.5 of the torch oscillation.
Oscillation amplitude, 2.Yp (mm) 12.0 It can also be observed that in DCEP
Polarity amplitude DCEN, 2.Yt (mm) 8.0 polarity, when the I+ current reaches its
Wire feed speed (mm/min) 11.5 reference value (270 A), the voltage grad-
Electric current in DCEP polarity, I+ (A) 270 ually reduces. This signals the decrease
Electric current in DCEN polarity, I– (A) 250 in the length of the electric arc due to a
lack of wire consumption. When the po-
WELDING JOURNAL 45
Puhl et al May 2013_Layout 1 4/12/13 2:57 PM Page 46
Conclusions
The SP-GMAW technique offers a
real possibility for the application of
coatings where the risk of perforating the
base material is a critical factor. This is
due to the achieved appropriate geomet-
ric characteristics for the task of coating
surfaces, such as shallow penetration, a
surface with almost no undulation, and
good dimensional ratio (width/height) of
the weld beads.
The coating criteria adopted in the SP-
GMAW technique for the overlap of ad-
jacent beads produced good results in the
flat welding position. There is no increase
in the height of the weld layer due to this
overlap. The maximum undulation gen-
erated was lower than 0.3 mm. The weld
layers produced do not present disconti-
nuities and have an excellent visual
aspect with the presence of very little
spatter.
The use of DCEN polarity during
times that extend beyond the period of Fig. 8 — Behavior of the main variables of the SP-GMAW technique.
drop transfer should not be discarded. If
used with certain wires in conjunction
46 MAY 2013
Puhl et al May 2013_Layout 1 4/12/13 2:57 PM Page 47
Fig. 9 — A — The coating obtained with the SP-GMAW process; B — a cross section of
the coating.
with adequate gas mixtures and a suit- sion rate in the MIG/MAG process. Re-
able current range, it can represent a vista Soldagem & Inspeção 14(3):
good alternative for specific cases of 192–198.
welding. However, this technology re- 2. Pickin, C. G., Willams, S. W., and
quires pieces of equipment that commu- Lunt, M. 2011. Characterization of the
nicate with each other and considerable cold metal transfer (CMT) process and
dedication in the qualification of the set its application for low dilution cladding.
of variables and parameters for the Journal of Materials Processing Technol-
GMAW process as well as for automatic ogy 211(3): 496–502.
torch displacement.◆ 3. Ueyama, T., Tong, H., Harada, S.,
and Passmore, R. 2005. AC pulsed
GMAW improves sheet metal joining.
Acknowledgments Welding Journal 84(2): 40–46.
4. Cirino, L. M. 2009. Study on the ef-
The authors are grateful to the team fects of polarity in direct and alternate
at Labsolda/UFSC whose efforts made current TIG and MIG/MAG welding
this multidisciplinary task possible and processes. Master’s thesis. PosMec/
to the Brazilian government agency UFSC, Florianópolis, Brazil.
CNPq and the company Tractebel Ener- 5. Puhl, E. B. 2011. Development of
gia for financial support. MIG/MAG welding technologies for
productivity and quality enhancement by
means of negative polarity. Master’s the-
References sis. PosMec/UFSC, Florianópolis, Brazil.
6. Labsolda: Operation Manuals.
1. Souza, D., Rezende, A. A., and Available at www.labsolda.ufsc.br/proje-
Scotti, A. 2009. A qualitative model to tos/manuais/manuais.php. Instituto de
explain the polarity influence on the fu- Mecatrônica. Accessed June 14, 2012.
For info go to www.aws.org/ad-index
WELDING JOURNAL 47
Yelistratov GMAW_Layout 1 4/15/13 9:54 AM Page 48
N
ew, effective variations of the gas the liquid metal drops. Because of this, gradually increasing the welding current
metal arc welding (GMAW) the physical processes causing the drop (A), the transition to spray mode occurs
process are emerging. Some of transfer mode changes are of key impor- sharply, within a transition current range
these methods, such as variations of con- tance for further development of GMAW of 50–80 A — Fig. 1A.
trollable drop transfer, pulse welding technologies, which attracts the attention For GMAW in Ar-rich gas mixtures,
methods, etc., are based on controlling of multiple researchers (Refs. 1, 2, 4). the transition current density is 120–190
the drop transfer mode. These methods The application of gas mixtures of A/mm2 (Ref. 3). When Ar + oxidizing gas
improve the performance of GMAW for argon (Ar) with carbon dioxide (CO2) or (1 to 5% O2 or 5 to 8% CO2) mixtures are
thin-metal, root-pass welding by applying oxygen (O 2) expands the arc and in- used with a steel wire, the stability and
controllable pulses of current and creases the anode spot size while de- the range of technological modes demon-
thereby changing conditions for forming creasing droplet diameter (Refs. 1, 3). By strate marked improvement when com-
A B
Fig. 1A — Effect of welding current and shielding gas on droplet frequency for GMAW with 1⁄16-in. (1.6-mm) welding wire
(Ref. 3); B — effect of welding current (current density) on drop transfer mode for GMAW with 1⁄16-in. (1.6-mm) welding
wire ER70S-3 in shielding gas mixture Ar + 5% O2 (Ref. 7).
48 MAY 2013
Yelistratov GMAW_Layout 1 4/15/13 9:54 AM Page 49
Fig. 2 — Directions of the electromagnetic force acted on Fig. 3 — Experimental setup for hydraulic modeling of
molten droplet at globular and spray modes. Current-carrying droplet formation. 1 — Upper vessel; 2 — thermocouple;
areas at the bottom of the electrode correspond to areas of 3 — extension; 4 — lower vessel with water; 5 — elec-
the arc anode spot. trical heater. A — Position of lower vessel (with boiling
water) that corresponds to highest vapor concentration
at the droplet forming zone; B — initial position of the
lower vessel.
pared to an arc with single-gas shielding. tions are the same. There is, however, an- During GMAW with Ar+O 2/CO 2
According to multiple observations, other important feature of this constrict- mixtures, the anode spot is stabilized at
anode spot expands with increased cur- ing force: When current-carrying cross the bottom of the metal droplet (Refs. 1,
rent (this provides its constant current sections are different, an axial electrody- 3), and heat energy is transferred from
density), and in spray mode it envelops namic force is created. This force directs the arc to the electrode through the bulk
the droplet and the tapered bottom part from lesser cross section to the larger of the droplet. With a further increase in
of the wire — Fig. 1B. one. Welding current undergoes change the welding current, the anode spot size
In pulsed GMAW of aluminum, con- in the current-carrying cross sections dur- becomes larger than the external surface
trollable droplet and spray modes can be ing its path from the welding wire to the of the droplet, eventually expands to in-
achieved (Ref. 6). In this study, an abrupt anode spot — Fig. 2. This is similar to clude the cylindrical surface of the elec-
transition from pulsed-globular to “conduction angle” (Refs. 3, 5). trode, and melting occurs radially, creat-
pulsed-spray transfer is mentioned (see Electrodynamic forces can be directed ing a taper (Refs. 1, 4).
conclusion #3 and Ref. 6). up (Fig. 2) when the anode spot size is The temperature inside the anode
smaller than the diameter of the elec- spot is approximately the metal boiling
The Metal Transfer Forces trode at low-current globular transfer in point (Ref. 4), resulting in intensive evap-
GMAW. In this case, the electrodynamic oration of the metal. The increased
The physical forces in the electric arc force and surface tension force acted droplet temperature (Ref. 7) and in-
zone that are mainly responsible for jointly to support the droplet on the tip of creased metal vapor concentration in the
droplet transfer at the transition current the electrode (wire). This force can be di- arc zone could lead to increased electri-
range are electrodynamic (pinch-effect) rected down when the anode spot area cal conductivity in the arc zone and result
and surface tension (Ref. 8). becomes larger than the cross section of in sharpening the electrode tip (Ref. 8).
The electrodynamic force acts as a the electrode at high-current, spray In summary, the electrodynamic force
squeezing force, constricting the conduc- transfer with GMAW in Ar+CO 2/O 2 changes direction and becomes directed
tor when the current-carrying cross sec- mixtures (Refs. 4, 5). downward during GMAW in Ar-rich
WELDING JOURNAL 49
Yelistratov GMAW_Layout 1 4/15/13 9:55 AM Page 50
50 MAY 2013
Yelistratov GMAW_Layout 1 4/15/13 9:55 AM Page 51
WELDING JOURNAL 51
Yelistratov GMAW_Layout 1 4/15/13 9:56 AM Page 52
0.047 in. (0.5 to 1.2 mm), and their diam- used: gas mixture 95% Ar+5% CO 2, influence of the surface tension force on
eters decreased from 0.177 to 0.149 in. welding current 290 to 310 A, and current droplet formation becomes insignificant
(4.5 to 3.8 mm). The drop transfer fre- density 145 to 160 A/mm2. and the electrodynamic force governs the
quency increased from 40–43/s to liquid metal transition to the molten
50–53/s. Model Explains Iron pool.
4. The surface tension force can be an-
Powder Effect on Stability
Effects of Adding Dyes and other effective tool for controlling the
droplet transfer, arc stability, and alloy-
Ceramic Powders The modeling experiments developed ing efficiency.◆
in this study explain the change in droplet
Aniline dye, which is a soluble liquid, transfer mode when welding within the
was deposited on the surface of a droplet. transition current range as follows: Acknowledgment
In a fraction of a second, the dye had • As the axial electrodynamic (“pinch-
spread through the bulk of the drop. The effect”) force is directed down and grad- The author would like to acknowledge
amount of aniline dye used did not affect ually increases, the anode spot size be- Dr. A. Lesnewich for reviewing the man-
the diameter or the frequency of droplet comes larger than the cross section of the uscript and for his valuable suggestions.
transfer. electrode and larger than the external
Mineral oil, a nonsoluble liquid, col- surface of the droplet.
lected at the bottom of a water droplet, • At this moment, the value of the sur-
and formed an independent drop. When face tension decreases drastically be- References
the oil was injected into the water droplet cause formation of the droplet occurs
(through a thin pipe), an independent oil completely inside the arc’s anode active 1. Soderstrom, E. J., and Mendez, P.
sphere formed inside the water droplet. spot, within the zone with high metal F. 2008. Metal transfer during GMAW
There were no noticeable changes in vapor concentration. with thin electrodes and Ar-CO2 shield-
drop transfer. Together, those two factors lead to an ing gas mixture Welding Journal 87(5):
When dry ceramic powder was de- abrupt change in droplet size, changing 124-s to 133-s.
posited on the surface of a water droplet, the transfer mode from globular to spray. 2. Hu, J., and Tsai, H. L. 2006. Effects
it occupied only the surface of the Experiments confirmed that any method of current on droplet generation and arc
droplet. The powder, previously soaked that increases the metal vapor concentra- plasma in gas metal arc welding. Journal
in aniline dye, penetrated through the tion in the arc zone would decrease the of Applied Physics, 100, Article No.
bulk of the water droplet. Powder, previ- surface tension force of liquid metal. For 053304.
ously soaked in mineral oil, occupied only example, the addition of iron powder into 3. Rhee, S., and Kannatey-Asibu, E.
the surface of the droplet. the flux core (or in the electrode coating), Jr. 1992. Observation of metal transfer
When a mixture of ceramic powders in conjunction with increased deposition during gas metal arc welding. Welding
preliminarily soaked in aniline dye and in rate, will probably decrease the droplet Journal 71(10): 381-s to 386-s.
mineral oil was used, penetration into the diameter through the intensive metal va- 4. Kim, Y. S., McEligot, D. M., and
bulk of the water droplet depended on the porization, thus providing a more stable Eagar, T. W. 1991. Analysis of electrode
composition of the mixture. When there process. heat transfer in gas metal arc welding.
was more than 30 to 50% dyed powder in Also, modeling experiments with ce- Welding Journal 70(1): 20-s to 31-s.
the mixture, the powder began to pene- ramic powder mixtures (conditions simi- 5. Jones, L. A., Eagar, T. W., and Lang,
trate into the bulk of the water droplet, lar to flux core and shielded metal arc J. H. 1998. Images of a steel electrode in
carrying the oiled powder. There were no welding) demonstrated that interaction Ar-2%O2 shielding gas during constant
noticeable changes in drop transfer. between liquid metal and slag are de- current gas metal arc welding. Welding
From the modeling experiments, pendent on the composition of the slag. Journal 77(4): 135-s to 141-s.
droplet transfer parameters and there- 6. Subramaniam, S., White, D. R.,
fore surface tension are not dependent Some Interesting Results Jones, J. E., and Lyons, D. W. 1998.
considerably on temperature in the Droplet transfer in pulsed gas metal arc
droplet-forming zone until the tempera- 1. For GMAW with Ar-rich shielding welding of aluminum. Welding Journal
ture in drop forming zone approaches the gas, increasing the anode spot size above 77(11): 458-s to 464-s.
boiling point. After that, the high con- the droplet external surface provides 7. Soderstrom, E. J., Scott, K. M., and
centration of vapor causes the droplet- high metal vapor concentration in the Mendez, P. F. 2011. Calorimetric meas-
transfer parameters to change in a droplet-forming zone. urement of droplet temperature in
marked degree because of the drastic de- 2. The main cause of transfer mode GMAW. Welding Journal 90(4): 77-s to
crease in the surface tension force. change from globular to spray is the in- 84-s.
An analysis of the high-speed photo- crease in the electrodynamic (“pinch ef- 8. Wang, F., Hou, W., Kannatey-Asibu,
graphs of the droplet transfer during fect”) force and the sharp decrease of the E., Schultz, W., and Wang, P. 2003. Mod-
GMAW in different gas mixtures (Fig. liquid metal surface tension force on the elling and analysis of metal transfer in gas
5A, B) confirmed that change in droplet tip of the melted welding wire. metal arc welding. Journal of Physics D:
transfer mode from globular to spray 3. During GMAW in the globular Applied Physics 36, pp. 1143–1152.
(Fig. 1) occurred at the instant the anode transfer mode, the surface tension force 9. Choo, R. T. C., Mukai, K., and
spot on the droplet’s surface became and the electrodynamic force are two im- Toguri, J. M. 1992. Marangoni interac-
greater than the droplet external surface portant factors in forming of the metal tion of a liquid droplet falling onto a liq-
(Fig. 5B). In this study, this occurred drops. In the spray mode, when welding uid pool. Welding Journal 71(4): 139-s to
when the following parameters were current exceeds the transition value, the 146-s.
52 MAY 2013
trumpf_FP_TEMP 4/11/13 2:53 PM Page 53
COMING
NOTE: A DIAMOND ( ♦) DENOTES AN AWS-SPONSORED EVENT.
EVENTS
12th Annual Great Designs in Steel Seminar. May 1. Laurel American Welding Society, Fabricators and Manufacturers Assn,
Manor Conf. Center, Livonia, Mich. Sponsored by The Steel Mar- Int’l, Society of Manufacturing Engineers, and Precision Metal-
ket Development Institute. www.sasft.org/en/sitecore/content/Au- forming Assn. www.aws.org/show/weldmex2013.html.
tosteel_org/Web%20Root/Great%20Designs%20in%20Steel.aspx.
Int’l Thermal Spray Conf. and Expo. May 13–15. Busan, Repub-
♦JOM-17, Int’l Conf. on Joining Materials. May 5–8. Konventum lic of Korea. Sponsored by ASM International. www.asminterna-
Lo Skolen, Helsingør, Denmark. Institute for the Joining of Ma- tional.org/content/Events/itsc/.
terials (JOM) in association with the IIW. Cosponsored by AWS,
TWI, Danish Welding Society, Welding Technology Institute of Int’l Conf. on Materials for Renewable Energy & Environment.
Australia, University of Liverpool, Cranfield University, Force May 15, 16. Nanjing, China. www.mree-conf.org.
Technology, and Brazilian Welding Assn. www.jominstitute.com/ IIE Annual Conf. and Expo. May 18–22. Caribe Hilton, San Juan,
side6.html. Puerto Rico. www.iienet2.org/annual2.
AISTech 2013, Iron and Steel Technology Conf. and Expo. May 44th Steelmaking Seminar — Int’l. May 19–22. Tauá Grande
6–9, Pittsburgh, Pa. www.aist.org/aistech/. Hotel Termas & Convention Araxá, Estância Parque do Barreiro,
s/nº Araxá - Minas Gerais, Brazil. Held by Brazilian Metallurgi-
INTERTECH 2013, Superabrasive Materials, Principles, and cal, Materials, and Mining Assn. www.abmbrasil.com.br.
Applications for the Aerospace and Defense Industries. May 6–8.
Hyatt Regency Baltimore Harbor Hotel, Baltimore, Md. Indus- LPPDE-Europe. June 3–5. Park Plaza Hotel, Amsterdam Air-
trial Diamond Assn. www.intertechconference.com. port, Amsterdam, Netherlands. Lean Product & Process Devel-
opment Exchange, Inc. Address e-mail to lppde@leanfront.com.
POWER-GEN India & Central Asia, Renewable Energy World
Conf. & Expo, and HydroVision® India. May 6–8. Bombay Exhi- ♦Pipeline Conf. June 4, 5. Houston, Tex. Sponsored by the Amer-
bition Centre, Goregaon, Mumbai, India. www.power-genindia. ican Welding Society (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 264;
com/index.html. www.aws.org/conferences.
♦ AWS Weldmex Show, FABTECH Mexico, METALFORM Manufacturing Surabaya 2013. June 12–15. Surabaya, Indonesia.
Mexico. May 7–9. Cintermex, Monterrey, Mexico. Sponsors: www.pamerindo.com/events/11.
— continued on page 56
54 MAY 2013
fabtech_FP_TEMP 4/11/13 9:08 AM Page 55
Cosponsors:
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18th Beijing-Essen Welding & Cutting Fair. June 18−21. New In- GAWDA Annual Convention. Sept. 15–18. Orlando, Fla. Gases
ternational Expo Center, Shanghai, China. www.beijing-essen- and Welding Distributors Assn. www.gawda.org.
welding.com/en/index.htm.
