SOCIOLOGY

AND
ANTHROPOLOGY
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1: SOCIOLOGY AND ANTHROPLOGY

CHAPTER 2: APPROACH, PERSPECTIVE, AND METHODS IN SOCIOLOGY

CHAPTER 3: THE HUMAN RACE

CHAPTER 4: CONCEPT OF CULTURE

CHAPTER 5:

CHAPTER 6: CULTURAL HERITAGE

CHAPTER 7: SOCIAL ORGANIZATION AND SOCIAL SYSTEM
CHAPTER 8: SOCIAL STRUCTURE AND PROCESSES
CHAPTER 9: POPULATION EDUCATION AND HUMAN ECOLOGICAL SYSTEM

CHAPTER 10: FAMILIAL INSTITUTION

CHAPTER 11: EDUCATIONAL AND RELIGIOUS INSTITUTION

CHAPTER 12: POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC INSTITUTION
 CHAPTER 1

SOCIOLOGY AND ANTHROPLOGY

Introduction to sociology and anthropology

Sociology- scientific study of society

- From Latin word socius (associate companion) and the Greek word logos (study)

Anthropology- scientific study of humanity or those aspects that makes us human and the imprints
of human achievement and progress.

- From Greek word Anthropos (man) and logos (study)

Science- from Latin word scire (to know) which is systematized body of knowledge based on facts.

Pseudoscience- from the Greek word pseudus (untrue, erroneous, deceitful) regarded as a false in
the sense that it does not adhere to the essence of the definition of science in terms of orientation
of scientific attitudes; the employment of scientific methods, application of scientific principles,
and validation of facts.

Scientific law- is a tried, tested, and proven prevailing fact that is undisputable, unbreakable, and
unchangeable in all similar conditions that it has been tested under.

Theories- are developed rationalized explanations in an attempt to understand and explain the
occurrence of a phenomenon or the emergence of an outcome.

Hypothesis- is a conditional assumption, not a claim of generalization.

Scientific research- conducted by employing systematic research methods to gather information

for analysis and interpretation

Social science- is a division of science that deals with the scientific study of man in all aspects.

Other social sciences are:

1. Political science-from Greek Word “Polis” means city-state.

- a scientific study of the state and politics which deals with the nature, principles and
mechanics of rule, authority, power, and influence.

-Aristotle- “father of political Science”

2. Economics- from Greek Word “oikonomos” means household management

 -it deals with the proper allocation and utilization of resources directed towards the
maximum satisfaction of human wants.

Adam Smith – father of economics”

3. History- from Greek Word “istoria” means knowing by inquiry.

 It is the systematic inquiry of man’s recorded past for the purpose of establishing causal
relationships, validating historical facts, and reconstruction of chronological events.
 Herodotus- father of history

4. Psychology-from Greek word “psyche” (soul) and “logos” (study)

 It is a scientific study of human behavior as influenced by his state of mind, mental
development, and emotional response.
 Sigmund Freud- father of psychology

Relationship of Sociology and Anthropology

Society- is the association organized by men who share a culture within a territory.

Anthropology helps by providing insights into strange aspects of past or even present societies
which to historians and sociologist find them difficult to comprehend and explain such as conflict
and violence, trial by ordeal, superstition and witchcraft, fashion, myths, and legends, and rituals
concerning rites of passage, courtship and marriage, human sacrifice, and others.

Sociology on the other hand aids in the study of how group interests and expectations develop a
kind of culture and how social institutions regulate way of life.

Relevance of sociology and Anthropology

Knowledge of social forces enables man to have control over those forces. Sociologist and
anthropologists study society and humanity in order to:

1.Explain social phenomena by understanding social interactions and the interplay of

socio-cultural, political, and economic factors.

2. Resolve social problems and improve human conditions by analyzing sociocultural

issues, social policy-making and guiding socio-cultural changes.

3.Determine socio-cultural trends and outcomes by analyzing and interpreting data

pertaining to social conditions and situations.
 4. Allow for better socio-cultural integration by understanding cultural differences, cultural
meaning, and social relationships.

5. Acquire a personal understanding of our social roles and functions in relation to others
in society and how society affects us.

Scope of Sociology and anthropology

The main concern of Sociology:

 Social institutions
 Social life
 Community living
 Human interaction
 Group integration
 Dynamics
 Social roles and functions
 Social hierarchy
 Interrelationships
 Interdependence of men that give rise to social structure and a social system
 Processes that lead to social change

The main concern of Anthropology:

To understand the diversity and dispersion of human beings from standpoint of cultural
differences.

Divisions of Sociology and Anthropology

Seven areas of concentration in Sociology

1. Social organization- this are deals with social institutions, social stratification and mobility,
social groups and social relationships.
2. Social Psychology- focuses on collective and deviant behavior, socialization and social
influencez on personality.
3. Social change- this are studies the underlying principles, processes and dynamics of social
change and its social implications.
4. Human ecology- deals with the relationship and integration of human population with the
natural environment
5. Population studies or demography- study of characteristics and growth of a population
with and its social implications.
 6. Social theory and method- the area in which social theories are formulated and advanced
for explaining social phenomena and for useful applications.
7. Applied sociology- involve the utilization of sociological research in solving social problems
and improving social conditions.

Four fields of discipline in anthropology

1. Physical anthropology- study of human species

2. Cultural anthropology- study of culture
3. Archaeology- study of past human settlements and cultures
4. Linguistics- study of language

Development and Forerunners of sociology and Anthropology

Henri de Saint-Simon (1760-1825) – a Frenchman whose socialist ideas made him the founder of
French socialism. Believed that social life is governed by laws of social organization which can be
discovered through science that should guide society towards reforms, progress and stability.

Forerunners of Sociology:

 Auguste comte (1798-1857)- a freshman who coined the term sociology and advocated
the application of scientific method to social life and positivism or the use of empirical
investigation in order to uncover laws that govern society. He is regarded as the “father of
Sociology”
 Harrier Martineau (1802-1876)- an Englishwoman who translated works of Auguste Comte
and wrote the first methodological treatises in sociology through her systematic and
comparative observation of societies and feminist views. She is regarded as the “First
Woman sociologist”
 Karl Marx (1818-1883)- a German who postulated “economic determinism” which held
that the economy had a lot to do with social structure.
 Herbert Spencer (1820-1903)- an Englishman who first coined the phrase “survival of the
fittest” in applying evolutionary theory in understanding and explaining society.
 Ferdinand Tonnies (1855-1936) – a German who produced the first systematic sociological
account of the evolution of society from ancient to modern.
 Thornstein Veblen (1857-1929)- a Norwegian who introduced the term phrase
“conspicuous consumption” with reference to consumption undertaken to make a
statement to others about one’s class or accomplishments. He asserted the relevance of
socio-cultural factors in economic behavior.
  Emile Durkheim (1858-1917)- a Frenchman who established sociology as an academic
discipline by having founded and chaired the first European department of sociology
in1895 at the University of Bordeaux in France.
 Georg simmel (1858-1919) – a German who conceptualized society being made up of a
web of ‘PATTERNED INTERACTION” that human interaction should be studied in its form.
 Max Weber (1864-1920) – a German whose concentration of study is on the sociology of
religion and the bureaucracy. He directed sociology toward the study of social action and
its course and consequences by examining the subjective meanings of the intended actions
of people.
 Pitirim Sorokin 91889-1968) – a Russian who adopted “integralism” in sociology by uniting
science, philosophy and religion. He pioneered studies in “social mobility” or the
movement of individuals in the social structure.
 Talcott Parsons (1902-2003) an American who developed a general theory of social action
drawing on the disciplines of the social sciences and reinterpreting previous theories.
 Robert Merton (1910-2003)- an American established sociology of science as a scientific
discipline. He introduced the concepts of “unintended consequences”, “reference group”
and “role strain” he also introduced the terms “role model” and “self-fulfilling prophecy”