ASM Heat Treating Society Conf. and Expo. Sept. 16–18. Indiana
Third VDI Congress, “Lightweight Design Strategies in Vehi- Convention Center, Indianapolis, Ind. www.asminternational.org/
cles.” July 3, 4. Wolfsburg, Germany. Sponsored by VDI Wis- content/Events/heattreat/.
sensforum, Assn. of German Engineers. www.vdi.de/leichtbau.
IIW Int’l Conf. on “Automation in Welding.” Sept. 16, 17. Essen,
♦Codes and Standards Conf. July 16, 17. Orlando, Fla. To include Germany. www.iiw2013.com. Event in the IIW Annual Assembly.
AWS D1, Structural Welding Code — Steel, ASME Boiler and Pres-
sure Vessel Code, API pipeline codes, MIL specs and ISO stan- Schweissen & Schneiden 2013 Int’l Trade Fair — Joining, Cutting,
dards. Sponsored by the American Welding Society (800/305) 443- Surfacing. Sept. 16–21. Essen, Germany. Sponsored by DVS (Ger-
9353, ext. 264; www.aws.org/conferences. man Welding Society). www.schweissenuschneiden.de/en/schweis-
sen_schneiden/index.html.
59th Annual UA Assn. of Journeymen and Apprentices of the
Plumbing and Pipefitting Industry’s Instructor Training Pro- ♦16th Annual Aluminum Conf. Sept. 17, 18. Chicago, Ill. Spon-
gram. Aug. 11–17, Washtenaw Community College, Ann Arbor, sored by the American Welding Society (800/305) 443-9353, ext.
Mich. www.visitannarbor.org/news/detail/ann-arbor-welcomes-the- 264; www.aws.org/conferences.
59th-annual-united-association-instructor-training-p.
Educational Opportunities
12th Int’l Conf. on Application of Contemporary Non-Destructive
Testing in Engineering. Sept. 4–6. Grand Hotel Metropol, Por- Brazing School — Fundamentals to Advanced Concepts. May
toroz, Slovenia. Sponsored by The Slovenian Society for Non-De- 14–16 (Hartford, Conn.); Oct. 22–24 (Greenville, S.C.); Nov.
structive Testing. www.fs.uni-lj.si/ndt. 19–21 (Simsbury, Conn.). www.kaybrazing.com/seminars.htm;
dan@kaybrazing.com; (860) 651-5595.
LPPDE-North America. Sept. 9–11. Savannah, Ga. Lean Product
& Process Development Exchange, Inc. Address e-mail to CWI Preparation Courses: June 3–7, Aug. 19–23, Nov. 11–15.
lppde@leanfront.com. D1.1 Endorsement: June 7, Aug. 23, Nov. 15; D1.5 Endorsement:
May 31, Aug. 16; API Endorsement: May 30, Nov. 8. All courses
66th IIW Annual Assembly. Sept. 11–17. Essen, Germany. Or- and endorsements held at Welder Training & Testing Institute,
ganized by DVS (German Welding Society). www.dvs- 1144 N. Graham St., Allentown, Pa. www.wtti.com; (610) 820-
ev.de/IIW2013/. 9551, ext. 204.◆
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CERTIFICATION
SCHEDULE Certification Seminars, Code Clinics, and Examinations
9–Year Recertification Seminar for CWI/SCWI Certified Welding Engineer; Senior Certified Welding
(No exams given.) For current CWIs and SCWIs needing to meet Inspector Exams can be taken at any site listed under Certified
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taken at any site listed under Certified Welding Inspector.
International CWI Courses and Exams Schedules
LOCATION SEMINAR DATES Please visit www.aws.org/certification/inter_contact.html.
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IMPORTANT: This schedule is subject to change without notice. Applications are to be received at least six weeks prior to the
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Apply early to avoid paying the $250 Fast Track fee.
58 MAY 2013
awo metallurgy_FP_TEMP 4/11/13 9:06 AM Page 59
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METALLURGY
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for the Non-Metallurg
Non-Metallurgist:
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Metallurgy is the science that deals with the internal
internal structure of
metals, the relationship between metals, and the properties of metals.
In welding, a basic understanding of metallurgy provides insight into
the positive and negative changes that occur in metals when joined
by welding.
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Welding Workbook May 2013_Layout 1 4/16/13 2:22 PM Page 1
WELDING
WORKBOOK Datasheet 340
Aluminum 100% argon Best metal transfer and arc stability; least spatter; good cleaning action.
35% argon/65% helium Higher heat input than 100% argon; improved fusion characteristics on
thicker material; minimizes porosity.
25% argon/75% helium Highest heat input; minimizes porosity; least cleaning action.
Carbon steel 1–5% oxygen, balance argon Improves arc stability; produces a more fluid and controllable weld pool;
good fusion and bead contour; minimizes undercutting; permits higher
speeds than pure argon.
5–15% carbon dioxide (CO2); balance High-speed mechanized welding; low-cost manual welding.
argon
Low-alloy steel 98% argon/2% oxygen Minimizes undercutting; provides good toughness.
Stainless steel 99% argon/1% oxygen Improves arc stability; produces a more fluid and controllable weld pool;
good fusion and bead contour; minimizes undercutting on heavier
stainless steels.
98% argon/2% oxygen Provides better arc stability, coalescence, and welding speed than
1% oxygen mixture for thinner stainless steel materials.
Nickel, copper, and 100% argon Provides good wetting; decreases fluidity of weld metal.
their alloys Argon/helium Higher heat inputs of 50 and 75% helium mixtures offset high heat
dissipation of heavier gauges.
Titanium 100% argon Good arc stability; minimum weld contamination; inert gas backing is
required to prevent air contamination on back of weld area.
Carbon Steel 75% argon/25% CO2 High welding speeds with minimum melt-through; minimum spatter; clean
weld appearance; good pool control in vertical and overhead positions.
100% CO2 Deep penetration; faster welding speeds; high spatter levels.
Stainless steel 90% helium/7.5% argon/2.5% CO2 No effect on corrosion resistance; small heat-affected zone; minimizes
undercut.
Low-alloy steel 60–70% helium/25–35% argon/ Minimum reactivity; excellent toughness; excellent arc stability, wetting
4.5% CO2 characteristics, and bead contour; little spatter.
75% argon/25% CO2 Fair toughness; excellent arc stability, wetting characteristics, and bead
contour; little spatter.
Aluminum, copper Argon and argon/helium Argon satisfactory on sheet metal; argon-helium preferred for thicker
magnesium, nickel, and base material.
their alloys
62 MAY 2013
buyers guide_FP_TEMP 4/11/13 8:21 AM Page 63
pipeline conference_FP_TEMP 4/11/13 9:09 AM Page 64
Join us in Houston for the debut of the AWS Pipeline Welding Conference! Our featured
speakers will cover a multitude of topics including the welding of high strength X80 pipe
steels, orbital processes used in pipeline construction throughout the world, the new FRIEX
system from Belgium and many other exciting topics.
Highlights
For the latest conference information and registration visit our web site at
www.aws.org/conferences or call 800-443-9353, ext. 224.
Society News MAY_Layout 1 4/15/13 3:42 PM Page 65
The D1 Committee on Structural Welding met at AWS World Headquarters the week of Feb. 25.
Shown are (from left) AWS Vice President David McQuaid, past D1 Chair Donald Rager,
AWS Executive Director Ray Shook, D1 Chair Duane Miller, and Allen Sindel, D1 vice chair.
On March 1, a rare copy of the first-edition of the forerunner and AWS vice president; Donald D. Rager, D1 chair (2002–2008),
to the D1.1, Structural Welding Code — Steel, all 20 pages of it, was and Allen W. Sindel, D1 vice chair. The Code for Fusion Welding
presented to Ray Shook, AWS executive director, for permanent and Gas Cutting in Building Construction includes general applica-
loan and preservation in the D. Fred Bovie Library and Museum tion, definitions, materials, permissible unit stresses, design, work-
at AWS World Headquarters in Doral, Fla. The presenters included manship, erection, gas cutting, and an appendix. The document was
Duane K. Miller, D1 chair; David McQuaid, D1 chair (1996–2002) donated to the Society by Paul E. Masters, Cape Coral, Fla.
WELDING JOURNAL 65
Society News MAY_Layout 1 4/15/13 3:42 PM Page 66
AWS President Nancy Cole (left) presents Damian J. Kotecki (right) receives his 30-
Anne Rorke a special AWS award for her year service award pin from Harry Wehr,
many years of service at WTIA (Welding Tech- chairman, A5 Committee on Filler Metals
nology Institute of Australia) where she cur- David McQuaid (left), an AWS vice president and Allied Materials, on March 5, during the
rently is editor of the Australasian Welding and a past chair of the D1 Committee, re- annual meetings in Orlando, Fla. Kotecki
Journal. The presentation was made at the ceives recognition for his 30 years of service was cited for his many contributions to the
March WTIA conference in Perth, Australia. from D1 Committee Chair Duane Miller. A5 Committees.
Tech Topics
New Standards Projects ANSI Approved Revised Standards Gas Tungsten Arc Welding of Galvanized
Development work has begun on the A5.16/A5.16M:2013 (ISO 24034:2010 Steel (M-1), 18 through 10 Gauge, in the As-
following revised standards. Affected indi- MOD), Specification for Titanium and Ti- Welded Condition, with or without Backing.
viduals are invited to contribute to their tanium-Alloy Welding Electrodes and Rods. 3/7/13.
development. Contact Staff Secretary A. Approved 2/19/13. B2.1-1-008:2002 (R2013), Standard
Diaz, adiaz @aws.org; ext. 304. Participa- F1.2:2013, Laboratory Method for Meas- Welding Procedure Specification (SWPS) for
tion on AWS Technical Committees is open uring Fume Generation Rates and Total Gas Tungsten Arc Welding of Carbon Steel
to all persons. Fume Emission of Welding and Allied (M-1, P-1, or S-1), 18 through 10 Gauge, in
B2.1-1/8-010:20XX, Standard Welding Processes. Approved 2/25/13. the As-Welded Condition, with or without
Procedure Specification (SWPS) for Gas Backing. 3/11/13.
Tungsten Arc Welding of Carbon Steel to ANSI Approved Reaffirmed Standards B2.1-8-009:2002 (R2013), Standard
Austenitic Stainless Steel (M-1, P-1, or S-1 B2.1-1-003:2002 (R2013), Standard Welding Procedure Specification (SWPS) for
to M-8, P-8, or S-8), 18 through 10 Gauge, Welding Procedure Specification (SWPS) for Gas Tungsten Arc Welding of Austenitic
in the As-Welded Condition, with or without Gas Metal Arc Welding (Short Circuiting Stainless Steel (M-8, P-8, or S-8), 18 through
Backing. Stakeholders: Manufacturers, Transfer Mode) of Galvanized Steel (M-1), 10 Gauge, in the As-Welded Condition, with
welders, CWIs, engineers. 18 through 10 Gauge, in the As-Welded Con- or without Backing. 3/11/13.
B2.1-1/8-231:20XX, Standard Welding dition, with or without Backing. 3/7/13. B2.1-1-011:2002 (R2013), Standard
Procedure Specification (SWPS) for Gas B2.1-1-004:2002 (R2013), Standard Welding Procedure Specification (SWPS) for
Tungsten Arc Welding with Consumable In- Welding Procedure Specification (SWPS) for Shielded Metal Arc Welding of Galvanized
sert Root followed by Shielded Metal Arc Gas Metal Arc Welding (Short Circuiting Steel (M-1), 10 through 18 Gauge, in the As-
Welding of Carbon Steel (M-1/P-1/S-1, Transfer Mode) of Carbon Steel (M-1, Group Welded Condition, with or without Backing.
Groups 1 or 2) to Austenitic Stainless Steel 1), 18 through 10 Gauge, in the As-Welded 3/11/13.
(M-8/P-8/S-8, Group 1), 1⁄8 through 11⁄2 Inch Condition, with or without Backing. 3/7/13. B2.1-1-012:2002 (R2013), Standard
Thick, IN309, ER309, and E309-15,-16, or B2.1-8-005:2002 (R2013), Standard Welding Procedure Specification (SWPS) for
-17, or IN309, ER309(L), and ER309(L)- Welding Procedure Specification (SWPS) for Shielded Metal Arc Welding of Carbon Steel
15, -16, or -17, As-Welded Condition, Prima- Gas Metal Arc Welding (Short Circuiting (M-1, P-1, or S-1), 18 through 10 Gauge, in
rily Pipe Applications. Stakeholders: Man- Transfer Mode) of Austenitic Stainless Steel the As-Welded Condition, with or without
ufacturers, welders, CWIs, and welding en- (M-8, P-8, or S-8), 18 through 10 Gauge, in Backing. 3/11/13.
gineers. the As-Welded Condition, with or without B2.1-8-013:2002 (R2013), Standard
D9.1M/D9.1:20XX, Sheet Metal Welding Backing. 3/7/13. Welding Procedure Specification (SWPS) for
Code. Stakeholders: Those involved in the B2.1-1/8-006:2002 (R2013), Standard Shielded Metal Arc Welding of Austenitic
production and qualification of nonstruc- Welding Procedure Specification (SWPS) for Stainless Steel (M-8, P-8, S-8, Group 1), 10
tural sheet metal applications such as heat- Gas Metal Arc Welding (Short Circuiting through 18 Gauge, in the As-Welded Condi-
ing, ventilating, and air conditioning sys- Transfer Mode) of Carbon Steel to Austenitic tion, with or without Backing. 3/11/13.
tems, food processing equipment, architec- Stainless Steel (M-1 to M-8, P-8, or S-8), 18 B2.1-1/8-014:2002 (R2013), Standard
tural sheet metal, and in the acceptance of through 10 Gauge, in the As-Welded Condi- Welding Procedure Specification (SWPS) for
welding and braze welding of nonstructural tion, with or without Backing. 3/14/13. Shielded Metal Arc Welding of Carbon Steel
sheet metal components. B2.1-1-007:2002 (R2013), Standard to Austenitic Stainless Steel (M-1 to M-8/P-
Welding Procedure Specification (SWPS) for 8/S-8, Group 1), 10 through 18 Gauge, in the
66 MAY 2013
Society News MAY_Layout 1 4/15/13 3:42 PM Page 67
As-Welded Condition, with or without Back- ER309(L), As-Welded Condition, Prima- are available from your national standards
ing. 3/11/13. rily Pipe Applications. 3/11/13. body, which in the United States is ANSI,
B2.1-1/8-227:2002-AMD1 (R2013), 25 W. 43rd St., 4th Fl., New York, NY,
Standard Welding Procedure Specification Standards for Public Review 10036; (212) 642-4900. Send comments
(SWPS) for Gas Tungsten Arc Welding of B5.17:20XX, Specification for the Qual- regarding ISO documents to your national
Carbon Steel (M-1/P-1, Groups 1 or 2) to ification of Welding Fabricators. Revised. standards body. In the United States, if
Austenitic Stainless Steel ( M-8/P-8, Group $25. 5/20/13. you wish to participate in the development
1), 1⁄16 through 11⁄2 Inch Thick, ER309(L), C1.5:20XX, Specification for the Quali- of International Standards for welding,
As-Welded Condition, Primarily Pipe Ap- fication of Resistance Welding Technicians. contact A. Davis, adavis@aws.org.
plications. 3/11/13. Revised. $25. 5/20/13.
B2.1-1/8-228:2002 (R2013), Standard D15.1/D15.1M:2012-AMD1, Railroad Technical Committee Meetings
Welding Procedure Specification (SWPS) Welding Specification for Cars and Loco- All AWS technical committee meet-
for Shielded Metal Arc Welding of Carbon motives. Amendment standard. $129. ings are open to the public. Persons wish-
Steel (M-1/P-1/S-1, Groups 1 or 2) to 5/13/13. 2nd BSR-8. ing to attend a meeting should contact the
Austenitic Stainless Steel ( M-8/P-8/S-8, AWS was approved as an accredited committee secretary listed.
Group 1), 1⁄8 through 11⁄2 Inch Thick, standards-preparing organization by the May 1, D8 Committee on Automotive
E309(L) -15, -16, or -17, As-Welded Con- American National Standards Institute Welding. Livonia, Mich. E. Abrams, ext.
dition, Primarily Pipe Applications. 3/11/13. (ANSI) in 1979. AWS rules, as approved 307.
B2.1-1/8-229:2002-AMD1 (R2013), by ANSI, require that all standards be May 7–9, D17 Committee on Welding
Standard Welding Procedure Specification open to public review for comment dur- in the Aircraft and Aerospace Industries.
(SWPS) for Gas Tungsten Arc Welding fol- ing the approval process. The above stan- Los Angeles, Calif. A. Diaz, ext. 304.
lowed by Shielded Metal Arc Welding of dards are submitted for public review with May 16, Safety and Health Commit-
Carbon Steel (M-1/P-1, Groups 1 or 2) to the closing dates shown. A draft copy may tee. Cleveland, Ohio. S. Hedrick, ext. 305.
Austenitic Stainless Steel (M-8/P-8, Group be obtained from R. O’Neill, May 28–30, D14 Committee on Ma-
1), 1⁄8 through 11⁄2 Inch Thick, ER309(L) and roneill@aws.org. chinery and Equipment. Dallas, Tex. E.
E309(L) -15, -16, or -17, As-Welded Con- Abrams, ext. 307.
dition, Primarily Pipe Applications. 3/11/13. ISO Standard for Public Review June 5, C2 Committee on Thermal
B2.1-1/8-230:2002-AMD1 (R2013), ISO/DIS 5826.2, Resistance welding Spraying. Ogden, Utah. E. Abrams, ext.
Standard Welding Procedure Specification equipment — Transformers — General 307.
(SWPS) for Gas Tungsten Arc Welding with specifications applicable to all transformers June 18, G2D Subcommittee on Reac-
Consumable Insert Root of Carbon Steel ISO/DIS 17533, Welding for aerospace tive Alloys. Seattle, Wash. A. Diaz, ext.
(M-1/P-1, Groups 1 or 2) to Austenitic applications — Welding data in design 304.
Stainless Steel (M-8/P-8, Group 1), 1⁄16 documents
through 11⁄2 Inch Thick, IN309 and Review copies of the above documents
AWS Safety and Health Committee and Cutting, and D8 Committee on Auto- D16 Committee on Robotic and Auto-
seeks educators, users, general interest, motive Welding seek educators, general matic Welding seeks members in the gen-
and consultants to help develop standards interest, and end users to update its doc- eral interest and educational fields to help
on welding safety. S. Hedrick, uments. E. Abrams, eabrams@aws.org. revise its documents. B. McGrath, bmc-
steveh@aws.org. grath@aws.org.
A5L Subcommittee on Magnesium
B4 Committee on Mechanical Testing Alloy Filler Metals seeks professionals to G2D Subcommittee on Reactive Alloys
of Welds seeks professionals in the area revised its filler metal document. R. seeks volunteers to update guides for the
of standard methods for tension, shear, Gupta, gupta@aws.org. fusion welding of titanium and titanium
bend, fracture toughness, hardness, weld- alloys, and fusion welding of zirconium
ability, and other mechanical testing of D10P Subcommittee for Local Heat and zirconium alloys. A. Diaz,
welds. B. McGrath, bmcgrath@aws.org. Treating of Pipe seeks heat treating pro- adiaz@aws.org.
fessionals to help update its documents.
B2B Subcommittee on Welding Quali- B. McGrath, bmcgrath@aws.org. J1 Committee on Resistance Welding
fications, seeks members to update B2.1, Equipment seeks educators, general in-
Specification for Welding Procedure and D14 Committee on Machinery and terest, and users to develop standards on
Performance Qualification. A. Diaz, Equipment and D14H Subcommittee on controls, installation and maintenance,
adiaz@aws.org. Surfacing and Reconditioning of Indus- calibration, and resistance welding fact
trial Mill Rolls seeks professionals in de- sheets. E. Abrams, eabrams@aws.org.
D17J Subcommittee seeks profession- sign, production, engineering, testing, and
als to update specification for friction stir safe operation of machinery to prepare A5K Subcommittee on Titanium and
welding of aluminum alloys for aerospace recommended practices for surfacing and Zirconium Filler Metals. Seeks profes-
applications. A. Diaz, adiaz@aws.org. reconditioning of industrial mill rolls. The sionals in the field to update specifications
next meeting of the D14 Committee is for welding electrodes and rods of tita-
C2 Committee on Thermal Spraying, May 28 in Dallas, Tex. To attend, contact nium, zirconium, and their alloys. A. Diaz,
C4 Committee on Oxyfuel Gas Welding E. Abrams, eabrams@aws.org. adiaz@aws.org.
WELDING JOURNAL 67
Society News MAY_Layout 1 4/15/13 3:43 PM Page 68
68 MAY 2013
Society News MAY_Layout 1 4/15/13 3:43 PM Page 69
The Japan Welding Engineering Soc. Sureway Tool & Engineering Co. Consolidated Steel Services, Inc.
Qualification & Certification Dept. 2959 Hart Dr. 632 Glendale Valley Blvd.
4-20 Kanda Sakuma-Cho,Chiyoda-Ku Franklin Park, IL 60131 Fallentimber, PA 16639
Tokyo 101-0025, Japan
Representative: Masaharu Sato
www.jwes.or.jp
WELDING JOURNAL 69
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Member-Get-A-Member Campaign
70 MAY 2013
Society News MAY_Layout 1 4/15/13 3:44 PM Page 71
SECTIONNEWS
Shown at the Connecticut Section event are Shown at the Central Mass./R.I. Section vendors’ night event are from left (front row) Chair
Treasurer Walter Chojnacki (left) and Weld- Paul Mendez, District 1 Director Tom Ferri, Douglas Desrochers, and Robert Winschel,
ing Instructor Joseph Hanlon. (back row) Brendon Pequita, and Tim Kinnaman.
Shown at the Green & White Section’s tour of Structal-Bridges are (from left) Sherry Morin, Jennifer Eastley, Ann Thompson, Richard
Mann, Gerry Ouelette, Geoff Putnam, District 1 Director Tom Ferri, Ernie Plumb, Rich Fuller, tour guide Daryl Hastings, Gary Buckley,
Phil Witteman, Feona Lund, John Steel, Perley Lund, and Chris Young.
District 1
Thomas Ferri, director
quita, Section chair and vice chair, respec-
tively. District 1 Director Tom Ferri par-
ticipated in the event.
lon, welding department head, and Tom
Ferri, District 1 director.
(508) 527-1884
thomas_ferri@victortechnologies.com GREEN & WHITE MTS.
CONNECTICUT FEBRUARY 14
CENTRAL MASS./R.I. FEBRUARY 26 Activity: The Section members toured the
FEBRUARY 28 Activity: The Section held a students’ night Structal-Bridges facility in Claremont,
Activity: The Section held its fourth an- program at Bristol Technical High School N.H., to study its operations. They ob-
nual welders’ and vendors’ night event at in Bristol, Conn., for 65 attendees. The served submerged arc welding of 21⁄2-in.-
Greater New Bedford Vo-Tech High school’s culinary department provided the thick flanges to the web of 8- × 100-ft
School. Featured were hands-on demon- meals. Attending were representatives bridge beams. They also toured the welder
strations of new welding and cutting equip- from local businesses who discussed their training area and an environmentally con-
ment and presentations by local steel and products and services and answered the trolled building for painting and thermal
welding-supply companies. The presenters students’ questions. Assisting with the spraying. The guide was Daryl Hastings,
included New Bedford Vo-Tech welding in- event were Section Chair Steve Goodrow, production trainer.
structors Paul Mendez and Brendon Pe- Treasurer Walter Chojnacki, Joseph Han-
WELDING JOURNAL 71
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District 2
Harland W. Thompson, director
(631) 546-2903
harland.w.thompson@us.ul.com
LONG ISLAND
FEBRUARY 21
Speaker: Tom Gartland, Section vice chair
Affiliation: Trilogy Lab, LLC
Topic: Welding Kooks headers
Activity: The program was held in Wan-
tagh, N.Y. District 2 Director Harland
Thompson attended the program.
PHILADELPHIA
FEBRUARY 7
Speaker: Frank Hauser
Affiliation: Divers Academy International
Shown at the Long Island Section program are from left (front row) Tom Gartland, Chair Topic: Techniques for testing underwater
Brian Cassidy, and Alex Duschere, (back row) Barry McQuillan, Ray O’Leary, Jessie Provler, welds
District 2 Director Harland Thompson, and Ken Messemert. Activity: Members of the local chapter of
ASNT attended this program. District 2
Director Harland Thompson and Chair
Ken Temme presented the District Direc-
tor Certificate Award to Mike Chomin, im-
mediate past chair. The program was held
at the Crown Plaza in Trevose, Pa.
MARCH 13
Speakers: Dave Schaffer, Airgas East; Bert
Riendeau, Airgas Northeast; Charlie Min-
nick, Miller Electric; and Tim Stott, Miller
Electric
Topics: Schaffer discussed AC balance
control; Riendeau spoke on welding codes
made friendly; Minnick talked about tra-
ditional welding machine technology; and
Stott detailed advances in modern inverter
machines
Shown at the March Philadelphia Section program are (from left) District 2 Director Har- Activity: Philadelphia Section Chair Ken
land Thompson, with Dave Schaffer, Bert Riendeau, Charlie Minnick, Chair Ken Temme, Temme presented the District CWI of the
and Tim Stott. Year Award to Bill Mowbray of Scheck
Mechanical Contractors; and Section Ed-
ucator of the Year Awards to Walt Emerle,
training director, Plumbers and Pipefitters
Local 322; Dan Roskiewich, Gloucester
County Institute of Technology; and Char-
lie Minnick from Miller Electric. The
event was hosted by Plumbers and Pipefit-
ters Local 322, a Section supporter, rep-
resented by Jim Kehoe, business manager.
District 3
Michael Wiswesser, director
(610) 820-9551
mike@wtti.com
Mike Chomin (left) receives the District Di- Shown at the February Philadelphia Section
February meeting are (from left) District 2
District 4
Stewart A. Harris, director
rector Award from District 2 Director Har-
land Thompson at the February Philadel- Director Harland Thompson, Chair Ken (919) 824-0520
phia Section event. Temme, and ASNT Vice Chair Tony Gatti. stewart.harris@altec.com
72 MAY 2013
Society News MAY_Layout 1 4/15/13 3:45 PM Page 73
Philadelphia Section members display their awards (from left) Dan Roskiewich, Charlie Frank Hauser (left) receives a speaker gift
Minnick, Bill Mowbray, Chair Ken Temme, Walt Emerle, and Harland Thompson, District from Ken Temme, Philadelphia Section
2 director. chair, at the February program.
Tidewater Section members are shown during their tour of Catalina Cylinders in February.
Attendees are shown at the ASME-Triangle Section career panel program in February.
WELDING JOURNAL 73
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Florida West Coast golfers get ready to tee off at the Section’s 21st annual tournament.
Participants are shown at the North Central Florida Section-sponsored welding contest.
First-place team members at the Florida West Coast tournament are (from left) Walt Arnold,
Jack Garrison, Don Chadwell, and Mike Gates.
District 5
Carl Matricardi, director
Dave Parker (left) is shown with speaker
Gerry Crawmer at the Northern New York
(770) 979-6344
Section meeting.
cmatricardi@aol.com
74 MAY 2013
Society News MAY_Layout 1 4/15/13 3:46 PM Page 75
Pittsburgh Section and ASNT members are shown at the March program.
District 6
Kenneth Phy, director
bers to instruct the Scouts on the proper
welding techniques. Chuck Ford, Section
student affairs chair, and Chair Chris Lan-
Shop Manager Calvin Roach, Andy Hall,
and John Saunders. Earning their weld-
ing badges were David Hay, Xristopher
(315) 218-5297 der led the activity. Popoff, and Chad Bowen of Troop 63,
kenneth.phy@gmail.com Devin Ames of Troop 790, Sean McKinley
FEBRUARY 16, 17 of Troop 50, and Allen Black of Troop 92.
NORTHERN NEW YORK Activity: The Dayton Section members The training was conducted at the Ham-
MARCH 5 participated in Tech Fest 2013 presented mers Industries facilities near Huntington,
Speaker: Gerry Crawmer, welding engineer by the Affiliated Societies of Dayton to in- W.Va.
Affiliation: General Electric (ret.) terest grade school students in science and
Topic: Welding steam turbine rotors technology. The Section members talked
Activity: The event was held at Shaker to students about careers in welding and
Ridge Country Club in Latham, N.Y. presented live demonstrations of auto-
mated welding using a Motoman robot. District 8
Joe Livesay, director
District 7
Uwe Aschemeier, director PITTSBURGH
(931) 484-7502, ext. 143
joe.livesay@ttcc.edu
(786) 473-9540 MARCH 12
uwe@miamidiver.com Speaker: Wes Williams, staff engineer CHATTANOOGA
Affiliation: First Energy Corp. FEBRUARY 16
COLUMBUS Topic: Procedure for repair of cracks in the Activity: The Section held its student weld-
MARCH 19 Unit 2 Nuclear Reactor head ing competition at Sequoyah High School
Speaker: Angie Rybalt, outreach manager Activity: Members of the local chapter of in Soddy Daisy, Tenn., hosted by the Se-
Affiliation: American Electric Power ASNT International Chapter, headed by quoyah High School Student Chapter. The
(AEP) Chair Robert Saunders, attended this pro- top scorers in the high school category
Topic: How AEP support services can help gram, held at Springfield Grille in Mars, were Dustin Luthringer, Colton Jones, and
businesses reduce power consumption Pa. Dexter McSpaden. The postsecondary cat-
Activity: The program was held at La Scala egory winners were Mauricio Gayton Jr.,
Restaurant in Columbus, Ohio. Eric Vennie, and Darren Vincent.
WELDING JOURNAL 75
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HOLSTON VALLEY
MARCH 12
Speaker: Gary Roberts
Affiliation: Airgas, automation specialist
Topic: Airgas University online training
Activity: Nominations for Section officers
were received for presentation at the April
meeting. The program was held at Mama’s
House Restaurant in Kingsport, Tenn.
Shown are the participants in the Chattanooga Section/Sequoyah High School Student
Chapter welding contest. NORTHEAST TENNESSEE
FEBRUARY 12
Activity: The Section hosted its annual stu-
dents’ day event at Tennessee Technology
Center (TTC) in Knoxville for about 230
students from local schools. The event in-
cluded talks on welding careers, compli-
mentary lunch, welding demonstrations,
and a tour of the Technology Center. At-
tending were high school welding instruc-
tors Steve Linn (TTC Knoxville), Jeff Han-
kins (Oak Ridge), Jim Thomas (South
Doyle), Rick Johnson (Grainger), Tim
The top-scoring welders in the Chattanooga Section/Sequoyah High School Student Chap-
Steelman (Morgan County), Michael Hurt
ter contest are (from left) Eric Vennie, Dexter McSpaden, Dustin Luthringer, Colton Jones,
(TTC Jacksboro), Mike Russell (TTC
Darren Vincent, and Mauricio Gayton Jr.
Harriman), and District 8 Director Joe
Livesay (TTC Crossville).
NORTHEAST MISSISSIPPI
FEBRUARY 21
Activity: The Section sponsored a stu-
dents’ night and equipment demo event
featuring the Lincoln Electric mobile dis-
play unit. Lincoln salesman Ron Martucci
demonstrated the equipment.
Speaker Gary Roberts (red sweater) is shown with the Holston Valley Section members.
District 9
George Fairbanks Jr., director
(225) 473-6362
fits@bellsouth.net
BIRMINGHAM
FEBRUARY 27
Activity: The Birmingham Section and
Lawson State C. C. Student Chapter mem-
bers held a welding seminar at Plumbers
and Pipefitters Local 372 in Duncanville,
Students are shown at the Northeast Tennessee Section’s students’ day event. Ala. Exhibitors included Victor, Lincoln
Electric, Miller Electric, Airgas Welding
Supply, and Harris Equipment.
Central Alabama
Student Chapter
MARCH 7
Speaker: Craig Ray
Topic: Jobs in underwater welding and
commercial diving
Activity: The program was held in the Cen-
tral Alabama Community College welding
shop in Alexander, Ala. Attending were D.
J. James, Emily Hatfield, Daniel Arnberg,
Brandon Fraser, Robin Holt, Zack Adams,
Chris Floyd, Walter Whatley, Colton
Steve Linn answers students’ questions at the Northeast Tennessee event.
Stroud, and Craig Ray.
76 MAY 2013
Society News MAY_Layout 1 4/15/13 3:46 PM Page 77
MARCH 19
Speaker: Jason Lange
Affiliation: Lincoln Automation, Inc.
Topic: Controlling welding fumes Attendees are shown at the Birmingham Section-sponsored welding seminar.
Activity: IWS Gas & Supply, represented
by President Moussy Chassion, provided
the door prizes and sponsored this New
Orleans Section program at Café Hope in
Marrero, La., for 66 members, students,
and guests. Alfred Marshall, an appren-
tice with Ironworkers No. 58, was the 50/50
prize winner.
District 10
Robert E. Brenner, director
(330) 484-3650
bobren28@yahoo.com
District 10 Central Alabama Student Chapter members are shown at their March meeting.
MARCH 9
Activity: The District held its second CWI
Roundtable event at Babcock & Wilcox
Commercial in Euclid, Ohio. The event of-
fers CWIs an opportunity to share their
experiences and opinions. The 20 partici-
pants discussed a number of topics, includ-
ing qualification records, welding proce-
dure specifications, welder performance
qualification records, and the proper way
to issue welder certification papers.
DRAKE WELL
JANUARY 18
Activity: The Section participated in the
SkillsUSA competition hosted by the New Nancy Cole, AWS president, is shown with
Castle School of Trades in New Castle, Pa. Ironworker Alfred Marshall (left) receives a George Fairbanks (left), District 9 director,
The top welders were Joseph Crate, door prize from Aldo Duron, New Orleans and D. J. Berger at the New Orleans Section
Robert Ackerson, and Conner Biggs. Section chair. reception.
WELDING JOURNAL 77
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The New Orleans Section attendees are shown at the reception held at the Bruskotter’s home.
MARCH 12
Activity: The Drake Well Section mem-
bers discussed the March 9 District 10
Roundtable event and the District 10 con-
ference scheduled for April 19. Dan
Bubenhiem was elected vice chair.
MAHONING VALLEY
MARCH 14
Speaker: Jim Hannahs, PE, CWI
Topic: Metals and processes used to build
NASCAR vehicles
Activity: The meeting, held at Mahoning
County Career & Technical Center in Can-
field, Ohio, was attended by about 90
Shown at the New Orleans Section event are (from left) Tommy Callahan, Mike Massicot,
members and guests.
Jimmy Gibbs, Moussy Chassion, and Chair Aldo Duron.
NORTHWESTERN
PENNSYLVANIA
FEBRUARY 13
Speaker: Marty Siddall, technical sales
representative/automation specialist
Affiliation: The Lincoln Electric Co.
Topic: New technologies in robotic weld-
ing
Activity: The meeting was held at Tri State
Business Institute in Erie, Pa.
District 11
Robert P. Wilcox, director
Shown at the New Orleans Section March program are (from left) Moussy Chassion, Matt (734) 721-8272
Howerton, speaker Jason Lange, and Chair Aldo Duron. rmwilcox@wowway.com
78 MAY 2013
Society News MAY_Layout 1 4/15/13 3:47 PM Page 79
NORTHWESTERN OHIO
FEBRUARY 27
SPEAKER: Curt Wilsoncroft, regional sales
representative
Affiliation: Victor Technologies
Topic: Carbon arc and oxygen lance cutting
Activity: The program was held at Owens
Community College in Perrysburg, Ohio,
for 41 attendees. Following the talk, the
group visited the welding lab where Wilson-
croft demonstrated the cutting processes
and members had a hands-on opportunity Shown at the Drake Well Section SkillsUSA competition are (from left) Robert Ackerson,
to experiment with the equipment. Tyler Hoffman, Joseph Crate, Chad Hajec, Joseph Steiner, and Conner Biggs.