Forerunners in the development and advancement of anthropology:

 Johann friedrich Blumenbach (1752-1840) – a German physician who laid foundation of

Anthropology as a scientific discipline. He divided human race into five racial group and
asserted that human physical characteristics were dependent on geography, nutrition, and
customs.
 Lewis henry Morgan (1818-1881)- An American cultural anthropologist whose studies
kinship led him to develop a theory of cultural evolution and produced the first major
scientific account of the origin and evolution of civilization.
 Edward Burnett Tylor (1832-1917) – an English anthropologist who is regarded as the
“father of Anthropology” being the founder of cultural anthropology and the first to hold
the chair in the subject at Oxford university in UK in 1896.
 William Graham Sumner (1840-1910) – an American economist and cultural
anthropologist who introduced the terms “folkways” “mores” and “ethnocentrism” in
socio-cultural anthropology.
 Franz Boas ( 1858-1942) – a German American cultural anthropologist who advocated
participant observation in field work research and asserted that each culture had to be
understood within context.
 Ruth Benedict 91877-1948)- an American cultural anthropologist who pioneered the
application of anthropology on studying aspects of advanced societies and became the first
woman professor in anthropology.
 Alfred Reginald Radcliffe-brown (1881-1955) – an English social anthropologist who
developed the theory of “structural functionalism” with reference to the social structure
of primitive civilizations.
 CHAPTER 2

APPROACH, PERSPECTIVE, AND METHODS IN SOCIOLOGY

Sociological Imagination (Charles W. Mills)- quality of the mind which allows one to grasp history
and biography and the relations between the two in the society.

The three components that make up the questions in sociological imagination are:

1. Social structure- the relationship of components in the social order and the meaning drawn
out of its features.
2. History- society’s place in human history and the mechanics by which it is changing.
3. Biography- the varieties of men prevailing in society at a certain period and the ways they
are selected and formed.

In social imagination, we use our thinking instead of complaining about our personal problems and
predicament. We can only piece together the puzzle of our life’s experiences an situation when
we stop thinking ourselves and start thinking beyond ourselves. Thinking comes in four ways:

1. Factual thinking- one seeks out facts of his life and notes down the details of WHAT is
descriptively noticeable of his situation.
2. Creative thinking- one visualizes the possible ways that reality could hypothetically exists
or might have existed IF given the conditions.
3. Rational thinking- one figures out logically HOW the pieces of the facts fit in the situation.
4. Evaluative thinking- one assesses his choices and determines as to WHY he chooses one
over the other.

Sociological Perspective

- Refers to the way of looking at and understanding the social world which entails the
following:
 Seeing the general in the particular.
 Seeing the strange in the familiar.
 Seeing personal choice in social context.
 Seeing social marginality.
 Seeing society in a global perspective.

“Things are not what they seem” – Austrian-American sociologist Peter Berger.
 -this is why we must look behind the scenes and multi-levels of social life and it is where
sociological perspective takes place.

Rules of sociological Method

In 1895, Emile Durkeim published Les Regles de la Methode sociologiques ( rules of the sociological
method), in his book, Durkheim legitimizes the discipline of sociology in recognition that there are
certain approaches and concepts belonging to sociology.

Social fact- is every way of acting, whether fixed or not, capable of exercising on the individual an
external constraint; or again. Every way of acting which is general throughout a given society, while
at the same time existing in its own right independent of its individual manifestations.

Characteristics of social facts:

 External to the individual

 Constrain the individual
 General throughout a give society

Research methods in sociology and anthropology

Research is essential to every field of study and professional practice because it extends
and verifies the knowledge we possess and find practical application for it to solve or improve a
situation or condition.

William Whewell (1794-1866)- who first gave the name “scientist”.

Scientific research (Fred N. Kerlinger) – is a systematic, controlled, empirical, and critical

investigation of a phenomenon.

Methods of sociological and anthropological research

1. Ethnographic method- the participant researcher mainly conducts first-hand observation

and immersion in human activities in a particular socio-cultural setting for the purpose of
gaining an up-close and personal familiarity and understanding of the subjects being
studied.
2. Case study- this research involves extensive and in-depth documentation and analysis of a
specific subject in focus at a smaller scale which is mainly conducted by interview of
informants, ocular inspection of a location, and the comparison and analysis of available
literature and databases.
3. Descriptive method- the method mainly involves the systematic collection and analytic
processing of statistical data by conducting a survey of a sample size of respondents in
order to accurately describe present existing socio-cultural condition or situation.
 4. Historical method- it entails the reconstruction of events by piecing together evidences of
the past and examining reliable records in order to trace and explain the development or
transformation of a socio-cultural situation, group or community.

Hawthorne effect (Henry A. Landsberger)- the researcher must be wary of the artificial and
superficial response and behavior of their subjects being studied caused by a feeling of
awkwardness, self-consciousness, and suspicious awareness brought about the presence of the
researcher.
 CHAPTER 3

THE HUMAN RACE

Overview of Man

Philosophical Anthropology – study of nature and condition of man gives us an overview of man
as:

1. Cultural Being. Man is a product of culture from which he makes out of his perception
and experiences in the environment that he adapts to.

2. Social Being. Man is gratified to be among his kind and forges relations with his fellow
men that establishes groups, communities and societies for interdependence and
companionship.

3. Rational Being. Man is a rational animal. He is rational rather than instinctive.

4. Spiritual Being. Man is union of body and soul.

5. Moral Being. Man has sense of goodness able to distinguish right from wrong.

6. Natural Being. Man is product of nature.

Evolution of Man

Evolution – natural process of biological changes occurring in a population across

successive generations.

Population – refer to total number of species living in a particular geographic area.

Genes – responsible for the encoded transmission of biological characteristics and

potentials.

The concept of specie may be viewed in several ways, 3 of which may apply:

1. Morphological Species Concept. Members of a species are individuals that appear

anatomically similar to one another.

2. Biological Species Concept. Groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural

populations

3. Phylogenetic Species Concept. The smallest diagnosable cluster of individual organism

Mechanisms in Evolution
 1. Mutation. Spontaneous or induced change or alteration in the DNA

2. Genetic Drift. Change in gene pool trending to affect a small isolated population which
occurs by chance

3. Gene Flow. Migrating species interbreed with a population and thus adding their gene
pool of the new population.

4. Natural Selection. The environmental subject to the survival of the fittest

Species Formation

1. Speciation or Cladogenesis. Splitting of a lineage into two.

2. Phyletic Change or Anagenesis. Evolution occurring within a lineage

Human Ancestry

Physical Anthropology – branch of biology that studies heredity which is the science of
genetics and paleontology.

Homo – genus of modern humans and the first group that came out of Africa to other
parts of the world.

1. Homo habilis

2. Home rudolfensis

3. Homo erectus

4. Homo heidelbergenesis.

5. Homo floresiensis

6. Homo Sapiens.

6.1 Homo Sapiens Neanderthalensis.

6.2 Homo Sapiens Sapiens.

Race and Ethnicity

1. Race – refers to genetic variation among human groups

2. Ethnicity – refers to cultural differences among groups of people

2.1 Monogenism – belief that all humans are part of the same species
 2.2 Polygenism – belief that human races come from different lineages

Classification of the Human Beings

1. kingdom: Animalia (animals)

2. Phylum: Chordata (chordates)

3. Subphylum: Vertebrata (vertebrates)

4. Class: Mammalia (mammals)

5. Order: Primates

6. Family: Hominoidea (hominids)

7. Genus: Homo

8. Species: sapiens

4 varieties of human species

1. Homo sapiens Eoropeus albescens (white people from Europe)

2. Homo sapiens Americanus rubescens (red people from the Americas)

3. Homo sapiens Asiaticus focus (dark people from Asian)

4. Homo sapiens Africanus negrus (black people from Africa)

Johan Friedrich Blumenbach laid the foundations of physical anthropology base his
classification of human races on comparative anatomy of human skull:

1. Caucasian (white race)

2. Mongolian (yellow race)

3. Malay (brown race)

4. Ethiopian (black race)

5. American (red race)

Peopling of the World

1. Out-of-Africa Model: Modern humans evolved in linear progression from Africa and
made their way out of continent spreading to other parts of the world displacing and
replacing earlier homo species.

2. Multi-Regional Model. Human evolution was diverse and simultaneous in different

regional parts of the world.

Emergence of Civilization and Civilized Man

Civilization – derived from the Latin word civitas which translates to city.

Nomads or wanderers – people roamed the face of the earth because they were in
constant move searching for food and resources. These people found settlement along
rivers for the following reasons:

1. Fertile Soil. Rivers wash and deposit minerals to the soil making it a fertile
ground for cultivation suitable for agriculture.

2. Provisions. River is source of fresh drinkable water, irrigation of crops and foods
such as fishes.

3. Transport system. People get to one place to another via river transportation
such as rafts or boats which is faster compared to walking.

4. Trading channel. Rivers extend out to open sea which allows foreigners from
other distant place to establish contact and trade with local people.

5. Sanitation. People depend on rivers for bathing, washing, and cleaning.

Society – is a geographical territory wherin people interact and share a culture.

 CHAPTER 4

CONCEPT OF CULTURE

Culture

o that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, law, morals, custom and
any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. Edward
B. Taylor
o Refers to the totality of what man has learned as a member of society.

3 layers of culture in society

1. Culture Universals
- pertain to cultural elements, patterns, practices or activities that are common and
similar across cultures.
2. Mainstream Culture
- cultural system of society or general prevailing culture which differentiates
societies apart such as Filipino values, traits, cuisine and national costume.
3. Subculture
- unique to respective particular groups of people in society that identifies and
distinguishes them from the rest.
Elements of Culture
1. Knowledge – refers to any received and perceived to be true
2. Beliefs – the perception of accepted reality. Reality refers to the existence of things
whether material or non-material but not imaginary.
3. Social Norms – established expectations of society as to how a person is supposed to act
depending on the requirements of the time, place or situation.
Taboo - a social practice that society regards as socially objectionable, unacceptable and
prohibited.
The following constitute social norms which are sources or basis of society’s behavioural
expectations:
3.1 Folkways - patterns of repetitive behaviour which become habitual and
conventional part or living. Included therin are customs and traditions.
3.2 Mores – set of ethical standards and moral obligations as dictates of reason
that distinguishes human acts as right or wrong or good from bad.
3.3 Laws – Set off binding rules or measures that induce man to act or restrain him
from acting. Laws maybe customary o written.
4. Values – anything held to be relatively worthy, important, desirable, or valuable.
5. Technology – practical application of knowledge in converting raw materials into finished
products.

Value System and Orientation

1. Extensiveness – a certain value is recognized by a significantly large portion of the
population
2. Duration – a certain value has been determined to be consistently and persistently held
and practiced over a significantly long span of time.
3. Intensity - a certain value is regarded and upheld with a high degree of demanding
importance.
4. Prestige of its carrier – The person who exemplifies a certain value is worthy of
admiration and emulation.

5 types of Social Value Orientation

1. Altruistic – individuals choose to select distributions of payoffs which favour their peers
regardless of the payoff to themselves, thus maximizing the outcomes for other persons.
2. Cooperative – Individuals select distributions of payoffs which maximize the total payoff
to themselves and their peers thus maximizing outcomes that is beneficial for both off
them.
3. Individualistic – individuals always select the distributions of payoffs for which they
receive the greatest return and the best outcomes for him without concern towards other
persons.
4. Competitive – Individuals select distributions of payoffs for which the difference
between their own returns and their peer’s returns are maximized with advantageous
outcomes against the disadvantage of others.
5. Aggressive – Individuals will always select the distribution of payoffs for which their peer
receives the lowest return, thus minimizing the beneficial outcomes of other persons.

Cyberculture
Internet – system of interconnected computer networks that use the standard internet
protocol.
Cyberspace – virtual space in the internet has generated a new and different environment
apart from the physical world so a new culture has emerged called cyberculture.

Some online behaviour that netiquette disapproves are:

 1. Spamming – sending of unsolicited or unsubscribes commercial email especially to
anonymous recipients.
2. Flooding – consist of successive repetition of messages or filling an entire message area
with gibberish
3. Shouting – use of all-caps or capital letters in all typed words indicates shouting
4. Flaming – an activity whereby an online user expresses a strongly held opinion without
holding back any emotion

Characteristics and Functions of Culture

1. Learnable – culture is cumulatively learned.
2. Transmittable – culture influences others attitude, habits and behaviour through
language, social contacts and interactions.
3. Universal – culture is shared in common by members of a society which prescribes
expectations on everybody.
4. Dynamic – Culture changes over time as people respond to challenges and adapt to
situations and environments.
5. Diverse – Culture varies among groups of people and places.