District 12
Daniel J. Roland, director
(715) 735-9341, ext. 6421
daniel.roland@us.fincantieri.com
RACINE-KENOSHA
FEBRUARY 22
Speaker: Chris Boycks, CWI
Topic: The shortage of skilled qualified
welders and fabricators
Activity: The seventh annual District 12 Drake Well Section members are from left (front row) Robert Fugate, Colin Young, Justus
winter meeting was hosted by Jay Manu- Burk, Bailey Hagerty, Dan Bubenhiem, William Brownlee, Travis Crate, and Ward Kiser;
facturing Co. in Oshkosh, Wis. Dan (back row) Rolf Laemmer, Erick Speer, Joe Crate, and Troy Braden.
Roland, District 12 director, presented
Chair Dan Crifase the Dalton E. Hamil-
ton Memorial CWI of the Year Award and
the District Meritorious Award to Vice
Chair Ken Karwowski.
District 13
John Willard, director
(815) 954-4838
kustom_bilt@msn.com
CHICAGO
FEBRUARY 13
Activity: The Section hosted its annual St. Shown at the February Racine-Kenosha Sec-
Valentine’s Day dinner party at Cooper’s Speaker Jim Hannahs (right) is shown with tion event are (from left) Chair Dan Crifase,
Hawk Winery & Restaurant in Chicago, Dave Hughes, Mahoning Valley Section ex- District 12 Director Dan Roland, and Ken
Ill., for 35 attendees. ecutive committee member. Karwowski.
District 14
Robert L. Richwine, director
(765) 378-5378
bobrichwine@aol.com
INDIANA
FEBRUARY 9, 10
Activity: The Section conducted the re-
gional SkillsUSA welding contest at J. E.
L. Career Center in Indianapolis, Ind., for
20 participants. Four secondary and four
postsecondary welding contestants were
selected to compete in the state welding
contest. Working the event were Bob Rich- From left, Gary Dugger, Bennie Flynn, and Speaker Marty Siddall (left) is shown with
wine, District 14 director; Chair Bennie Gary Tucker worked the Indiana SkillsUSA Tom Kostreba, Northwestern Pennsylvania
Flynn; Gary Dugger; and Gary Tucker. contest. Section chair.
WELDING JOURNAL 79
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FEBRUARY 27
Activity: The Indiana Section members
SkillsUSA welding contestants are shown during the Indiana Section event. toured the Don Schumacher Racing facil-
ity in Brownsburg, Ind. Mike Lewis, sen-
ior vice president, conducted the tour.
LEXINGTON
FEBRUARY 28
Speaker: Tony Noah
Affiliation: The Lincoln Electric Co.
Topic: Pulse welding
Activity: Incoming Chair Coy Hall pre-
sented the Section CWI of the Year Award
to Sherman Cook, an instructor at Rock-
castle County Technical School. Rose
Whitaker and Rosa McCallum were pre-
Shown at the Indiana Section contest are sented $250 scholarship awards. Fifty
(from left) Wilson Smith, Thomas Faucett, Incoming Lexington Section Chair Coy Hall members and guests attended the pro-
and Bob Richwine, District 14 director. (left) is shown with Sherman Cook. gram.
ST. LOUIS
DECEMBER 21
Activity: The Section held its holiday party
at Cee Kay Supply, Inc., in St. Louis, Mo.
Company owner Tom Dunn was cited for
his generous support and the services he
has offered to the Section over the years.
In recognition, Jerry Simpson presented
Dunn the District 14 Meritorious Award.
Angela Harrison is shown with Dennis Pick- Mike Lewis led the Indiana Section mem-
District 15
David Lynnes, director
ering at the Arkansas Welding Expo. bers on a tour of Don Schumacher Racing. (701) 365-0606
dave@learntoweld.com
District 16
Dennis Wright, director
(913) 782-0635
awscwi1@att.net
Shown at the February Central Arkansas Tom Dunn (left) receives the District 14 Mer-
District 17
J. Jones, director
Section program are (from left) Aaron Carr, itorious Award from Jerry Simpson at the St. (832) 506-5986
Karen Cooper, and Dennis Pickering. Louis Section holiday party. jjones6@lincolnelectric.com
80 MAY 2013
Society News MAY_Layout 1 4/15/13 3:48 PM Page 81
Speaker Dennis Pickering (kneeling) and attendees are shown at the February Central Arkansas Section meeting.
CENTRAL ARKANSAS
NOVEMBER 1
Activity: The Section participated in the
Arkansas Welding Expo presented by
WELSCO, Inc., at Verizon Arena in Lit-
tle Rock, Ark. Angela Harrison, WELSCO
president, was presented the Section Mer-
itorious Award. More than 700 students
attended the event to learn about job op-
portunities from Monica Pfarr, AWS cor-
porate director, workforce development,
who held presentations for them titled
“Let the Sparks Fly.” Vice Chair Dennis
Pickering, a welding instructor at
Arkansas Career Training Institute, made Attendees are shown at the Central Arkansas Section January program.
presentations at the expo.
JANUARY 17
Speaker: Dennis Pickering, vice chairman
Affiliation: Arkansas Career Training In-
stitute, welding instructor
Topic: Welding codes and standards
Activity: The program was held at the in-
stitute in Hot Springs, Ark.
FEBRUARY 11
Speaker: Dennis Pickering, vice chairman Shown at the East Texas Section program are (from left) Student Chapter Chair Michael
Affiliation: Arkansas Career Training In- Florczykowski, Chair Bryan Baker, Yoni Adonyi, speaker Tom Siewert, Robert Warke, and J.
stitute, welding instructor Jones, District 17 director.
Topic: The AWS scholarship program
Activity: The meeting was held at Arkansas
State University in Heber Springs, Ark.
EAST TEXAS
LeTourneau University S. C.
FEBRUARY 21
Speaker: Tom Siewert, AWS director-at-
large
Affiliation: NIST (ret.)
Topic: Analysis of the collapse of the World Shown at the Tulsa Section program are (from left) AWS President Nancy Cole, Todd Mor-
Trade Center buildings ris, Charles Griffin, Ralph Johnson, Ray Wilsdorf, and J. Jones, District 17 director.
Activity: The program was held at Le-
Tourneau University in Longview, Tex. At-
tending were District 17 Director J. Jones, TULSA Johnson received District Director Certifi-
Chair Bryan Baker, Student Chapter Chair FEBRUARY 9 cate Awards, and Charles Griffin was pre-
Michael Florczykowski, Prof. Materials Activity: The Section hosted a dinner to sented the Private Sector Instructor
Joining Engineering Yoni Adonyi, and celebrate St. Valentine’s day with the Award. Ralph Johnson and Ray Wilsdorf
Robert Warke, associate professor, mate- ladies. Nancy Cole, AWS president, at- received Dalton E. Hamilton Memorial
rials joining. tended the event. Todd Morris and Ralph CWI of the Year Awards.
WELDING JOURNAL 81
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Attendees are shown at the Houston Section instructors institute held February 22.
Alaska Section members and guests are shown at the February program.
Members and students are shown at the Spokane Section program in January.
HOUSTON
District 18
John Bray, director
FEBRUARY 22
Activity: The Section held its seventh an-
(281) 997-7273 nual instructors institute hosted by Andre
Shown during the British Columbia Section sales@affiliatedmachinery.com Horn and the Industrial Welding Academy
tour are Brad Moe and speaker John Shaw. staff. Thirty welding instructors attended
82 MAY 2013
Society News MAY_Layout 1 4/15/13 3:49 PM Page 85
Idaho-Montana Section members are shown during their tour of Spudnik Equipment Co.
WELDING JOURNAL 85
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86 MAY 2013
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PERSONNEL
Eriez® Names Two to Key senior manager exports, and John Blicha
Positions to director of corporate communications.
Goldner will manage the company’s sales
offices in Central and South America and
Eriez®, Erie, Pa., a supplier of mag- the Middle East. Most recently, Goldner
netic lift, conveying, metal-detection, served as export market development
X-ray, controlling, and inspection equip- manager, targeting industrial markets in
ment, has promoted Andrew Goldner to Central and South America. Blicha has
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90 MAY 2013
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Understanding
Understanding
Welding
Welding Symbols
Knowledge of weld joint terminology is essential for all levels of the welding design and production process. Use
of proper terms makes it much easier for welding personnel to communicate about various fit-up and welding
problems encountered during the fabrication process. A welding inspector
inspecto ’s ability to read and interpret welding
inspector’s
plans correctly is essential to properly inspecting a piece or part.
This in-depth course walks the user through AWS 2.4:2012, starting with a module on orthographic views, joint
AWS
types, and weld types. Then the course dives into the various types of welds and clarifies the rules and usage of
welding symbols.
geometry,, groove welds, fillet welds, plug and slot welds, spot and
This self-paced course covers basic joint geometry
projection welds, and stud, seam, surfacing, and edge welds. Rounding out the seminar is a module on brazing
terms and symbols and non-destructive testing symbols. Interactive practice problems include an explanation of
each solution, and chapter quizzes will solidify the knowledge and prepare you for the proficiency exam.
The seminar is approximately 12 hours long and concludes with a final test.
The American Welding Society established the honor of Counselor to recognize individual
members for a career of distinguished organizational leadership that has enhanced the image and
impact of the welding industry. Election as a Counselor shall be based on an individual’s career of
outstanding accomplishment.
To be eligible for appointment, an individual shall have demonstrated his or her leadership in the
welding industry by one or more of the following:
• Leadership of or within an organization that has made a substantial contribution to the welding
industry. The individual’s organization shall have shown an ongoing commitment to the industry, as
evidenced by support of participation of its employees in industry activities.
• Leadership of or within an organization that has made a substantial contribution to training and
vocational education in the welding industry. The individual’s organization shall have shown an
ongoing commitment to the industry, as evidenced by support of participation of its employees in
industry activities.
For specifics on the nomination requirements, please contact Wendy Sue Reeve at AWS
headquarters in Miami, or simply follow the instructions on the Counselor nomination form in this
issue of the Welding Journal. The deadline for submission is July 1, 2013. The committee looks
forward to receiving these nominations for 2014 consideration.
Sincerely,
Lee Kvidahl
Chair, Counselor Selection Committee
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96 MAY 2013
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WELDING RESEARCH
austenitic stainless steel (Types 304, 316,
Microstructural examination by scanning and transmission electron microscopies (SEM and 321), the alloy usually chosen due to
and TEM) revealed that the dominant precipitated phases were σ and chi (χ), nucleated at its superior corrosion resistance, ductility,
δ-ferrite/austenite (γ) interfaces or in the interior of the δ-ferrite grains, thereby consuming strength, formability, and weldability
the δ-ferrite during isothermal holds at each aging temperature. The total amount of pre- (Refs. 6, 7), are very significant issues. Fur-
cipitated phases during isothermal aging sigmoidally increased as a function of the aging thermore, an advanced 316FR stainless
time. The kinetics of the appearance of these intermetallic phases could be expressed ap- steel structural material, which has im-
proximately by a Johnson-Mehl type equation. Based on the determined kinetic equation, proved creep fatigue behavior over other
the precipitation behavior of intermetallic phases and the degradation of impact toughness austenitic stainless steels, and which pos-
at 773 and 823 K could be successfully predicted. sesses a higher phase stability during high
temperature at longer exposure times by
Introduction Monju from the 1970s to the present day using the concept of solid-solution hard-
(Refs. 1–5). For future commercial FBR ening with low-carbon and medium nitro-
plants, further research on welding mate- gen as compared to conventional
Recently, society’s most important mis- austenitic stainless steel, is likely to be
rials will need to be performed. In addi-
sion and goal is to secure an effective en- used for the next generation of commer-
tion, as present nuclear plants have been
ergy source that will contribute to a cial FBRs in Japan. However, to the best
in operation for a long time, repairs of
reduction in global warming and replace- of the authors’ knowledge, research on
their aging parts, which mainly involve
ment of the fossil fuels that are gradually these issues has not been reported to date.
welding, are becoming necessary.
running short worldwide. Among various A particular result of the high-tem-
Prior to discussing repair welding
possible energy sources, one that is in- perature operation of a FBR is the need
processes for the FBR, it is important to
creasingly coming into the spotlight is nu- for weld repairs to the various main com-
understand the typical differences be-
clear power generation, due to its merits ponents in the nuclear plant. Such prob-
tween a FBR and other general types of
of providing a stable and efficient energy lems arise because welds have poorer
reactors (i.e., light water-cooled reactor).
supply system despite its known liabilities quality than the base metals due to solute
First, a FBR cannot use water as a moder-
of dangerous radioactivity and nuclear segregation or microstructural inhomo-
ator, rather molten sodium metal is em-
waste concerns. Among the diverse types geneity (to avoid hot cracking, the weld
ployed as a coolant, because of its high
of nuclear power generation, the fast metal for austenitic stainless steel is often
thermal conductivity. Second, a FBR has
breeder reactor (FBR, using fast neutrons intentionally rendered inhomogeneous
a higher operating temperature of
that breed Pu-239 from U-238) is well by introducing some amount of δ−ferrite
773–823 K compared to other reactors,
known as the most advanced thanks to its as a result of the rapid solidification rate
due to its high degree of heat generation
superior fuel economy. Thus, much re- during the welding process). These issues
(Ref. 4). Therefore, before the commer-
search has been performed in Japan on promote the transformation of inter-
the metallurgical behavior, as well as the metallic phases, which affect various me-
structural properties, of materials for the chanical and chemical properties (Ref. 8).
Japanese prototype fast breeder reactor KEYWORDS Therefore, in anticipation of the need for
welding repairs to FBRs, the study and
E. J. CHUN, H. BABA, K. TERASHIMA, and Embrittlement
prediction of the aging behavior of the
K. SAIDA are with Division of Materials and Type 316FR
Manufacturing Science, Graduate School of En-
weld metal is an absolutely necessary
Weld Metal
gineering, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan. prerequisite.
Sigma Phase
K. NISHIMOTO is with Department of the Ap- Consequently, as a first research step
Kinetics
plication of Nuclear Technology, Fukui University toward developing a process for weld re-
of Technology, Fukui, Japan. pairs in the newly developed 316FR stain-
C S P Cr Ni Mo Si Mn N Al O Fe
Type 0.0085 0.0009 0.023 17.56 12.02 2.15 0.44 0.79 0.088 0.011 0.007 Bal.
316FR
Type 0.0150 0.0040 0.031 17.28 12.11 2.04 0.70 0.92 0.024 — — Bal.
316L
Microstructure Analysis
The content of δ−ferrite in the as- Fig. 3 — SEM micrographs of the weld metal after aging at 873 K for 10 and 100 h, and 1023 K for 1 h.
welded and aged specimens was measured
using the magnetic induction method
(Feritscope®) in the central area of the
bead surface. To clarify microstructural
changes caused by the aging treatments,
specimens were observed by scanning
electron microscopy (SEM) equipped with
electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD)
under an acceleration voltage of 20 kV
after electrolytic etching with a 10% aque-
ous solution of KOH using an applied volt-
age of 100 mV. The specimens were also
observed by transmission microscopy
(TEM) under an acceleration voltage of
WELDING RESEARCH
200 kV after jet polishing with a solution
of perchloric acid (5%) and acetic acid
(95%), using an applied voltage of 50 V.
Fig. 5 — Backscattered electron micrographs of SEM and EBSD micrographs of the weld metal after
aging at 873 K for 100 h.
Fig. 8 — Plot to determine the activation energy for Fig. 9 — Prediction of the decomposition behavior Fig. 10 — Change of impact toughness as a func-
decomposition of δ-ferrite at various aging temper- of δ-ferrite in the weld metal at practical operating tion of the amount of decomposed δ-ferrite (aging
atures. temperatures of a FBR. at 1023 K).
temperature-dependent rate constant, t is Johnson-Mehl plot in Fig. 7. Moreover, it tion results, showing a sigmoidal relation-
the time (ageing time in the present is well known that the dependence of the ship between operating time and the de-
study), n is the time exponent parameter precipitation rate k in Equation 4 can be composed fraction of δ-ferrite. There was
calculated by regression analysis depend- generally expressed by an Arrhenius equa- a large difference in the decomposition
WELDING RESEARCH
ing on the nucleation mechanism and the tion as follows: behavior between operating temperatures
growth processes, and m is the impinge- ⎛ −Q ⎞ of 773 and 823 K. Specifically, it took 15
k = k0 exp ⎜ months to reach 50% δ-ferrite decompo-
⎝ RT ⎟⎠
ment exponent. Equation 3 with m = 1
and m = 2 corresponds to the Johnson- (6) sition at 773 K, but it took only 1 month at
Mehl equation (Equation 4) and the where k0 is the frequency factor; Q is the an operating temperature of 823 K to ar-
Austin-Rickett equation (Equation 5): activation energy; T is the temperature; rive at the same point. In other words, a
and R is the gas constant. 50 K difference in the operating tempera-
{
y = 1 − exp − ( kt )
n
} (4)
Equation 6 can be transformed into the
following to describe an Arrhenius plot:
ture caused about a 15 times faster de-
composition rate. The decomposed
y fraction of δ ferrite at other points on the
Q1
= ( kt )
n
ln k = − + 1nk0 aging time curve is also listed in Table 5.
1− y (5) RT (7) According to these predictions, about
Figure 8 shows the Arrhenius plot, 90% of the δ-ferrite will have decomposed
The applicability of these kinetic equa- showing a simple linear relationship be- after only 5 years of operation of a FBR at
tions can be confirmed by parabolic, John- tween the reciprocal temperature and the 823 K, while about 66% of the δ-ferrite
son-Mehl (log ln (1/1–y) = n log t+n logarithm of k, allowing the determination will have decomposed at an operating
log k) and Austin-Rickett (log (y/(1–y) = of the activation energy for the decompo- temperature of 773 K. Furthermore, after
n log t+n log k) plots. sition of δ-ferrite and the k0 constant. 50 years of FBR operation, in Type 316FR
Figure 7 shows the results of applying All the parameters determined in this weld metal, δ-ferrite will be completely
the three kinds of kinetic approaches. way are shown in Table 3. The fitting con- decomposed at 823 K. Consequently, the
There was a good linear relationship be- stant n was independent of the aging tem- operating temperature of the FBR should
tween the aging time and the fraction of perature, but the precipitation rate be closely considered from the viewpoint
decomposed δ-ferrite in the Type 316FR constant k increased as a function of aging of δ-ferrite decomposition behavior, be-
weld metal in the Johnson-Mehl plot re- temperature. cause it could seriously affect not only var-
gardless of aging temperature, while the Literature report (Ref. 23) of the acti- ious mechanical and chemical properties
other plots failed to adequately describe vation energy for diffusion of the main al- during service, but also the weldability of
the δ-ferrite decomposition behavior. In loying elements present within the any required repairs.
particular, the Austin-Rickett plot devi- δ-ferrite is shown in Table 4. Their similar
ated from a linear relationship in the final activation energies suggest that the de- Prediction of Impact Toughness Behavior
stages of precipitation, and the parabolic composition of δ-ferrite in this study in Weld Metal
plot showed also totally nonlinear behav- would be strongly influenced by the diffu-
ior at every aging temperature. In other sion of these alloying elements. In order to predict the embrittlement be-
words, δ-ferrite decomposition behavior havior resulting from the decomposition of
during aging of Type 316FR weld metal Prediction of δ-Ferrite Decomposition at δ-ferrite in Type 316FR weld metal during
was best described by the Johnson-Mehl Service-Exposure Temperatures of a FBR practical operation of a FBR, Charpy im-
kinetic equation. pact tests were performed for specimens
To predict the decomposition behavior Using the determined kinetics of the with different fractions of decomposed δ-
during long-term service exposure of a Johnson-Mehl equation, the decomposi- ferrite. To predict this behavior, one as-
FBR, the remaining constants in the John- tion behavior of δ-ferrite during in-ser- sumption that impact toughness of weld
son-Mehl equation (n and k) need to be vice exposure of FBR at practical metal is only governed by fractional change
determined. These values were found operation temperatures (773 and 823 K) of δ-ferrite decomposition was employed in
from a simple regression analysis of the was predicted. Figure 9 shows the predic- this study.
Fig. 11 — SEM fractographs after Charpy impact tests as a function of decomposed fraction of δ-ferrite Fig. 12 — Predicted results of the absorbed impact
(aging at 1023 K). energy during long-term operation of a FBR.
3) The δ-ferrite decomposition behav- Nagata, T. 1987. Simplified analysis and design of intermetallic sigma (σ) phase precipitation in
ior at practical operating temperature (773 for elevated temperature components of stainless steels. ISRN Metallurgy 2012: Article
and 823 K) found during FBR service was Monju. Nuclear Engineering and Design 98(3): ID 732471, 16 pages.
predicted using the above determined pa- 305 to 317. 14. Escriba, D. M., Materna-Morris, E., Plaut,
4. Nakazawa, T., Kimura, H., Kimura, K., R. L., and Padilha, A. F. 2009. Chi-phase precip-
rameters. The decomposition rate of δ-fer- and Kaguchi, H. 2003. Advanced type stainless itation in a duplex stainless steel. Materials Char-
rite at an 823 K service temperature was steel 316FR for fast breeder reactor structures. acterization 60(11): 1214-s to 1219-s.
15 times faster than that at 773 K. Journal of Materials Processing Technology 15. Wang, Z., Mao, X., Yang, Z., Sun, X.,
4) As the isothermal holding time in- 143–144(20): 905 to 909. Yong, Q., Li, Z., and Weng, Y. 2011. Strain-
creased, the impact toughness decreased 5. Nogami, S., Hasegawa, A., Tanno, T., induced precipitation in a Ti micro-alloyed
during the aging treatment at 1023 K. In Imasaki, K., and Abe, K. 2011. High-temperature HSLA steel. Materials Science and Engineering
the fractographs obtained after impact helium embrittlement of 316FR steel. Journal of A 529(25): 459 to 467.
tests, the fraction of brittle fracture region Nuclear Science and Technology 48(1): 130 to 134. 16. Starink, M. J. 1997. Kinetic equations for
increased with an increase in decomposed 6. Gill, T. P. S., Vijayalakshmi, M., Ro- diffusion-controlled precipitation reactions.
driguez, P., and Padmanabhan, K. A. 1989. On Journal of Materials Science 32(15): 4061 to
δ-ferrite.
microstructure-property correlation of ther- 4070.
5) By combining the predictions of δ- mally aged Type 316L stainless steel weld metal. 17. Badji, R., Bouabdallah, M., Bacroix, B.,
ferrite decomposition behavior with the Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A Kahloun, C., Bettahar, K., and Kherrouba, N.
experimental results of the Charpy impact 20(6): 1116 to 1124. 2008. Effect of solution treatment temperature
test, we were able to predict changes in im- 7. Ibrahim, O. H., Ibrahim, I. S., and Khal- on the precipitation kinetic of σ-phase in 2205
pact toughness during in-service of a FBR. ifa, T. A. F. 2010. Effect of aging on the tough- duplex stainless steel welds. Materials Science
We predict that it will take approximately ness of austenitic and duplex stainless steel and Engineering A 496(25): 447 to 454.
3 months to reach an absorbed impact en- weldments. Journal of Materials Science and 18. Johnson, W. A., and Mehl, R. F. 1939.
ergy of 32 J at 823 K, while approximately Technology 26(9): 810 to 816. Reaction kinetics in processes of nucleation and
8. Inoue, H., Koseki, T., Okita, S., and Fuji, Growth. Transactions AIME 135: 416 to 458.
32 months will be needed to reach a the
M. 1997. Solidification and transformation be- 19. Sasikala, G., Ray, S. K., and Mannan, S.
same absorbed energy at 773 K. In other havior of austenitic stainless steel weld metals L. 2003. Kinetics of transformation of delta fer-
words, the rate of decrease of the ab- solidified as primary austenite: Study of solidi- rite during creep in a Type 316(N) stainless steel
sorbed impact energy at an 823 K operat- fication and subsequent transformation of Cr- weld metal. Materials Science and Engineering A
WELDING RESEARCH
ing temperature was 10 times faster than Ni stainless steel weld metals — 1st Report. 359 (25): 86 to 90.
that at 773 K. Welding International 11(11): 876 to 887. 20. Sello, M. P., and Stumpf, W. E. 2011.
9. Inoue, H., Koseki, T., Okita, S., and Fuji, Laves phase precipitation and its transforma-
M. 1997. Solidification and transformation be- tion kinetics in the ferritic stainless steel type
Acknowledgment havior of austenitic stainless steel weld metals AISI 441. Materials Science and Engineering A
solidified as primary ferrite: Study of solidifica- 528(25): 1840 to 1847.
The present study includes the result of tion and subsequent transformation of Cr-Ni 21. Lee, E. S., and Kim, Y. G. 1990. A trans-
stainless steel weld metals — 2nd Report. Weld- formation kinetic model and its application to
“Core R&D program for commercializa-
ing International 11(12): 937 to 949. Cu-Zn-Al shape memory alloys — 1. isothermal
tion of the fast breeder reactor by utilizing 10. Inoue, H., Koseki, T., Okita, S., and Fuji, conditions. Acta Metallurgica et Materialia 38(9):
Monju” entrusted to University of Fukui by M. 1998. Epitaxial growth and phase formation 1669 to 1676.
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Sci- of austenitic stainless steel weld metals near fu- 22. Sutou, Y., Koeda, N., Omori, T.,
ence and Technology of Japan (MEXT). sion boundaries: Study of solidification and Kainuma, R., and Ishida, K. 2009. Effects of
transformation of Cr-Ni stainless steel weld aging on bainitic and thermally induced marten-
metals — 3rd Report. Welding International sitic transformations in ductile Cu-Al-Mn-based
References 12(3): 195 to 206. shape memory alloys. Acta Materialia 57(19):
11. Inoue, H., Koseki, T., Okita, S., and Fuji, 5748 to 5758.
1. Furukawa, T., Kato, S., and Yoshida, E. M. 1998. Solidification and transformation be- 23. Magnabosco, R. 2009. Kinetics of sigma
2009. Compatibility of FBR materials with havior of Cr-Ni stainless steel weld metals with phase formation in a duplex stainless steel. Ma-
sodium. Journal of Nuclear Materials 392(2): 249 ferritic single phase solidification mode: Study terials Research 12(3): 321 to 327.
to 254. of solidification and transformation of Cr-Ni 24. Lee, D. J., Byun, J. C., Sung, J. H., and
2. Iida, K., Asada, Y., Okabayashi, K., and stainless steel weld metals — 4th report. Weld- Lee, H. W. 2009. The dependence of crack
Nagata, T. 1987. Construction codes developed ing International 12(3): 282 to 296. properties on the Cr/Ni equivalent ratio in AISI
for prototype FBR Monju. Nuclear Engineering 12. Kou, S. 2003. Welding Metallurgy, second 304L austenitic stainless steel weld metals. Ma-
and Design 98 (3): 283 to 288. edition. P. 216-232, A John Wiley & Sons, Inc. terials Science and Engineering A 513–514(15):
3. Iida, K., Asada, Y., Okabayashi, K., and 13. Hsieh, C. C., and Wu, W. 2012. Overview 154 to 159.
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Fig. 2 — Dilatometry results for NUCu-140 heated at 1°, 10°, 100°, and 1000°C/s.
WELDING RESEARCH
tial dissolution of the precipitates on heat- Precipitation-Strengthened NUCu-140 Steel
ing, followed by re-precipitation of new (all values in wt-%)
and smaller Cu-rich precipitates during Element NUCu-140
cooling. The region labeled HAZ 2 expe-
rienced a peak temperature of ~910°C Al 0.65
and exhibits a further decrease of the C 0.04
Fig. 1 — LEAP tomography data collected from <R> and φ with an even greater increase Cu 1.35
in Nv. It was determined that full precipi- Fe Bal.
NUCu-140 GMAW showing the evolution of the
tate dissolution occurs in HAZ 2 on heat- Mn 0.47
average precipitate radius (<R>), number den-
Nb 0.07
sity, and volume fraction (φ) across the base ing, followed by re-precipitation on cool- Ni 2.75
metal, HAZ, and FZ of the weld. ing. The fusion zone also undergoes full P 0.009
dissolution of the Cu-rich precipitates on S 0.002
heating but exhibits only minimal Si 0.47
ite grain growth. The intercritical, fine- re-precipitation during the cooling por-
grained, and coarse-grained HAZ regions tion of the weld cycle. Therefore, the fu-
all experience transformation to austenite sion zone exhibits the lowest <R>, Nv,
during the weld thermal cycle. Therefore, and φ of any weld region. The overall 140 was vacuum melted, cast into ingots,
both the microstructural and precipitate trends in <R>, Nv, φ are consistent with and homogenized at 1150°C for 3 h. The
evolution needs to be investigated to un- the observed local softening that occurs in ingots were hot rolled at approximately
derstand the mechanical properties in the HAZ as a result of the fusion welding 950°C to a final plate thickness of 25.4 mm
these regions. process. The current research focuses on a and air cooled. The plates were solution-
A preliminary investigation of the mi- more detailed investigation of the me- ized at 900°C for 1 h, water quenched to
crostructural evolution and mechanical chanical properties of each of the four crit- room temperature, aged at 550°C for 2 h,
properties in NUCu-140 gas metal arc ical regions of the HAZ using simulated and air cooled to room temperature. Crit-
welds (GMAW) and gas tungsten arc HAZ samples. ical transformation temperatures at vari-
welds (GTAW) was recently conducted ous heating and cooling rates were deter-
(Ref. 12). Microhardness traces revealed Experimental Procedure mined by dilatometric methods using a
that a locally softened HAZ region Gleeble 3500 thermomechanical simula-
formed as a result of the fusion welding The chemical composition of the tor equipped with an Anritsu SLB laser
process. Average precipitate radius NUCu-140 steel investigated in this study dilatometer. Diametral dilatometry was
(<R>), number density (Nv), and volume was measured using inductively coupled conducted on 6.35-mm-diameter solid
fraction measurements (φ) conducted plasma-optical emission spectroscopy samples oriented such that the diameter
using local electrode atom probe (LEAP) (ICP-OES) and the results are shown in measurements corresponded with the
tomography confirmed that the observed Table 1. The composition of NUCu-140 is through-thickness direction in the original
decrease in microhardness occurred as a similar to HSLA-100 Comp II, with plate. Samples were taken from approxi-
result of the precipitate evolution that oc- slightly increased C and Al levels and mately the ¼ thickness position in the
curs in the HAZ. Figure 1 shows a sum- slightly decreased Cr and Mo levels. The plate. A freespan of 25 mm and a low-
mary of the results. The base metal region Al content is relatively high compared to force jaw carrier were used to minimize
shows the initial precipitate parameters traditional structural steels, but Al has constraint during the determinations. The
that develop as a result of the solution and been shown to segregate to the interface Ac1 and Ac3 determinations generally fol-
aging thermal treatment. The region la- of the Cu-rich precipitates in NUCu-140 lowed ASTM A1033, although some devi-
beled HAZ 1 experienced a peak temper- and is believed to limit the coarsening ki- ations from recommended heating rates
ature of ~ 675°C and exhibits a reduction netics during aging (Ref. 3). The NUCu- and conditioning temperatures were used.
A
Table 2 — Summary of the Precipitate Evolution Predicted Using MatCalc Kinetic Simulation
Software
The simulated HAZ samples were taken a 1000°C/s heating rate. The Ac3 temper-
in the T-L orientation and were 11 × 11 × ature exhibits a much narrower range,
60 mm. The samples were outfitted with 824° to 839°C, indicating that the ferrite-
multiple thermocouples to determine the to-austenite transformation finish tem-
Fig. 3 — Summary of the thermal cycles pre- width of the uniformly heated region perature is not as dependent on heating
dicted using SOAR for the following samples: A within the freespan (10 mm). Specimens rate as the ferrite-to-austenite transfor-
— Low heat input (1.5 J/m); B — high heat input were prepared for light optical microscopy mation start temperature. The transfor-
WELDING RESEARCH
(3.75 J/m).
(LOM) using standard metallographic mation start temperatures increase di-
techniques and etched using a 3% Nital rectly with the heating rate since the
solution. Grain size measurements were ferrite to austenite transformation is dif-
conducted according to ASTM Standard fusion controlled. Increased heating rates
E112-96(2004)ε2, and five fields were provide less time for diffusion to occur,
measured per sample. Microhardness which causes a concomitant delay in the
measurements were conducted using a transformation start temperatures. These
Vickers diamond indenter, a 1-kg load, results were used to select peak tempera-
and a 15-s dwell time. Charpy impact test- tures to simulate the four critical regions
ing was conducted at –40°C according to of the HAZ. A peak temperature of 675°C
ASTM E23 on 10- × 10- × 50-mm speci- was selected for the subcritical HAZ re-
mens. Tensile testing was performed ac- gion since it is below the Ac1 temperature
cording to ASTM E8 on subsized samples over the entire range of heating rates in-
with a diameter of 6.35 mm and a 25.4-mm vestigated. An 800°C peak temperature
gauge length. Charpy impact testing was was selected for the intercritical HAZ re-
Fig. 4 — LOM micrograph showing the NUCu- performed on two specimens per condi- gion since it falls inside the Ac1 and Ac3
140 base metal microstructure. tion while tensile testing was conducted on range for all four dilatometry curves. A
a single specimen per condition due to ma- 900°C peak temperature was selected for
terial limitations. Post-fracture analysis the fine-grained austenite region since
In order to be more consistent with the was conducted on all of the Charpy impact 900°C minimally exceeds the maximum
NUCu140 aging temperature, the samples and tensile specimens to ensure that crack measured Ac3 temperature of 839°C. Fi-
were preconditioned at 450°C rather than propagation and subsequent failure oc- nally, a 1350°C peak temperature was se-
600°C. Preliminary experiments indicated curred within the uniformly heated region lected for the coarse-grained austenite
that Ac1 in this steel is below 700°C, so the of the simulated HAZ sample. If failure HAZ region since 1350°C significantly ex-
heating rate change for the Ac3 determi- was not contained entirely within the uni- ceeds the Ac3 temperature but is still
nations was conducted at 590°C rather formly heated region, the results of the below the melting temperature of the
than the 700°C recommended by ASTM sample were discarded and a replacement alloy.
A1033. specimen was prepared and tested. The Smartweld Optimization and
This information was then used to for- Analysis Routine (SOAR) software (Ref.
mulate an experimental matrix of simu- Results and Discussion 13) was used to determine thermal cycles
lated HAZ samples that would represent associated with the various peak tempera-
each of the four critical regions of the In order to simulate the four critical re- tures identified previously. An 85% trans-
HAZ. The HAZ simulations were con- gions of the HAZ, it is first necessary to fer efficiency, representative of the
ducted using a Gleeble 3500 thermome- identify the critical transformation tem- GMAW process, was assumed in the cal-
chanical simulator, and the heating and peratures, Ac1 and Ac3, for the NUCu- culations (Ref. 14). Weld thermal cycles
cooling rates were controlled using the 140 substrate material. Dilatometry heat- for each peak temperature were estimated
QuikSim software package supplied with ing rates ranging from 1° to 1000°C/s were for both a low (1.5 kJ/mm) and a high (3.75
the Gleeble 3500. Thermal cycles associ- investigated and the results are shown in kJ/mm) heat input to determine the effect
ated with a high (3.75 kJ/mm) and low (1.5 Fig. 2. The dilatometry curves show that of heat input on HAZ mechanical proper-
kJ/mm) heat input were utilized to repre- the Ac1 temperature increases directly ties. The weld thermal cycles associated
sent the range of arc welding conditions with heating rate and ranges from 706°C with the 675°, 800°, 900°, and 1350°C peak
expected during the joining of NUCu-140. with a 1°C/s heating rate up to 759°C with temperatures are shown in Fig. 3A, B for
Fig. 6 — Microhardness data collected from NUCu-140 base metal and simulated
B HAZ samples.