Important Role of Culture

1. Adaptation - culture makes it possible for man to adapt and integrate himself to his
environment by being creative and resourceful in coming up with ways and means of
survival.
2. Behavioral – culture establishes patterns of acceptable social behavior such as etiquette,
protocols, good manners and right conduct, roles and duties.
3. Communication – culture conveys and facilitates meanings through verbal and non-
verbal communication
4. Material – Culture produces man made things such as clothing, tools, instruments,
macines, etc
5. Utilitarian – Culture contributes to overall human satisfaction

Cultural Variation and Perception

3 view points by which we perceive cultural variation

1. Cultural Relativisim – This view culture as relative; meaning culture only has meaning
when taken into context.

2. Ethnocentrism – perception and assumption through comparison that one’s own culture
is far more advanced or superior to another.
 3. Xenocentrism – the perception that one’s own culture is comparatively inferior to
others.

Theoretical Perspective on Culture

1. Unilineal Evolution – new cultural forms emerge from older ones that pass through
similar stages or degrees of development.

Example: Animism to polytheism to monotheism.

2. Cultural Diffusionism – Cultures originated from one or several culture centers which
spreads and results in borrowing of some elements of the introduces culture.

Example: Westernization in former Asian Colonies.

4 types of cultural diffusion can be noted:

1. Expansion – cultural elements which remain at original source spread outward

spanning regions which are adopted by people thereto.

2. Relocation – Culture elements leave its origin and brought to place by migrating
people.

3. Hierarchical – Cultural elements from higher degree of cultural achievement

disperse and impose to that which has lower.

4. Contagious – Cultural elements are transmitted from person to person through

exposure and influence and transmitted thereon to another within a population
group.

3. Historical Particularism – each group of people has their own unique culture which
developed independently and influenced by local history, geography and environment.

Example: Superstitious beliefs developed base on encountered good and bad experiences.

4. Anthropological Functionalism – Cultural elements and practices are interrelated and

interdependent as a complex whole.

3 fundamental and universal needs of man

1. Primary needs – refer to biological needs such as nourishment and procreation

2. Instrumental Needs – Refer to those institutions such as educational, political, economic

3. Integrative Needs – Refer to activities and practices that allow and enable individuals to
collectively cohere such as religion, magic, rituals, play.
 Basic Needs Cultural Responses
Metabolism Commissariat
Reproduction kinship
Bodily Comforts Shelter
Safety Protection
Movement Activities
Growth Training
Health Hygiene
5. Anthropological Structuralism – Cultural practices and phenomena can be analysed via
a system of signs between the signifier and signified expressed in binary oppositions by
which humans organize and structure their experiences.
Example: subject-object
Sender-receiver
Good-evil
6. Cultural Materialism – The level of technological advancement, availability of resources,
and economic value of material things and utilitarian benefits of a thing determine or
influence culture

1. Infrastructure – the technological and behavior ways by which human adapt to

their environment and produce their survival requirements.

1.1 Modes of Production – consist of ways and means of satisfying the

requirements of human subsistence.

1.2 Modes of Reproduction – It consist of ways and means of controlling

and managing population size.

2. Structure – patterns of social relationship and organized living in relation to the

political and domestic economy.
2.1 Political Economy – consist of groups and organization that perform the
functions of modes of production and reproduction within the socio cultural
system.
2.2 Domestic Economy – consist of groups and organization that perform
the functions of regulating the modes of production and reproduction
within the socio cultural system.
3. Superstructure – The patterned ways by which people engage in behavioural and
mental activities.
3.1 Behavioral – consist of ways people direct their actions and engage in
recreational activities.
3.2 Mental – It consists of ways people think, conceptualize. Analyse,
interpret, and evaluate things.
Personality
- The configuration of the total characteristics traits describing the individual self through
patterns of thinking, feeling and acting.

Following are what constitutes personality:

1. Character – something engraved or stamped and an exact representation.
- Mental traits off a person such as intelligence, internalized ideas, values, beliefs
2. Temperament – hereditary aspects of personality which are emotional tendencies such as
sensitivity, moods, irritability etc.
3. Behaviour – Refers to all ways of voluntary or involuntary actions, reactions or response,
adjusting or coping to different situations.
2 primary factors that contribute to personality development

1. Biological factors (Nature) – refer to hereditary traits that have been passed on genetically
by ancestors

2. Social factors (Nurture) – Refer to social factors which include cultural and social factors as
well because social factors are influenced by culture, while culture is influenced by
environment.

Cultural Determinism on Personality

Cultural determinants are two-folds:

1. Internalization – the upholding of ideals, beliefs, morals and values that influence thinking
and guide behavior

2. Institutionalization – social institutions mould and imbibe in the individual the cultural
pattern to follow

Hoftstede’s cultural dimensions are based on the following:

1. Power Distance – The extent to which the less powerful members of institutions and
organizations within a country expect and accept that power is distributed unequally.

2. Individualism-Collectivism – the degree of interdependence a society maintains among

its members

3. Masculinity-Femininity – Distribution of roles between the genders.

4. Uncertainty Avoidance – extent to which the members of a culture feel threatened by

ambiguous or unknown situations.

5. Long Term Orientation – extent to which a society shows a pragmatic future oriented
perspective rather than a conventional historical short term point of view.
 CHAPTER 5

Socio-cultural and psychological barriers to effective communication:

1. Social Differentiation – Linguistic distinctiveness of a social group make it unfamiliar to others
2. Personality – inferiority complex, shyness, fears, defense mechanism
3. Bias and Insensitivity – prejudice, close minded or open minded
4. Language Barrier – Foreign language, accent, grammar
5. Technological Limits – absence of communication on personal level result to miscommunication

Dr. Sapir and Benjamin Whorf brought attention to relationship between language, thought and
culture.
1. Linguistic Relativism – Certain thoughts cannot be understood by those who live in another
language
2. Linguistic Determinism – Language determines how individuals think and how they see the
world.

Discipline of Linguistics
Linguistics – scientific study of language in a cultural context.
Aims of Linguistic Study
1. Linguistic Competence – idealized understanding of the rules and construction of a given
language.
2. Linguistic Performance – actual use of language as an output which involves production and
comprehension of actual utterances.

Language
- a structured system of arbitrary signs that communicate meaning.
- Is structured in such that individual sounds (phonemes) of language combine into meaningful
words (morphemes) that combine into meaningful phrases, clauses and sentence pattern
(grammar).
- Is arbitrary because there is no natural or intrinsic relationship between a word and its
meaning.
Sign
- basic unit of Language
- composed of signifier (sound image) and signified (concept or meaning)
2 Forms
1. Verbal – communication in the composition of words (spoken, listened, written, read)
2. Non-verbal – unwritten and unspoken language such as gestures, body posture, facial
expression
Characteristics
1. Arbitrariness – link between linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of social convention
or a mutual understanding among those adopting it.
2. Duality – property of having levels of structures consisting of primary units or meaningful
words and secondary units or meaningless sounds.
3. Creativity – animal language do not have phonemes or articulated and differentiated sounds
to produce infinite set of words and sentences generating new meanings
 4. Displacement – Ability to communicate about things that are physically absent or those that
are abstract concepts at the moment of communication.