WELDING RESEARCH
be attributed to the Figure 6 shows the average microhard-
short time and slight ness values for both the high and low heat
increase in tempera- input simulated HAZ samples. The low
ture above Ac3. The heat input results show a noticeable re-
presence of NbC parti- duction in hardness for the LH675 (280
cles also aids in re- HV), LH800 (235 HV), and LH900 (225
stricting austenite HV) samples as compared to the base
grain growth. The mi- metal (300 HV). The observed softening
crostructure of the in these simulated HAZ samples occurs as
LH1350 sample con- a result of evolution of the Cu-rich pre-
sists of acicular ferrite cipitates (Ref. 12). The LEAP tomogra-
and a combination of phy data shown in Fig. 1 exhibit a linear
either Widmanstätten decrease in both the average precipitate
ferrite, bainite, or low- radius (<R>) and precipitate volume
Fig. 5 — LOM micrographs of the following simulated samples: A — Low carbon martensite. fraction (φ) as the weld interface is ap-
heat input; B — high heat input simulated HAZ samples.
The presence of acicu- proached (i.e., increasing peak tempera-
lar ferrite in the ture). This is consistent with the reduction
LH1350 sample indi- in hardness that is observed in the low heat
the low and high input matrix, respec- cates that significant input matrix. The LH1350 sample (290
tively. Each thermal cycle was subse- grain coarsening occurred during the sim- HV) exhibits only a minimal reduction in
quently linearized and input directly into ulated HAZ thermal cycle since acicular microhardness even though it is expected
the Gleeble 3500 QuikSim software to ferrite nucleates intragranularly on het- to have undergone full dissolution of the
produce simulated HAZ samples. erogeneous nucleation sites such as oxide Cu-rich precipitates. The relatively high
Figure 4 shows the NUCu-140 base inclusions, and its formation is enhanced hardness of the LH1350 sample is attrib-
metal microstructure while Fig. 5A, B when the austenite grain size increases uted to the acicular-type microstructure
shows the microstructure of the low heat (Refs. 15–18). The grain coarsening also (mixture of acicular ferrite, Widmanstät-
input and high heat input simulated HAZ suggests that a 1350°C peak temperature ten ferrite, bainite, and low-carbon
samples, respectively. The low heat input, is high enough to dissolve the NbC parti- martensite) observed in this region. The
675°C (LH675) peak temperature sample cles. This is consistent with thermody- high heat input microhardness results ex-
exhibits a predominantly equiaxed ferritic namic calculations performed on similar hibit a similar trend where there is local
microstructure that is nearly identical to Fe-Cu steels that indicate the NbC parti- softening in each of the four simulated
the base metal microstructure. Both the cles will dissolve between approximately HAZ samples. The slightly lower hardness
LH800 and LH900 samples also exhibit an 1050° and 1100°C (Ref. 7). The high heat values observed for the high heat input
equiaxed ferritic microstructure with little input samples exhibit very similar mi- 675°, 800°, and 900°C peak temperatures,
to no change from the base metal mi- crostructures when compared to the low relative to the low heat input samples, are
crostructure. Each of these simulated heat input counterparts, where the probably the result of increased coarsen-
HAZ microstructures has a similar grain HH675, HH800, and HH900 samples all ing/dissolution that is associated with the
size to the base material, which indicates contain equiaxed ferrite. The HH1350 longer heating and cooling times of the
that no significant grain coarsening oc- sample is also similar to its LH1350 coun- high heat input thermal cycle. The
curred as a result of the thermal cycle. The terpart in that it exhibits austenite grain HH1350 sample (260 HV) again shows a
LH900 sample is fully austenitized during coarsening leading to an acicular-type mi- slight hardness recovery as compared to
the thermal cycle, but does not exhibit sig- crostructure that contains a mixture of aci- the observed minimums that occurred in
C properties is observed in the LH1350 sam- samples tested at –40°C. The Charpy im-
ple, which agrees with the observed mi- pact energy generally increases relative to
crohardness trends. These strength trends the base metal value for the 675°, 800°, and
are consistent with the observed micro- 900°C peak temperature samples. This is
WELDING RESEARCH
hardness results discussed previously. The consistent with the microhardness and
elongation values only range from 18 to yield strength results, since a decrease in
21% across the base metal and all four strength/hardness typically produces an
simulated HAZ samples, with the ductility increase in toughness. The high heat input
decreasing in the 675° and 800°C samples. 1350°C peak temperature sample exhibits
This observation is unexpected since the only a very slight reduction in impact
675° and 800°C samples have decreased toughness relative to the base metal, while
strength levels compared to the base the impact toughness of the low heat input
metal, which would typically lead to higher sample is higher than that of the base
Fig. 7 — Tensile testing results for both low and high ductility. However, it must be noted that metal. The difference in impact toughness
heat input samples showing the following: A — the specimen gauge length contains between the LH1350 and HH1350 sam-
Yield; B — tensile; C — elongation. NUCu-140 material that was heated to a ples can be attributed to the prior austen-
range of different peak temperatures dur- ite grain size in each region. The LH1350
ing the Gleeble thermal cycle. The uni- sample has a prior austenite grain size of
the HH800 and HH900 samples. formly heated region in the simulated 32 µm while the HH1350 sample has a
Figure 7 shows the yield strength, ten- HAZ sample is shorter than the specimen prior austenite grain size of 42 μm. The re-
sile strength, and elongation results for the gauge length and so the elongation results duced prior austenite grain size and cor-
high and low heat input samples. Each represent some average elongation behav- responding increase in grain boundary
simulated HAZ data point presented in ior of each peak temperature/microstruc- area in the low heat input sample results
Figure 7 was generated from a sample that tural region. As a result, the elongation in a concomitant increase in the impact
failed within the uniformly heated region. value reported for each condition is actu- toughness. It is interesting to note that all
This was verified through direct tempera- ally a composite measurement and the re- regions of the HAZ exhibit relatively good
ture measurements during the simulation sulting trends are insignificant. Nearly impact toughness relative to the base
cycle and postfracture analysis. The low identical trends in yield strength and ten- metal, regardless of the location or heat
heat input yield and tensile strength values sile strength are observed for the high input.
decrease as the HAZ thermal cycle peak heat input sample matrix. In order to better understand the ob-
temperature increases up to the LH900 Figure 8 shows the Charpy impact val- served mechanical property trends, the ex-
sample. Partial recovery of the tensile ues for both the low and high heat input pected precipitate evolution in the base
Table 3 — Calculated Precipitate Parameters and Measured and Predicted Strength Change for LH800, LH900, HH800, and HH900 Samples
Fig. 10 — Measured vs. predicted strength change of 800° and 900°C simulated HAZ
samples using MatCalc as input to the Russell-Brown model.
ume fraction (φ). The excess solute from mate the change in strength expected from
the recently dissolved precipitates causes changes in the Cu-rich precipitates. The
re-precipitation of new, smaller Cu-rich Russell-Brown model assumes a random
precipitates during the cooling portion of distribution of spherical precipitates that
the cycle, which leads to a resultant in- are elastically softer than the surrounding
WELDING RESEARCH
crease in the precipitate number density. matrix. These two assumptions are gener-
MatCalc simulations were also produced ally acceptable for NUCu-140 since the
for the LH800, LH900, and LH1350 sam- Cu-rich precipitates are roughly spherical
ples and in all three cases the Cu-rich pre- and are elastically softer than the nomi-
cipitates fully dissolved on heating, fol- nally ferritic matrix (Ref. 23). The Russell-
lowed by re-precipitation of the Cu-rich Brown model defines the shear strength of
precipitates on cooling. An identical set of the material as the following:
MatCalc simulations was performed for 1
the high heat input samples and similar ⎡ 2 ⎤2
Gb ⎢ E ⎥
trends were observed. A summary of the τ = 0.8 ⎢1 − P ⎥
predicted precipitate parameters for the L ⎢ E2 ⎥⎦
⎣ M
base metal and each of the simulated
HAZ samples can be seen in Table 2. E
p
Fig. 9 — MatCalc kinetic simulation for the LH675 Comparison of the base metal precipitate when sin–1 ≤ 50 deg (1)
simulated HAZ sample. E
parameters generated using MatCalc and M
LEAP tomography reveals that generally
good agreement is achieved for the <R> 3
metal and HAZ regions was modeled and Nv. However, the MatCalc predicted ⎡ 2 ⎤4
using MatCalc kinetic simulations (Refs. φ (~0.0099) is more than three times less Gb ⎢ E P ⎥
τ= ⎢1 − 2 ⎥
12, 19–22). The MatCalc method esti- than the φ measured using LEAP tomog- L⎢ E ⎥⎦
⎣ M
mates precipitate nucleation and growth raphy (~ 0.032). Previous work by the au-
kinetics in multicomponent and multi- thors (Ref. 12) demonstrated that the sig- E
p
when sin–1 ≥ 50 deg (2)
phase alloys and can deal with complex nificantly higher φ values measured using E
M
systems and precipitation sequences. The LEAP tomography can be explained by
MatCalc method accounts for the compo- uncertainty in determining the true Cu
concentration of the Cu-rich precipitates. r
sitional dependence of interfacial energy E ∞ log R
and chemical driving force, which pro- A combination of empirical Cu solubility E P
r log
vides a significant improvement to the data, published precipitate Cu concentra- P = 0 + r (3)
E R R
classical nucleation, growth, and coarsen- tions, and lever law calculations demon- M E∞ log log
ing models when applied to the Fe-Cu sys- strated that for the binary Fe-Cu system M
r r
0 0
tem. The simulations show the expected the expected φ of Cu-rich precipitates for
evolution of the Cu-rich precipitates in NUCu-140 is approximately 0.013, which
terms of average precipitate radius <R>, is in very good agreement with the Mat-
1.77r
number density (Nv), and precipitate vol- Calc prediction of 0.0099. Based on this L= (4)
ume fraction (φ). An example MatCalc analysis (Ref. 12), it was decided that the φ
simulation result for the LH675 sample is MatCalc precipitate parameters would be
presented in Fig. 9. The LH675 sample be- used as input for the strengthening calcu- where G is the shear modulus of the ma-
gins to undergo partial dissolution of the lations (discussed below). trix (77 GPa); b is the Burgers vector (0.25
Cu-rich precipitates at the end of the heat- Using the predicted precipitate param- nm); L is the interprecipitate spacing
ing portion of the HAZ thermal cycle as eters generated using MatCalc, the (Equation 4 ); EP is the dislocation energy
evidenced by the reduction in average pre- strengthening model proposed by Russell in the precipitate; EM is the dislocation en-
cipitate radius <R> and precipitate vol- and Brown (Ref. 23) can be used to esti- ergy in the matrix; EP∞ is the dislocation
as a function of radius for constant volume frac- for the low heat input sample, while the creases with increasing precipitate radius
tions. A — Full scale; B — enlarged view. measured yield strength exhibits a de- for a fixed volume fraction (Fig. 11A) up
crease of approximately 60 MPa. This de- to approximately 1 nm, after which the
viation can be explained as a result of the yield strength is expected to decrease
energy in the precipitate per unit length; partial dissolution and re-precipitation (Ref. 26). This is consistent with a coars-
EM∞ is the dislocation energy in the matrix predicted for the 675°C peak temperature ening phenomenon where the overall pre-
per unit length; r is the radius; r0 is the samples (Fig. 9), as well as how the inter- cipitate strength contribution decreases
inner cut-off radius (2.5 b); R is the outer particle spacing (L) is calculated. L is cal- when the precipitates coarsen past the
cut-off radius (1000r0); and φ is the pre- culated as a function of the average pre- peak aged condition. Figure 11B shows an
cipitate volume fraction. The shear modu- cipitate radius (<R>) and the precipitate enlarged view of Fig. 11A for precipitate
lus of body-centered cubic (bcc) Cu is as- volume fraction (φ) through Equation 4, radii up to 1 nm. The MatCalc-predicted
sumed to be equivalent to that of but does not account for the precipitate low heat input and high heat input precip-
face-centered cubic (fcc) Cu. The ratio of number density directly. This is typically itate parameters are labeled along with
dislocation energy per unit length in the not a problem since all three of these pre- the associated strengthening contribution
precipitate and matrix (EP∞)⁄(EM∞) is ap- cipitate parameters are interrelated. How- predicted by the Russell-Brown model.
proximately 0.6 (Ref. 23). The shear ever, for the case of the 675°C peak tem- The slope of the strength vs. <R> curve
strength in each simulated HAZ region is perature simulated HAZ sample, in the vicinity of the low heat input and
calculated by substituting in the precipi- re-precipitation of new, smaller Cu-rich high heat input precipitate parameters are
tate parameters predicted using the Mat- precipitates is predicted during cooling. 1590 and 2275 MPa/nm, respectively.
Calc simulations (Table 2) and applying a This leads to a bimodal precipitate distri- Note that, within this region, very large
Schmid factor of 2.5 (Ref. 23). The pre- bution where the new, smaller precipitates strength increases are predicted with only
dicted shear strength change is then cal- are not correctly accounted for in the cal- minor increases in precipitate radii for this
culated by comparing the calculated base culation of L. The new precipitates cause model. MatCalc simulations or LEAP to-
metal strength to the calculated strength <R> to decrease significantly, which re- mographic measurements are probably
in each simulated HAZ region. Applica- sults in a calculated L value that is too low not accurate enough to expect valid quan-
tion of the Russell-Brown model does and which leads to a predicted strength titative comparisons with the R-B model
have several limitations which include the value that is too high. at the low end of the <R> range when
assumption that the shear modulus of fcc The measured vs. predicted strength such small variations in precipitate pa-
Cu and bcc Cu have the same value, the change for the LH800 and LH900 samples rameters can cause large differences in the
calculation of L based on radius and pre- exhibit very good quantitative agreement predicted strength. This effect probably
cipitate volume fraction is subject to sig- where there is an almost one-to-one rela- accounts for the disagreement between
nificant error (Ref. 23), and the cut-off ra- tionship between the measured and pre- the measured and calculated strength
dius values are geometric approximations. dicted values. However, the quantitative changes shown in Fig. 10.
However, recent research has demon- agreement breaks down for the high heat
strated that the model provides good input samples. The calculations for the Conclusions
agreement between calculation and ex- high heat input condition accurately re-
periment for similar Fe-Cu based alloys flect that there is little difference between Microstructural evolution and me-
(Ref. 24). This calculation is assumed to the HH800 and HH900 strength levels, chanical properties of simulated heat-
be a valid indicator of the overall strength which was observed experimentally in Fig. affected zones in NUCu-140 steel was in-
change since the matrix microstructure of 7A, but the magnitude of the measured vestigated via light optical microscopy,
the base metal, subcritical HAZ, inter- and predicted strength changes show sig- dilatometry, Gleeble HAZ simulations,
critical HAZ, and fine-grained HAZ re- nificant disagreement. The predicted de- mechanical testing, and modeling tech-
niques. The following conclusions can be lar precipitate parameters and equiaxed zones in NUCu-140 steel. Welding Journal
drawn from this research. ferrite microstructure would be expected 91(2): 53-s to 58-s.
1. Dilatometry experiments over a wide to produce similar strength levels for each 10. Fine, M. E., Ramanathan, R., Vaynman,
range of heating rates show that the Ac1 of these samples. This is consistent with S., and Bhat, S. P. 1993. International Sympo-
sium on Low Carbon Steels for the ‘90s, p. 511.
temperature ranges from 706°C with a the measured mechanical properties 11. Bhadeshia, H. K. D. H., and Honey-
1°C/s heating rate up to 759°C with a where there are only minor variations in combe, R. W. K. 2006. Steels: Microstructure and
1000°C/s heating rate. The Ac3 tempera- the yield strength for these conditions as a Properties. Elsevier, p. 287.
ture exhibits a narrower range of 824° to function of heat input. This indicates that 12. Farren, J. D., Hunter, A. H., DuPont, J.
839°C. NUCu-140 is insensitive to heat input over N., Seidman, D. N., Robino, C. V., and
2. The subcritical, intercritical, and the range of heat inputs (1.5–3.75 kJ/mm) Kozeschnik, E. 2012. Submitted to Metallurgical
fine-grained HAZ regions exhibit an investigated in this study. and Materials Transactions A.
equiaxed ferritic microstructure that is 13. Fuerschbach, P. W., and Eisler, G. R.
very similar to the NUCu-140 base metal Acknowledgments 2002. 6th International Trends in Welding Re-
search Conference Proceedings.
microstructure. The coarse-grained HAZ
14. DuPont, J. N., and Marder, A. R. 1995.
exhibits a predominantly acicular-type The authors gratefully acknowledge fi-
Thermal efficiency of arc welding processes.
matrix microstructure composed of a com- nancial support of this research by the Of- Welding Journal 749(12): 406-s.
bination of acicular ferrite, Widmanstät- fice of Naval Research through Grant 15. Babu, S. S. 2004. Current Opinion in
ten ferrite, bainite, and low-carbon Number N00014-07-1-0331 and useful dis- Solid State and Materials Science 8: 267.
martensite. cussions with the program manager, Dr. 16.Babu, S. S., and Bhadeshia, H. 1992. Ma-
3. Microhardness and tensile testing William Mullins, of the Office of Naval terials Science and Engineering A A156: 1.
results demonstrate that local softening Research. 17. Babu, S. S., and Bhadeshia, H. 1990 Ma-
occurs in the HAZ, with the minimum terials Science and Technology 6: 1005.
18. Babu, S. S., and David, S. A. 2002. ISIJ
strength and hardness occurring in the in- References International 42: 1344.
tercritical and fine-grained HAZ regions. 19. Holzer, I., and Kozeschnik, E. 2010.
The strength loss in these regions is at- 1. Isheim, D., and Seidman, D. N. 2004. Sur- Mater. Sci. Forum 638–642: 2579.
tributed to complete dissolution and only face and Interface Analysis 36: 569. 20. Kozeschnik, E., Svoboda, J., Fratzl, P.,
WELDING RESEARCH
partial re-precipitation of Cu precipitates, 2. Isheim, D., Gagliano, M. S., Fine, M. E., and Fischer, F. D. 2004. Materials Science and
as shown by precipitate simulation. The and Seidman, D. N. 2006. Acta Materialia 54: Engineering A — Structural Materials Properties,
coarse-grained HAZ exhibits a slight re- 841. Microstructure and Processing 385: 157.
covery of strength and hardness as a result 3. Kolli, R. P., and Seidman, D. N. 2007. Mi- 21. Kozeschnik, E. 2008. Scripta Materialia
croscopy and Microanalysis 13: 272. 59: 1018.
of the acicular-type structure that forms in 4. Gagliano, M. S., and Fine, M. E. 2004.
this region. 22. Svoboda, J., Fischer, F. D., Fratzl, P., and
Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A 35A:
4. The Charpy impact energy at –40°C Kozeschnik, E. 2004. Materials Science and En-
2323.
for each HAZ region was equal to or bet- 5. Isheim, D., Kolli, R. P., Fine, M. E., and gineering A — Structural Materials Properties,
ter than the unaffected base metal. This is Seidman, D. N. 2006. Scripta Materialia 55: 35. Microstructure and Processing 385: 166.
consistent with the microhardness and 6. Kolli, R. P., and Seidman, D. N. 2008. Acta 23. Russell, K. C., and Brown, L. M. 1972.
Materialia 56: 2073. Acta Metallurgica 20: 969.
yield strength results, since the HAZ re-
7. Kolli, R. P., Wojes, R. M., Zaucha, S., and 24. Yu, X., Caron, J. L., Babu, S. S., Lippold,
gions exhibited a decrease in J. C., Isheim, D., and Seidman, D. N. 2010. Acta
strength/hardness, which typically pro- Seidman, D. N. 2008. International Journal for
Materials Research (formerly Zeitschrift fur Met- Mater. 58: 5596.
duces an increase in toughness. 25. Deutschman, A. D., Michels, W. J., and
allkunde) 99: 513.
5. Similar values of precipitate radii, 8. Kolli, R. P., and Seidman, D. N. 2011. In- Wilson, C. E. 1975. Machine Design: Theory and
number density, and phase fraction were ternational Journal for Materials Research (for- Practice.
calculated for the 675°, 800°, and 900°C merly Zeitschrift fur Metallkunde). 26. Kolli, R. P., and Seidman, D. N. 2011. In-
peak temperature samples for both low 9. Leister, B. M., and DuPont, J. N. 2012. ternational Journal for Materials Research (for-
and high heat input conditions. The simi- Fracture toughness of simulated heat-affected merly Zeitschrift fur Metallkunde) 102: 1115.
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out pores and cracks can be achieved. Intermetallic Ti-Al phases were detected at the and resulted in incomplete wetting at the
titanium/aluminum-based filler metal in both similar and dissimilar joints. Both joints titanium interface.
fractured after shear strength tests in the area containing this intermetallic compound. The filler metals mostly used for
The titanium/titanium joints achieved a higher shear strength of 64 MPa. Meanwhile, the brazed titanium are silver-based (Refs.
titanium/stainless steel joint obtained 46 MPa. 11–15), titanium-based (Refs. 16–18), and
aluminum-based filler metals (Refs.
Introduction resultant layer has to be removed prior to 19–21). Aluminum-based filler metals
joining because it melts at a much higher have the potential to braze titanium with
Titanium and its alloys exhibit a unique temperature than the base metal (Ref. 4). sufficient properties. Their melting tem-
combination of mechanical and physical Brazing is one of the most inexpensive perature ranges substantially below the
properties as well as corrosion resistance, and convenient methods for joining tita- beta transus, which make them a strong
which make them desirable for several in- nium and titanium to dissimilar metals. competitor to other filler metals. Other
dustrial sectors such as power generation, Joining in a vacuum environment in- useful characteristics include lower densi-
chemical processing, aerospace, and med- creases the cost of production and also re- ties and a good metallurgical compatibil-
ical applications. On the other hand, steel duces the design flexibility (Refs. 5, 6). ity with titanium alloys to be brazed,
and steel alloys represent the most impor- Therefore, vacuum-free joining processes, particularly good wetting and flow in cap-
tant and widely used materials in industrial which are assisted by external mechanical illary gaps. On the other hand, a lower
applications. Gradually, composite struc- energy to disrupt the oxide layer in air, shear strength of titanium brazed joints
tures of dissimilar metals were accepted in have been developed and investigated. using aluminum filler metals can be gen-
national defense and civil industrial fields, Ultrasonic waves have been applied for erated by increasing the overlap area in
such as aeronautics and astronautics, and soldering and brazing aluminum and tita- order to achieve a load-carrying capability
energy and electric power industries. nium in air (Refs. 10–12). Ultrasonic vi- close to that of the base metal (Ref. 22).
Composite components of titanium alloy brations imposed on metal surfaces cause The main purpose of this study is to ex-
and steel can take advantage of these two a high cavitation intensity in the liquid plore and evaluate the preliminary exper-
materials simultaneously. A partial re- filler metal, which disrupts and flakes off iments related to brazing commercially
placement of steel components with tita- surface oxides, thereby allowing the filler pure titanium (CP Ti) and Cp Ti to stain-
nium alloys will become an important way metal to wet the surfaces and form a met- less steel by using an aluminum-based
to reduce the mass of spacecrafts (Refs. allurgical bond. When undermining phe- filler metal (Al2.5Mg-0.3Cr) in open air
1−3). nomena occurred during the interaction, utilizing an ultrasonic-assisted induction
Titanium belongs to a family of metals heating system. The focus is hereby on the
called reactive metals that have a strong interfacial microstructure and strengths of
affinity for oxygen. At room temperature, the joints.
KEYWORDS
titanium reacts with oxygen to form tita-
nium dioxide. This passive, impervious Experimental Work
Titanium
coating resists further interactions with the
surrounding atmosphere, and gives tita- Stainless Steel The base metals used in this work were
nium its famous corrosion resistance. The Brazing 2-mm-thick commercially pure titanium
Ultrasonic (CP Ti) Grade 2 and 2-mm-thick
Joint Microstructure austenitic stainless steel AISI 304. The
A. ELREFAEY, L. WOJARSKI (lukas.wo- chemical compositions of the base metals
Shear Strength
jarski@udo.edu), J. PFEIFFER, and W. TILL-
MANN are with the Institute of Materials Engi-
are presented in Table 1. The stainless
neering, TU Dortman, Dortman, Germany. steel plate was cut into 25 × 25 mm chips,
WELDING RESEARCH
Three samples were used to calculate the
air. This step aimed at achieving the ther- average shear strength. After the shear Figure 4A displays SEM microstruc-
mal equilibrium of the couple. The induc- test, the fracture surfaces were analyzed by ture features of the joint. Obviously a
tion heating system has an output power SEM and EDS analyses. sound joint was obtained since a homoge-
of 15 kW and operating frequency of 13 neous microstructure without voids or
KHz. The sample was then continuously Results and Discussion cracks was observed along the joint. The
heated up to 670°C with a holding time at titanium showed no change in the mi-
this temperature of 3 min. The specimen The characteristic microstructures of crostructure since the brazing temperature
temperature was measured by a K-type the base metals are shown in Fig. 3. The is much lower than the β-Ti transforma-
thermocouple, installed to touch a groove microstructure of the stainless steel is tion temperature. According to the Ti-Al
in the sample as close as possible to the composed of austenitic equiaxed grains binary phase diagram (Ref. 23), the solu-
joining interfaces. The horn was kept out- with annealing twins in the grain interiors. bility of Al in α Ti at the brazing tempera-
side the heating region without preheating Inclusions of the size of several microme- ture is about 8 wt-%. Therefore, the
till the temperature of the samples was ters can also be detected, while the mi- titanium base metal was enriched by alu-
reached, and then it was moved manually crostructure of CP Ti possesses equiaxed minum. The EDX analyses of the titanium
to touch the surface of the sample before α-phase grains. base metal, close to the interfacial-brazed
it started to work. Ultrasonic vibration
with 120-W power at a frequency of 25
kHz was applied for 6 s and propagated in Table 1 — Chemical Composition of Base Metals
a direction perpendicular to brazing sur-
faces. This duration was recommended to
completely destroy the oxide layer (Ref. Materials Wt-%
10). The samples were subjected to an
C Fe Ti Cr Ni Si P N H O
equal pressure of nearly 0.2 MPa, which
was a result of the weight of the horn. The CP Ti 0.02 0.03 Bal. — — — — 0.03 0.01 0.25
average heating rate was 2.3 K/s, and the AISI 304 0.06 Bal. — 17.88 8.52 0.31 0.009 — —
samples were cooled in air to room tem-
perature after brazing.
Selected samples were cut, mounted,
polished, and etched for microscopic eval- Table 3 — Chemical Analyses at Areas
Table 2 — Chemical Analyses at Areas
uation. A light optical microscope and Shown in Fig. 4 Shown in Fig. 7
scanning electron microscope (SEM),
equipped with an energy-dispersive spec- Area Average Chemical Analyses (at.-%) Area Average Chemical Analyses (at.-%)
trometer (EDS), were used to character- Ti Al Mg Cr Ti Al Mg Cr
ize the joints. A metallographic
1 98.76 1.24 — — 1 5.55 91.36 2.96 0.13
examination was carried out on the cross
2 99.61 0.39 — — 2 6.33 90.71 2.85 0.10
section. Hardness measurements were
3 0.37 97.35 2.17 0.11 3 97.09 2.51 0.40 —
performed with the help of a Vickers hard- 4 92.51 6.24 1.25 —
ness testing machine with 25-g load and 4 74.60 21.99 2.41 —
5 61.46 36.58 1.87 0.09 5 69.35 27.53 3.04 0.08
25-s impressing time. Additionally, lap 6 69.97 26.42 3.49 0.12
6 68.70 30.12 1.18 —
shear tests were performed to evaluate the 7 66.70 23.75 9.48 0.07
7 68.63 29.96 1.30 0.11
bonding strength of the specimen as 8 61.06 32.09 6.83 0.02
schematically illustrated in Fig. 2. The test
A B
A B
Fig. 3 — Microstructures of base metals. A — Stainless steel AISI 304; Fig. 4 — SEM microstructure features of the titanium/titanium joint.
B — CP titanium. A — General view of the cross section; B — close-up view at the interfacial
area.
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 5 — Hardness distribution in the titanium/titanium joint. Fig. 6 — Fracture path of the titanium/titanium joint.
area, contained a considerable amount of the layer indicates that it is almost a Ti3Al measured as well. In spite of the formation
titanium as shown in Fig. 4A, Areas 1 and phase — Area 4. This layer has a maxi- of the hard and brittle Ti3Al phase at the
2. Table 2 lists the chemical analyses of all mum thickness of less than 2 μm and is interfacial brazed area, the presence of
phases at the brazed joint. The brazed formed discontinuously at the interface. this phase is preferred to as the TiAl phase
area mainly consists of a solid solution of Owing to the low ductility and toughness since Ti3Al has much better strength and
aluminum dissolving a few percentages of of Ti3Al at room temperature, this phase is ductility than TiAl (Ref. 24).
magnesium, titanium, and chrome (Area continuously crushed during sample The hardness distribution in the joint is
3). It is worth noting that there was no in- preparations for metallographic investiga- shown in Fig. 5. The hardness of the
dication of an oxide layer at the interfacial tions, and hence, scattered to the soft alu- brazed area showed lower values than in
area. Ultrasonic vibration disrupted and minum brazed area. The scattered phase the titanium base metal. Additionally, the
flaked off the surface oxides as was ex- .can be easily detected in the brazed area hardness close to the interfacial area in the
plained in detail by Xu et al. (Ref. 10). as clearly shown in Fig. 4A, Areas 5 and 6, titanium side was higher than in the base
The titanium/aluminum-based brazing and the close-up view in Fig. 4B, Area 7. metal far from the interface, owing to the
interface is planar in nature, and a thin in- Energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) analyses diffusion of aluminum into the base metal.
teraction layer was revealed at the inter- of the scattered Ti3Al reflected more alu- However, the hardness at the interfacial
face area as shown in Fig. 4B. The minum content since the phase is too thin, area, which is expected to present the
stoichiometric ratio between Al and Ti of and its aluminum background area was highest values, could not be assessed due
to the very thin interfacial area.
The fracture shear strength was calcu-
Table 4 — Chemical Analyses at Areas Shown in Fig. 8 lated as the failure load, divided by the
overlap area. The achieved average shear
strength of the joints is 64 MPa with a
Area Average Chemical Analyses (at-%)
standard deviation of ±2.7 MPa. This re-
Ti Al Mg Cr Fe Ni Si sult is comparable or a little lower than re-
1 70.19 22.93 6.00 0.36 0.43 0.09 — sults from our previous work, related to
2 20.19 73.98 3.58 0.67 0.32 0.06 1.20 brazing titanium in a vacuum, using a sil-
3 73.72 19.28 3.85 1.15 0.82 0.08 1.10 ver-based alloy (Ref. 15). The strength of
4 1.94 83.91 4.91 1.31 7.17 0.76 — the joint could be improved by optimizing
5 30.19 63.98 3.58 0.67 0.32 0.06 1.20
the brazing parameters such as the braz-
6 0.19 86.73 — 5.51 5.26 2.31 —
ing temperature, holding time, and ultra-
7 0.99 80.31 0.65 3.19 13.58 1.28 —
8 99.53 0.47 — — — — — sonic time. Figure 6 shows that the joints
9 0.17 2.71 0.20 19.20 68.73 7.77 1.22 failed mainly at the titanium/aluminum-
based filler metal interface owing to the
Brazing of Titanium/Al-2.5Mg-0.3Cr/
Stainless Steel Joint
B C
Figure 8A displays SEM microstruc-
ture features of the joint. It is clear that
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 7 — Fracture morphology of the titanium/titanium joint. A — General view of the fracture surface;
the brazed filler metal wets the titanium
B — close-up view at the surface of aluminum-based filler; C — close-up view at the surface of titanium
and stainless steel base metals well, and no base metal.
defects are observed at the interface. The
brazed area is mainly composed of three
zones. The first zone is the interfacial thin Fig. 9A and B, respectively. Energy-dis- percentages of titanium caused the forma-
reaction layer at the titanium/aluminum- persive X-ray analyses at the interfacial tion of Ti3Al phase only at the interface
based filler metal. Energy-dispersive X-ray area suggest the presence of the three- since titanium has limited solubility in
analyses of this layer showed that it is the phase υ + (Al13Fe4) + (Al) in spite of the molten aluminum. On the other hand,
Ti-Al intermetallic phase, either a Ti3Al or low accuracy of the analyses due to the iron has a high solubility in molten alu-
an Al3Ti or a mix of them — Fig. 8B, minute size of the phases. The three-phase minum and is easily dissolved at the
Areas 1–3. Table 4 lists the chemical analy- are shown in Fig. 8C, Area 6 (grey grains molten stage (Refs. 29, 30). During cool-
ses of areas shown in Fig. 8. It is difficult to of phase υ surrounded by black solid solu- ing, iron has a very low solubility in the
exactly identify the content of this phase tion Al) and Area 7 (Al13Fe4 intermetallic solid state and is therefore present mostly
since it is very thin and fragmented at the phase). as a coarse intermetallic phase in the
interface. The second zone is close to the Similar to the titanium/titanium joint, brazed zone.
previous interaction layer and basically the diffusion of aluminum into the tita- The hardness distribution in the joint is
consists of aluminum-based matrix (Area nium base metal in the titanium/stainless shown in Fig. 10. In contrast to the tita-
4) with fragments of Ti-Al intermetallic steel joint was shown in Fig. 8, Area 8. On nium/titanium joint, the hardness of the
phases (Area 5) separated from the inter- the other side of the joints, the solubility brazed area showed the highest values.
facial area similar to the titanium/Al- of Al in the austenitic matrix is on the The brazed area close to the stainless steel
2.5Mg-0.3Cr/titanium joint. The third order of about 2 to 2.5 wt-% Al. There- side showed the peak hardness in respect
zone is the one close to the stainless fore, EDX analyses detected a few per- to other areas in the brazed zone. It was
steel/aluminum-based filler metal. In this centages of aluminum in the stainless steel also noted that the stainless steel showed a
area, the solubility of iron into the alu- side of the joint — Fig. 8, Area 9. higher average hardness than titanium.
minum is almost zero, which results in a It is to be noted that the size and dis- The average shear strength of the joints
very early interfacial phase formation tribution of intermetallic compounds were achieved 46 MPa with a standard deviation
when iron is dissolved into aluminum. Iron different from the Ti/Ti joint to the of ± 3.1 MPa. The strength was lower than
and chromium diffusion from the stainless Ti/stainless steel joint. The solubility of Ti the titanium/titanium joint, since an Al-Fe
steel side constitute several phases with in aluminum at brazing temperature is al- intermetallic compound was detected in
the aluminum-based filler metal. The most neglected (Ref. 23). Therefore, high the brazed area in addition to Al-Ti. Addi-
isothermal section in the Al-Fe-Cr ternary
phase diagram at 600°C and the partial Table 5 — Chemical Analyses at Areas Shown in Fig. 11
isothermal section at the aluminum-rich
corner (more than 75 at.-% Al) confirm Area Average Chemical Analyses (at.-%)
the existence of three-phase(1) υ +(2) θ +
(Al) and υ + (Al13Fe4) + (Al) (25–28) — Ti Al Mg Cr Ni Fe
1 5.98 85.69 6.16 0.79 0.25 1.13
2 7.58 84.52 3.30 0.59 0.31 3.70
(1) The stoichiometric chemical composition of 3 11.52 75.57 6.91 0.82 0.52 4.66
this phase is Cr10.71 Fe8.68 Al80.61, and it is some- 4 22.52 56.55 18.45 0.53 — 1.95
times called H-CrFeAl.
5 26.77 53.49 16.77 0.78 — 2.19
(2) The stoichiometric chemical composition of
this phase is Cr2Al13 and sometimes called CrAl7 6 31.32 61.01 7.55 0.12 — —
in the literature.