Variations of Human Language

1. Dialect – variation of language base on regional or social speech patterns
2. Register – variety of language catered for specific purposes and settings
3. Archaism – type of language that is considered antiquated or old fashioned
4. Pidgin – an unstable auxillary contact language arising from the need of people to occasionally
interact in situations
5. Creole – stabilized pidgin language the become the base language of a native language

Scope of Linguistics
Polyglot – learns to communicate in many languages
Linguist – scientifically studies a language
1. Phonetics – study of speech sounds
2. Phonology – study of sound patterns (phonemes)
3. Morphology – study of smallest units of meaning (morphenes)
4. Syntax – study of the structure (grammar) off clauses, phrases
5. Semantics – study of linguistic meaning
6. Pragmatics – study of ways by which context or situation contributes to meaning
Special areas of particular interest of linguist
1. Historical Linguistics – concerned with occurring changes in languages over passing time
2. Sociolinguistics – concerned with ways language used in society
3. Psycholinguistics concerned with mental structure and processes involved in language
4. Neurolinguistics – concerned with brain activities involved in language information
5. Stylistics – concerned with interpretation of literary text from linguistic perspective

 Language Family – refers to a group of languages related through descent from a common
protolanguage (parent language).
6 major language families
1. Afro-Asiatic
2. Austronesian
3. Indo-European
4. Niger-Congo
5. Sino-Tibetan
6. Trans-New Guinea

 Ethnico-linguistic groups – refer to people grouped according to shared common indigenous

language which serves as part of their cultural identity.
8 Language with most number of native speaker
1. Cebuano
2. Tagalog
3. Ilokano
4. Bikol
5. Hiligaynon
6. Waray
7. Kapampangan
 8. Pangasinense

 175 individual languages listed for Philippines, 171 are living language, while 4 indegenous
language are extinct namely Agta Dicamay, Agta Villaviciosa, Ayta Tayabas and Katabaga.
 Dr. David Crstystal’s arguments for the need to save endangered languages:
1. Linguistic diversity enriches our human ecology; 6,800 unique models for describing the
world.
2. Languages are expressions of identity; a nation without a language is like a nation without a
heart.
3. Language are repositories of history.
4. Languages contribute to the sum of human knowledge.
5. Languages are interesting subjects in their own right.
 Republic Act NO. 7104 – Formulate policies plans and programs to ensure the further
development, enrichment, propagation and preservation of Filipino and other Philippine
Language.
 Protolanguage – reference to calling what is presumed to be an original parent language and
precursor of all other language in the world.
 Different social groups also develop and use their own lingo like jejemon, bekimon, salitang
kanto
 The process of word formation contributes to language by:
1. Compounding – 2 or more words combine into single word resulting to a new meaning
2. Clipping – words are shortened
3. Blending – 2 or more words combine into a single word with combined meaning

Cyberlanguage
 Cyberculture – serves as an interface between internet users and the virtual world
1. Electronic Mail
2. Instant Messenger
3. Chat Room
4. Social Networking Site
5. Social Media Network
6. Internet Forum
7. Weblog

Functional Theories of Language

Following outline the functions of Language base on linguistic theories
1. Theory of Communicative Functions
1.1 Referential – convey message and contextual information
1.2 Aesthetic – indulge or reflect in language
1.3 Emotive – express exclamatory remarks
1.4 Conative – to persuade and influence others
1.5 Phatic – establish communion with others such as to relate
1.6 Metalingual – to clear up intentions and meanings
2. Theory of Meta-function
2.1 Ideational – constructs a model of experience both real and inner world
2.2 Interpersonal - maintains social relationships
2.3 Textual – making meanings encoded in wordings and grammatical sequences
 CHAPTER 6
CULTURAL HERITAGE

Discipline of Archeology
Archeology

- derived from Greek word arkhaios (ancient) logos (study).

- Concerned with origins and development of early human culture between 1st appearance of
man
- More concern of reconstructing the way of life or culture of peoples in the past.

Sub-disciplines of archeology

1. Paleoanthropology – also called prehistoric archaeology; concerned with culture of human

groups and settlements before the advent of writing.

2. Historical Archeology – concerned with the study off ancient and lost civilizations at the time
historical accounts exist at the time.

3. Marine Archeology – concerned with retrieval of material culture excavated from underwater
such as salvaging pat shipwrecks, discovery of lost civilizations submerged in water.

Early Archeologist who had contributed in archeological site excavations are:

1. Augustus Pitt-Rivers (1827-1900) – He applied rigorous survey methods, plans, site plans and
extensive written records of all objects found in a site.

2. William Petrie (1853-1942) – Developed a method of serial or sequence dating of objects within
an excavation.

3. Alfred Kidder (1885-1963) – He was the first to employ teams of specialist in excavations such
as geologist, climatologist, biologists, etc.

Sources of Archeological Evidences

Most archeological site disintegrate over time due to humidity, temperature, soil condition and
human activities. Archeologist are able to study prehistory and past human settlements and
cultures through the following sources:

1. Ecofacts – these are items or materials of non-cultural origin but rather a product of nature,
results of nature’s forces, and things in their natural form such as seeds, pollen, shells, fossils, etc.
 Fossils – preserved organic remains of living things.
2. Features – there are human made alterations in the geological and environmental landscape
such as architectural structures, hearths, pits, farming fields, roads, etc.
3. Artifacts – are remnants of man’s activities which do not only include material culture but also
its resulting waste by products such as scraps, garbage, ruin, food remains.

Dating Techniques in Archeology

1. Relative Dating – Establishes the descriptive sequence of events in a time scale relative to the
location where artifacts are found.
 1.1 Stratigraphy – The observed sequence of geological strata, or layers, formed by
materials deposited by water or wind.

Stratified deposits reflect the Law of Superposition which states that the sequence of
observable strata, from bottom to top, reflects the order of deposition.

1.2 Chemical Accumulation Analysis – A technique that tests the amount of certain
chemicals absorbed by a certain material when buried under soil.

2. Chronometric Dating – a technique that tests the amount of certain chemicals absorbed by a
certain material when buried under soil.

Chemical deposits are based on the idea that certain chemicals will build up in an object
over time, the more of the chemical found in the material the older the remains.

2.1 Radiometric Dating – A technique used to date materials based on comparison

between observed abundance of a naturally occurring radioactive isotope and its decay
products, using known steady rates of decay such as uranium thorium dating, potassium
argon dating and radiocarbon dating.

Radiocarbon dating is the most commonly used radiometric dating technique.