Fig. 10 — Hardness distribution in the titanium/stainless steel joint. Fig. 11 — Fracture path of the titanium/stainless steel joint.
WELDING RESEARCH
2003. Infrared brazing of TiAl using Al-based
brazed alloys. Intermetallics 11: 661–671.
14. Liaw, D. W., and Shiue, R. K. 2005. Braz-
ing of Ti-6Al-4V and niobium using three sil-
ver-based alloys. Metallurgical and Materials
Transactions 36A(9): 2415–2427.
15. Elrefaey, A., and Tillmann, W. 2009. Ef-
fect of brazing parameters on microstructure A C
and mechanical properties of titanium joints.
Journal of Materials Processing Technology
209(10): 4842–4849.
16. Rabinkin, A., Liebermann, H., Pounds,
S., Taylor, J., Reidinger, F., and Siu-Ching, L.
1991. Amorphous Ti-Zr-base Metglas®‚ braz-
ing filler metals. Scripta Metallurgica 25(1):
399–404.
17. Botstein, O., Schwarzman, A., and Ra-
binkin, A. 1996. Induction brazing of Ti-6Al-4V
alloy with amorphous 25Ti-25Zr-50Cu brazing
filler metal. Materials Science and Engineering A
206(1): 14–23.
18. Knepper, P., and Lohwasser, D. 2001. B D
High-temperature brazing of titanium struc-
tures. DVS-Berichte 208: 83–88. Fig. 12 — Fracture morphology of the titanium/stainless steel joint. A — General view of the fracture sur-
19. Wells, R. R. 1975. Low-temperature face at the stainless steel side; B — enlarged view at the fracture surface at the stainless steel side; C —
large area brazing of damage tolerant titanium general view of the fracture surface at the titanium side; D — enlarged view at the fracture surface at the
structures. Welding Journal 54(10): 348-s to titanium side.
356-s.
20. Sohn, W. H., Bong, H. H., and Hong, S.
H. 2003. Microstructure and bonding mecha- and applications of titanium aluminides. Jour- 27. Cornish, L., Saltykov, P., Cacciamani, G.,
nism of Al/Ti joint using Al-10Si-1Mg filler nal of Materials Science 27(19): 5113–5140. and Velikanova, T. 2003. Al-Cr (Aluminum –
metal. Materials Science and Engineering A 25. Materials Science International Team Chromium). MSIT Binary Evaluation Program,
355(1–2): 231–240. MSIT®, and Ghosh, Gautam, Korniyenko, ed. Effenberg, G., MSIT Workplace, Materials
21. Shiue, R. K., Wu, S. K., and Chen, S. Y. Kostyantyn, Sidorko, Vladislav, Velikanova, Science International Services GmbH,
2003. Infrared brazing of TiAl using Al-based Tamara: Al-Cr-Fe (Aluminium-Chromium- Stuttgart, Germany.
brazed alloys. Intermetallics 11: 661–671. Iron). Eds. G. Effenberg and S. Ilyenko. 28. Audier, M., Durand-Charre, M., Laclau,
22. Shapiro, A. E., and Flom, Y. A. 2007. Springer Materials — The Landolt-Börnstein E., and Klein, H. 1995. Phase equilibria in the
Brazing of titanium at temperatures below Database (http://www.springermaterials.com). Al-Cr system. Journal of Alloys and Compounds
800°C: Review and prospective applications. DOI: 10.1007/10915943_30. 220 (1–2): 225–230.
DVS-Berichte 243: 254–267. 26. Mo, Z. M., Zhou, H. Y., and Kuo, K. H. 29. Dybkov, V. I. 1990. Interaction of 18Cr-
23. Baker, H. 1992. Alloy Phase Diagrams. 2000. Structure of υ-Al80.61Cr10.71Fe8.68, a l0Ni stainless steel with liquid aluminum. Jour-
ASM Handbook, ASM International, Materials giant hexagonal approximant of a quasicrystal nal of Material Science 25: 3615 to 3633.
Park, Ohio. determined by a combination of electron mi- 30. Kattner, U. R. 1990. Al-Fe (Aluminum-
24. Froes, F. H., Suryanarayana, C., and croscopy and X-ray diffraction. Acta Crystallo- Iron), Binary Alloy Phase Diagrams, 2nd edition,
Eliezer, D. 1992. Review: Synthesis, properties graphica, Section B 56(3): 392–401. ed. T. B. Massalski 1: 147–149.
WELDING RESEARCH
era are stationary.
analysis and design. Instead of taking real
industrial processes, most of the literature
in this area took certain benchmarks as
control objects, such as the pendulum, joy- geometry of the weld pool has been stud- for the penetration state. The effective-
stick, etc. Besides, those developed mod- ied (Refs. 22–26) as a means of monitor- ness and robustness of the model-based
els tend to be too complex to understand ing and controlling the weld joint penetra- control are evaluated and verified in this
and difficult to apply to the practical con- tion. A vision-based sensing system has paper.
trol systems. been developed to simultaneously meas- Modeling of the human welder re-
In our first study on human welder re- ure the 3D weld pool surface and record sponse is briefly reviewed in the next sec-
sponses (Refs. 18, 19), dynamic models of the responses the human welder made to tion. In the experimental system and
a novice human welder’s behavior were the surface. A dynamic model that corre- methods section, a vision-based sensing
developed. The studied behavior of the lates the welder responses (model out- system is detailed as well as the experi-
welder is focused on the adjustment of puts) to the characteristic parameters ment method for implementation of the
welding current in response to the ob- (model inputs) of the 3D weld pool sur- model. The results of the model-based
served three-dimensional (3D) weld pool face has been established. control is presented and analyzed in the
surface during the complete-joint-pene- This paper is the first of this kind ad- human welder response model control
tration process. The weld pool geometry is dressing implementation of the human section. The human welder response
used as the sensory feedback information welder response model as a controller in model is further improved in the improve-
since it is believed to provide valuable in- the automated GTAW process. In particu- ment of the human welder response
sights into the welding process state. lar, this study focuses on how this model model section. The robustness of the con-
Important information such as weld controls the current to achieve consistent trol using the improved model is then an-
defects and penetration are contained in complete joint penetration under differ- alyzed in the results and analysis of ro-
the surface deformation of the weld pool ent welding parameters. The backside bustness experiments section. The
in the GTAW process (Refs. 20, 21). The weld bead width is used as a measurement conclusion is then given.
Welding Parameters
Root opening/mm/s Arc length/mm Welding speed mm/s Initial welding current/A Argon flow rate/L/min
[0, 5] [2, 5] 1.0 [50, 62] 11.8
Monitoring Parameters
Project angle/deg Laser to weld pool distance/mm Imaging plane to tungsten axis distance/mm
35.5 24.7 101
Camera Parameters
A B
Fig. 3 — Weld pool boundary and parameters. A — 2D boundary; B — longitudinal intercepted area.
WELDING RESEARCH
Table 2 —Welding Parameters Used in
Experiments with Different Initial Currents
A A
WELDING RESEARCH
B B
C C
Fig. 5 — Results from experiment with initial current of 50 A. A — The cur- Fig. 6 — Results from experiment with initial current of 54 A. A — The cur-
rent and voltage; B — the backside weld bead width; C — the backside weld rent and voltage; B — the backside weld bead width; C — the backside weld
bead (the unit of x and y axis is pixel). bead (the unit of x and y axis is pixel).
Experimental Setup
A B
C D
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 8 — Current and voltage of the experiments. A — Initial current of 50 A; B — initial current of 54 A; C — initial current of 58 A; D — initial current of 62 A.
C
WELDING RESEARCH
D
Fig. 9 — The backside appearance of the weld bead. A — Initial current of 50 Fig. 10 — The backside width of weld beads with a different initial current.
A; B — initial current of 54 A; C — initial current of 58 A; D — initial current
of 62 A.
With specific welding conditions and ini- mates an initial welding current to start a rent quickly and accurately to maintain
tial current, the welding process is able to manual welding operation. The past expe- uniform penetration, or produce an un-
reach to complete joint penetration. Yet, rience-based estimation might vary within qualified weld with a same failure pattern.
the dimension of the weld pool at com- a reasonable range. Also, the arc length Therefore, to verify the effectiveness of
plete joint penetration in each experiment maintained by the welder might not always the model is to check if it is able to control
is expected to be different. Then the ex- be the same during manual welding, as the welding process to a comparatively
periment is manually switched to control well as the root opening. The welding consistent penetration, i.e., the backside
mode, that is, to apply the human welder speed, on the other hand, does not change width of the weld bead under different
response model to control the process. much when controlled by the welder, al- welding conditions and initial current can
Specifically, the model adjusts the welding though it might vary within a small range. converge to a constant within a small vari-
current based on the geometry of the 3D The welding speed is constant for the ex- ation margin.
weld pool surface such that the adjusted periments in this study. The welder’s be- There are several types of relevant data
welding current controls the process to ob- havior under large welding speed varia- in this study. For the process, such data in-
tain a desired penetration that is evaluated tion is the authors’ future work and clude welding current, arc length, and
by the backside weld bead width. After beyond the scope of the first study of this welding speed. Since the human welder
each experiment, the width of the ob- kind. response model under this specific study
tained backside weld bead is measured to As presented in the introduction, the controls the welding process only by ad-
verify the effectiveness of the human response model is developed based on the justing the welding current, such data are
welder response model-based control. behavior of a human welder with limited especially concerned with analyzing the
The experimental parameters used skills. Given the physical limitation as a performance of the control. Second, for
here are listed in Table 1. The pipe used in human, the welder might feel stress, fa- the weld pool surface, the data include all
this study is 4-in. nom. stainless T- tigue, and lack of concentration in manual its characteristic parameters, i.e., the
304/304L Schedule 5. welding. Because of the possible inconsis- length, width, and convexity. Studying the
The initial current is in 50, 62 A, the arc tent welding behavior, the welder’s re- current adjustment and variation in the
length varies within 2, 5 mm, and the joint sponse data used to develop the model characteristic parameters can reveal how
opening changes from 0 to 5 mm. The ro- cannot represent the prime performance the model controls the welding process. At
tation speed of the pipe, i.e., the welding of the welder. In this sense, the model is last for the weld bead, the backside width
speed and up-down motion of the torch only able to present an average perform- is the major data of interest.
are controlled by the computer to achieve ance of the human welder. All these data, except the backside
the required welding speed and arc length. However, the control based on the weld bead width, are acquired/recorded in
The effectiveness and robustness of the human response model should be able to real time. The backside bead width is
human welder response model-based con- get rid of the inconsistency, which is a measured with one sample/s interval off-
trol will be evaluated against those weld- major issue with manual welding. The line. For example, if the welding speed in
ing parameter variations in this paper. model is expected to either consistently one experiment is 1 mm/s, then the bead
As mentioned before, a welder esti- produce a good weld by adjusting the cur- width is measured every 1 mm while it is
A B
WELDING RESEARCH
C D
Fig. 11 — Current and voltage from arc length robustness experiments. A — Arc length of 2 mm; B — arc length of 3 mm; C — arc length of 4 mm; D — arc
length of 5 mm.
measured every 1.5 mm if the welding The data acquisition starts before the be determined as shown by the red verti-
speed is 1.5 mm/s, etc. In this sense, the welding process begins. It is found that at cal line in the middle of Fig. 5C.
bead width measurement can be matched the beginning of the two experiments, By the start position of the model con-
with the time scale for other types of data. there are about 13-s (shown in Fig. 5A) trol, each of the weld beads in the two ex-
and 12-s (shown in Fig. 6A) periods dur- periments is divided into two zones as
Human Welder Response ing which the current is 0, and the voltage shown in Figs. 5C and 6C. In zone A, the
Model Control is the open-circuit one at approximately backside bead width is determined by the
70 V. welding conditions used and initial cur-
In this section, the results from the ex- The red vertical dash line in Fig. 5A in- rent. In the first experiment, the initial
periments with initial current are pre- dicates the time instant when the process current is 50 A. The average width of the
sented and analyzed. As the first time to is switched to the model-based control backside bead in this zone, shown in Fig.
implement the human welder response mode, i.e., the human welder response 5B, is about 1.7 mm. With a greater initial
model-based control, we focused on how model is applied to adjust the current current (54 A) in the second experiment,
the model controls the process to consis- based on the 3D weld pool surface. From the average width becomes 3.2 mm in zone
tent complete joint penetration. Major the figure, the control begins at 40 s and A as can be seen in Fig. 6B. In zone B, the
welding parameters used in the experi- ends at approximately 96 s. The length of human welder response model starts to
ments are listed in Table 2; the rest are the the weld bead obtained in this period can control the process for a desired and con-
same as in Table 1. be easily calculated using the known weld- sistent penetration. Despite the fluctua-
Results from the two experiments, in- ing speed. Since the position of the end of tion, the average width for the first exper-
cluding the current, backside bead ap- the welding is clearly seen in Fig. 5C, the iment, shown in Fig. 5B as about 4.8 mm,
pearance, and its width, are presented in position where the welding process begins and that in the second experiment, shown
Figs. 5 and 6, respectively. to be controlled on the produced weld can in Fig. 6B as about 4.7 mm, are considered
Fig. 13 — The backside width of weld beads from arc length robustness exper-
iments.
C
WELDING RESEARCH
is analyzed. In the next subsection, the s difference, despite
arc length changes from 2 to 5 mm in the the difference in the
conducted experiments. The root open- initial current used. As
ing is designed to vary from 0 to 5 mm in discussed in the D
the last subsection. human welder re-
sponse model section
Robustness with Respect to Initial Current under the principle of Fig. 14 — Front side of the weld joint before experiment for root opening ro-
bustness experiments. A — 0 nominal root opening; B — 2-mm nominal
human welder’s be- root opening; C — nominal root opening increases from 0 to 5 mm (0.21
Experiments with different initial havior, a welder would in.); D — close review of the wide opening for marked area in C.
welding currents are conducted again but start to weld with an
with the improved control system. Since optimally estimated
the purpose is to examine the effective- initial current (initial
ness of the improved control, more initial welding parameters) tween the welding current and backside
currents (Table 3) in a greater range are based on past experiences. A skilled welder bead width is understandable. There are
used to examine the system’s robustness might adjust the initial current close to the two dynamic processes involved, and each
against the initial current used. The results steady-state current that produces a desired of them has a settling time. First, after the
are shown in Figs. 8 to 10. Figure 8 shows penetration. The effect from the transition current settles down reaching its steady
the current and voltage from these four ex- period on the result then can be minimized. state, the weld pool surface will take an ad-
periments; the backside weld beads ob- An unskilled welder, on the other hand, ditional transition period to reach the cor-
tained are demonstrated in Fig. 9; and the might not be able to predict the initial cur- responding dimension. The first dynamic
measurements of the backside width of rent close to a current that leads to the de- process is the transfer from the welding
the weld beads are presented in Fig. 10. sired penetration. current (parameters) to the weld pool sur-
Since the initial welding current deter- The transition period for the backside face. Second, after the 3D weld pool sur-
mines the backside width of weld bead in weld bead is different such that the settling face (front side) is settled down and
zone A, with different initial currents, the time for the backside bead width differs reaches its steady state, the 3D weld pool
obtained weld beads have different back- from that of the welding current. From surface on the backside that determines
side widths. Specifically, the backside Fig. 8C and D, the initial current is close the backside bead width will take extra
bead width in the experiment with the ini- enough to the steady-state current. There- time to reach its corresponding steady
tial current 50 A is 3.2 mm; with greater fore, the width of the backside bead in state. The transition period associated
initial current (54 A) in the second exper- each of the two experiments only increases with the backside width of weld bead is
iment, the backside width is 3.7 mm; the about 0.2 mm after the control is applied longer than the transition time of the
backside width obtained in the third ex- as shown in Fig. 10. The effect from the welding current.
periment (initial current 58 A) and fourth settling time on the welds produced for Figure 8 shows the steady-state current
(initial current 62 A) are 4.7 and 5 mm. these two experiments is negligible. How- corresponding to the penetration ob-
The settling time (set the error margin ever, the settling time for the backside tained by the human welder response
5%) (Ref. 30) for the process to achieve the bead width observed from the experi- model varies from 59.5 to 61.5 A. And the
steady state is in the range from 3.5 to 4.5 s. ments with an initial current of 50 and 54 steady-state width of the obtained weld
For the experiment with an initial current of A is about 13 and 10 s, respectively. The beads, shown in Fig. 10, converges within
62 A, the steady-state current is only about backside weld beads take a longer time the range from 5.0 to 5.3 mm in zone B. A
0.5 A less than the initial current. The tran- than the welding current to reach the 0.3-mm deviation in the backside bead
sition period is negligible from Fig. 8D. Be- steady state. width is considered acceptable. It is known
sides that, the settling times of the other ex- The difference in the settling time be- that the weld pool is dynamic and vibrat-
A B
WELDING RESEARCH
The welding process is close to those in the 5 mm (0.21 in.).
results and analysis of robustness experi-
ments section under robustness with re-
spect to initial current and robustness with pool surface for maintaining consistent, will be analyzed and used to help train and
respect to arc length. Therefore, the complete joint penetration in GTAW. improve less skilled welders.
steady-state current (63 A) is close to the The effectiveness and robustness of the
resultant steady-state current obtained in human welder response model-based con- Acknowledgments
the last two subsections. However, as the trol are verified in the experiments with
root opening increases, the weld pool sur- different welding conditions and the ini- This work is funded by the National Sci-
face tends to be more concave, which tial current. The material used in the ex- ence Foundation under grant CMMI-
means the convexity of the weld pool is periments is stainless steel pipe (4-in. 0927707. We wish to thank Yi Lu and
smaller. The current adjustment con- nom. stainless T-304/304L Schedule 5). Yukang Liu for their assistance on experi-
trolled by the human welder response For the initial conditions, the current ments and graphics, and Lee Kvidahl for his
model (Equation 3) tends to be smaller ac- varies from 50 to 62 A, arc length is within technical guidance on manual pipe welding.
cordingly. The penetration capability of [2, 5 mm], and the root opening changes
the arc also increases with the opening. from 0 to 5 mm. References
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