2.2 Dendrochronology – This method compares tree growth rings preserved in a site of an
age-known tree in relation to artifacts manufacture from wooden items.

Cultural Periods in Prehistoric Archeology

1. Stone Age – early humans began making simple stone stools

1.1 Paleolithic – Greek word palalois (old) and lithos (stone), also referred as Old Stone
Age. Paleolithic Culture is characterized by the use of rudimentary chipped stone tools.

1.2 Mesolithic – mesos (middle) and lithos (stone), also referred as Middle Stone Age.
Mesolithic Culture was a transitional period which saw man’s adaptation to the changing
climate and environment.

1.3 Neolithic - neos (middle) and lithos (stone), referred as New Stone Age. Neolithic
Culture was marked by appearance of early farming communities.

2. Metal Age – humans learned to extract metal ores and melt into more durable tools, weapons
etc.

1.1 Copper Age – referred as Chalcolitic period derived from khalkos (copper) and lithos
(stone). It was a transitional period from Stone Age to metal age.

1.2 Bronze Age – use of bronze alloy made of metals tin and copper

1.3 Iron Age – use of iron-made tools and weapons which was introduced by Hittite people
o Asia Minor. It was the beginning of age of empires and saw fortification of human
settlements.

Cultural Heritage

Prolonging life of cultural materials and vital information involves the following:
1. Conservation – action taken to prevent decay which embraces all acts that prolong life of
cultural and national heritage restoration, preservation, reconstruction and protection.

2. Preservation – involves retention of the building or monument in a sound static condition

without any material addition or subtraction.

3. Restoration – Returning an artifact to the physical condition it had at some previous stage of its
life.

4. Conversion – Adaptation of a building to accommodate a new use, also called adaptive reuse

5. Reconstruction – Recreation of vanished building on its original state.

Importance of Cultural Heritage Sites

1. Evidential Value – the potential of a place to yield evidence about past human activity through
physical remains that tell about development of the place and people and cultures
2. Historical Value – The ways in which past people, events and aspects of life can be connected
through a place to the present thru illustrative and associative value with regards to the
development of other aspects of cultural heritage.
3. Aesthetic Value – ways in which people draw sensory and intellectual stimulation from place
which embraces composition, materials, etc.
4. Communal Value – The meanings of a place for the people who relate to it, places of
remembrance whose meaning should not be forgotten.

 Following are considered as cultural heritage as defined in Article 1 of the 197 Convention on
the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage.
1. Monuments – Architectural works, works of monumental sculpture and painting, elements
or structures of an archaeological nature, inscriptions, cave dwellings and combinations of
features, which are of outstanding universal value from the point of view of history, art or
science.

2. Groups of buildings – Groups of separate or connected building which because of their

architecture, their homogeneity or their place in the landscape, are of outstanding universal
value from the point of view of history, art or science.

3. Sites – Works of man or the combined works of nature and man, and areas including
archaeological sites which are of outstanding universal value from the historical, aesthetic,
ethnological or anthropological point of view.

 Cultural Agencies in the Philippines designated in accordance by National Cultural Heritage Act
of 2009:
1. Cultural Center of the Philippines (CCP) – agency responsible for significant cultural property
pertaining to the performing arts.
2. National Archives of the Philippines – agency responsible for significant archival materials.
3. National Library – agency shall be responsible for rare and significant contemporary
Philippine books, manuscripts, newspaper etc.
 4. National Historical Institute (NHI) – this agency shall be responsible for significant movable
and immovable cultural property that pertains to Philippine History, heroes and artifacts.
5. National Museum – agency responsible for significant movable and immovable cultural and
natural property pertaining to collections of fine arts, archaeology, botany, geology, zoology an
astronomy.
6. Komisyon ng Wikang Filipino (Commission on the Filipino Language) – responsible for
dissemination development, and promotion of Filipino national language and conservation of
ethnic languages.

 Important cultural property in accordance with National Heritage Act of 2009

1. Works by a Manlilikha ng Bayan (National Living Treasures)
2. Works by National Artist
3. Archaelogical and traditional ethnographic materials
4. Works of national heroes.
5. Marked Structure
6. Structures dating at least 50 years old
7. Archival material/ document dating at least 50 years old
 CHAPTER 7
SOCIAL ORGANIZATION AND SOCIAL SYSTEM

John Donne (1572-1631) –“NO MAN IS AN ISLAND”

Society- totality of social organization which includes the social structure and social system.

Key points in understanding the constitution and concept of society:

1. Social organization-a stable pattern of relationship brought about social processes that
bring order and meaning into social life.
a. Structured
b. Patterned
c. Arranged
2. Social structure-the stable pattern or configuration of social relationships and social
interaction in society.
3. Social system- the interacting interrelated and interdependent components of society
functioning with in stable network of social relationships forming a complex whole

Sociological frameworks of society

Principal theories in Sociology:

Perspectives Theory Examples Weakness proponents

1.Social Society is Societies make Genocide, diverts from Herbert
Darwinism viewed at the selections and ethnic social spencer,
macro-level. It is adjustments cleansing, explanations William
linked to a leading to eugenics, and discards graham
biological social change capital socio-cultural Sumner
organism that for adaptation punishment, factors
evolves from purposes in revolution
simple to order to
complex and improve social
continuous conditions,
adapting to cope with
changes social
through time. problems, and
survive social
crimes.

Herbert Spencer- principal proponent of Darwinism “ Survival of he fittest”

 Perspectives Theory Examples Weakness proponents
2. Structural- society is viewed Organization caste conservative Emile
functionalism at the macro in society is system, view and Durkheim,
level. It is likened determined by commune undermines Herbert
to the human harmonious system, role of Spencer,
body formed by social feudal conflict, and Talcott
different functions in system. places Parsons,
interdependent the social emphasis on Robert
parts with structure. maintaining Merton
different the status quo
coordinated in the social
functions that order.
are integrated
to a whole
system.

3 functions in the social structure (Robert Merton):

1. Manifest functions- consequences of social structure both recognized and intended.
2. Latent functions- recognized and unintended consequences of social structure.
3. Dysfunction- undesirable or negative effects in the social system.

Perspectives Theory Examples Weakness proponents

3.Conflict Society is Economic War, Overlooked Karl Marx,
Theory viewed at the determinism competition, shared values max
macro level. It or economic subordination, and mutual Weber,
is likened to factors exploitation, interdependence William
tug-of-war determine the coercion, in unifying Edward,
between two course of domination, members of Burghardt
opposing social change oppression, society and du Bois
forces which which also etc. pursuing
represent a accounts for common goals,
major social social conflict and aspirations.
force in a struggle
towards
control of
economic
resources that
brings about
social
changes.
 Perspectives Theory Examples Weakness proponents
4.Symbolic Society is People derive Love, Subjective George
Interactionism viewed at meaning from parenthood, view and Herbert
micro-level. It symbols handshake, tends to Mead,
is likened to a attached in smile, overlook Herbert
stage play interactions diamond, cultural Blumer,
whereby the which in turn money context and Charles
speech and determines other social Cooley,
actions of their course factors such Erving
actors suggest of action or as race, Goffman
meaning which reaction. gender and
is interpreted Meaning is social class
by other actors modified and when
who respond situations are meaning is
accordingly in defined base derived from
interaction. on how they perceived and
interpret interpreted
those symbols.
ascribed
symbols.

Herbert Blumer- “symbolic Interactionism”

Perspectives Theory Examples Weakness proponents

5.Exchange Society is Social Husband- Limited to George
Theory viewed in the relationships wife, teacher- dyadic Homans,
Micro-level. It is form and student, relationships Peter Blau,
likened in to a continue in so employer- focused on Richard
market place far as it is employee, self-interest Emerson.
where buyers rewarding and landlord- and
and sellers dissolves tenant, rationalized
transact base when it is no entrepreneur- social
on mutual longer client interactions.
agreement, mutually
interest cost beneficial or
and benefits. satisfying.
Social life is life-
long dealing of
reciprocal gives
and takes of
mutual
expectations.

Group formation and dynamics

Several theories explain group formation:

 1. Propinquity- individuals who share confined limits of territory or are in close proximity
with each other tend to associate and interact with one another.
2. Reciprocity- individuals organize themselves into groups for mutual benefits in the
pursuit of goals, accomplishment of task and attainment of satisfaction or rewards.
3. Social cohesion- people who share the same attitudes, ideas, and interests, tend to be
drawn towards another that results to a chain of interaction thereby unwittingly forming
a group.
4. Social Categorization- individuals tend to group themselves with people who belong to
the same social class or category such as in the category of the rich or poor, male or
female, freshmen or old students.
5. Emergent situation- the demand and urgencies of a situation or sudden developments of
events instinctively call on individuals to group and pool their sources and efforts as in
the case of emergencies, disasters, etc.

Tuckman’s stages of Group Development (Dr. Bruce W. Tuckman 1965)

1. Forming
2. Storming
3. Norming
4. Performing
5. Adjourning

Group Dynamics- refer to the changes developing in a group as a result of the social processes
and activities occurring in a group.
Kurt C. Lewin (1890-1947)- German sociologist, founded the research Center for Group
Dynamics at the Massachusetts institute of technology(MIT) in 1945.

Several factors affecting group dynamics:

1. Constitutions of members
2. Group size
Loafing- the tendency of individuals to lessen their effort when they are part of a group and
reduce it further as the group size increases there by resulting to less group productivity, less
motivation, less coordination, and less cohesion.
3. Group Goals
4. Group Motivation
5. Group norms
6. Group Cohesion

Human Clusters

1. Aggregate- non-interacting people who have no other connection to one another who
just happens to be found together at the same place at the same time.
Social category- non-interacting people who possess identifiable common characteristics or
feature as a basis for their categorization.
2. Collectivity- people with a short term and transitory basis of association and interaction
with one another that unlike social groups do n0t adhere to an integrated and shared
culture.
 a. Crowd
b. Audience
c. The masses
d. The public

Concept and classifications of community

Concept of community
Community- refers to a network of social groups that connect, collaborate and interrelate in an
organized way of sharing common resources and culture.

Classifications of community

1. Locality-based communities- found in localized territories

a. The state
b. Rural community
c. Urban community
2. Virtual communities- refer to all online groups of internet users called netizens who share
the resources of the internet and collaborated and interact through online network
channels with a common culture called cyber culture.
3. Associated-based communities- communities of social categories to which its members
identify with or social organizations that they are affiliated with.

Community development and Rural Problems

Community development- refers to the strategic intervention and process of empowering and
sustaining the community based on developing their resources to improve existing conditions
that will improve the lives of the people thein and realize the full potential of the community.

Considerations o fundamental to community development:

1. Building and reinforcing relationships among members of community.

2. Motivating and mobilizing people for active involvement and participation throughput
the entire decision making, planning and implementing process.
3. Formulation of easy, practical and sustainable programs and projects to stimulate and
facilitate development.
4. Orientation for awareness and understanding, and training people for empowerment and
self-reliance and being able to do the same to others.
5. Establishing linkages and cooperation with stakeholder organizations.

R.A no. 6657- Comprehensive agrarian reform law (CARL) signed by pres. Corazon C. Aquino on
June 10 1988
R.A no. 9700- Comprehensive agrarian program extension reform (CARPER) signed by pre. Gloria
Arroyo on August 9, 2009

The National economic development Authority(NEDA) had identified the primary causes for the
slow and protracted pace of CARP implementation as follows:
1. Inadequate Funding
 2. Landowner Resistance
3. Problematic Lands
4. Unstable peace and order
5. Missing adjudication Boards

Urbanization and Urbanity

Urbanization- refers to all the processes contributing tp city development whereby demographic
and ecological changes occur.

R.A no. 7160 the local government code of 1991 classifies cities in the Philippines into three
categories upon meeting the requirements prescribed accordingly:
1. Highly Urbanized city
2. Independent Chartered Cities
3. Component Cities.

Urbanity- Latin word urbanitas that translates to elegance and refinement so that urbanity
would mean the acquisition of good taste through civil or refines manner of public conduct and
behavior that is desirable and expected of people in city.

Urban ecological process

1. Concentration
2. Dispersion
3. Centralization
4. Segregation
5. Gradation
6. Invasion
7. Succession
8. Conglomeration

Urban problems and Urban Planning

urban planning- is the deliberate set of interventions in the city of landscape and environment
aimed at directing and regulating land use and activities there with in order to produce desired
outcomes in line with the policy and objectives of the local government.

Important considerations taken into urban planning in five P’s:

1. Population
2. Place
3. Present
4. Participation
5. Plan
 CHAPTER 8
SOCIAL STRUCTURE AND PROCESSES

Social structure- is the table pattern or configuration of social relationships, connections, or

bonds formed out of social processes in society.
Components of social structure
1. Social function- the results or outcomes of actions and activities in relation to the social
structure.
2. Social relationship- the bonds or connections between and among individuals and groups
that are forged or established out of special interactions and other social processes and
activities.
3. Social interaction- the language mediated process of reciprocal responses or reactions
occurring between individuals between individuals.
The types of social interaction prevailing in society may be enumerated as follows:
3.1 cooperation- Individuals or group agree and act together to promote and attain
common interests and goals.
4 types of cooperation
3.1.1 Spontaneous- individuals or groups provide mutual aid as a matter of
necessary response as the need or situation arises.
3.1.2 Traditional- Individuals or groups cooperate as a matter of customary
practice and behavior as demanded by social norms.
3.1.3 Directed- Individuals or groups cooperate as directed by a third party in
authority.
3.2 Competition- Two or more individuals or groups in opposing interaction towards
attaining similar interest or goals.
3.3 Conflict- Individuals or groups are in antagonistic or hostile interaction due to
differences or disagreements.

Types of conflicts
 Collision- it is a violent type of conflict directed towards inflicting damage or injury for
the purpose of neutralizing or eliminating each other.
 Confrontation- an alteration or quarrel between individuals or groups of different and
contradicting point of views leading to disagreements.
 Contravention- parties to a conflict attempt to obstruct or prevent each other from
succeeding regardless of both of them failing.
 Litigation- Parties to a conflict take recourse to the courts of law with the aim of
convincing the court to render and enforce decision in their favor regarding their
claims.
3.4 Accommodation- arrangements made between individuals or groups in an effort to
diffuse, suspend, or lessen conflict.
 Types of accommodation
a. Toleration allowing each other to go on with their differences without minding each
other and without getting into each other’s way.
b. Compromise- a win-win situation favorable to both parties which entail negotiating
for concessions or giving up some in exchange for some in order to find something
acceptable half-way between.
c. Truce- the temporary cessation of hostilities until such time that both parties come to
an agreement.
d. Arbitration- Parties to a conflict are made to submit to the settlement of disputes by
an authorized third party.
e. Domination- one of the parties to the conflict decides and agrees to yield or
surrender to the dominance of the other.
3.5 Coercion- Individuals or group are compelled or forced to act against their will as in the case
of blackmail, grave threat, intimidation, et. Coercion should not however be viewed on entirely
negative function since it can prove to be an effective social control.
2.6 Exchange- interaction that is based on reciprocity occurring between individuals in a
purposeful effort or motive to receive rewards or benefits.

SOCIAL STRATIFICATION AND SOCIAL MOBILITY

Components of Social stratification
Social stratification- refers to the hierarchical arrangements of social statuses, social roles and
social functions within the framework of the social structure
1. Social status- refers to the social standing or position that a member occupies in the
social structure.
a. Ascribed status- social status that is effortlessly assumed by an individual as a
matter of rightful inheritance or designation upon birth.
b. Achieved status- social status that is merited by an individual effort as a matter of
choice.
2. Social class- it refers to a particular social status group distinguished by its customary
modes of behavior or lifestyle
a. Economic
b. Education
c. Occupation
3. Social role- the expected behavior that is attached to a particular social status that one is
supposed to carry out or perform in the social structure.
a. Rights
b. Duties
c. Privileges
SOCIAL MOBILITY- the movement of individuals or groups in the direction of the hierarchies of
social statuses in the social stratification.
2 types
a. Horizontal mobility- happens along the same social class
b. Vertical mobility - happens along the different levels of social classes
Types of social stratification
 a. Class system- an open type of social stratification base on free social mobility
whereby anyone equal opportunities with the rest in society to move along ranks of
the social strata
b. Caste system- a close type of rigid social stratification base on ascribed and
permanently fixed social status of individuals restricting social mobility and
maintaining their place in society
SOCIALIZATION
Socialization process
Socialization- is the process and outcome of integration to society through association
interaction and social activities.
 Personality and role development
 Skills development and training
 Values formation
 Social integration and adjustment
 Social control and stability
Agents of socialization
-refer to the various social groups or social institutions that play a significant role in
introducing and integrating the individual as an accepted and functioning member of
society.
a. School
b. Peer group
c. Church
d. Family
e. Work place
f. Mass media

Collective behavior
Understanding collective behavior
Collective behavior- refers to the emergent, unstructured, and transitory behavior of a group of
people. To wit, the behavior is characterized as:
1. Emergent- it arises at any given moment when the right circumstances or situations
trigger the behavior.
2. Unstructured- the behavior is not guided by prevailing social norms.
3. Transitory- the prevalence of the behavior depends on the volatility. Ambiguity, or
intensity of the existing situation.
Theories of collective behavior

 Emergent norm theory- people facing unusual or chaotic situations generate their own
interpretations to define or understand the situation and through the interactions of
people results in a common redefined situation leading to the emergence of new norms
for people to behave collectively.
 Contagion theory- feelings of restlessness, directionless, and heightened emotions and
excitement spreads through the circular interaction of individuals thereby reproducing
similar suggestive behavior.
  Convergence theory- like-minded individuals banded together tend to have shared
predispositions for certain forms of behavior.
 Social strain theory- a combination of factors generates the right conditions or situations
conducive to the development of collective behavior.
6 factors according to professor of sociology Dr. Neil J. Smelser
1. Structural conduciveness
2. Structural strain
3. Generalized belief
4. Precipitating factors
5. Mobilization
6. Social control failure
Forms of collective Behavior
1. Mass behavior or mass action
1.1. Fashion
1.2. Fad
1.3. Craze
1.4. Mass hysteria
1.5. Public opinion
1.6. Propaganda
Common propaganda techniques
1.6.1. Rumor
1.6.2. Mind conditioning
1.6.3. Bandwagon
1.6.4. Name calling
1.6.5. Card stacking
1.6.6. Glittering generality
1.6.7. Transfer
1.6.8. Testimonial
1.6.9. Plain folks

2. Crowd behavior- behavior displayed by a crowd characterized by restlessness, directionless,

heightened emotions and excitement in given vicinity.

The following are manifested forms of crowd behavior:

2.1. Reactive crowd- characterized by passiveness
2.2. Expressive crowd- characterized by emotional releases
2.3. Panic crowd- characterized by agitated and irrational reaction
2.4. Acting crowd- characterized by hostility or aggression
2.4.1. Riot- a band hostile individuals spread over several areas
2.4.2. Mob- a band hostile individuals concentrated in the are
3. Social movement- a form of collective behavior involving work efforts aimed at advocacy
change.

Types of social movement

a. Revolutionary movement- towards the total overhaul of the prevailing systems in
society
b. Reform movement- towards transforming specific areas of current negative
situation
 c. Redemptive movement- towards the renewal of the individual’s whole self as in
the case of certain religious groups
d. Alternative movement- towards changing some aspects of selected individuals.
Social deviance and social control
Social deviance (deviate meaning to differ or diverge)- refers to any behavior that differs or
diverges from established social norms.
Theories on deviance
1. Socio-biological theory- deviant or abnormal behavior is brought about by abnormalities
or defects in the genes of a persons as in the case of the mentally ill.
2. Psychological theory- the uncontrollable inner urges or impulses or suppressed emotions
of a person and the lack of other approved means to defer gratification is released or
manifested outwards through deviant behavior.
3. Differential association theory- individual learn deviant behavior by associating and
interacting with people who influence or pressure them in to doing wrong.
4. Anomic theory- result of being in a state of “normlessness”
5. Social strain theory- a result of frustration
Modes of social adaptation in the following manner:
a. Conformists
b. Innovators
c. Ritualists
d. Rebels
e. Retreatists

6. Labeling theory- American sociologist Edwin M. Lemert (1912-1996) and Howard S.

Becker contributed to the development of his theory explaining that individuals who are
branded or tagged with negative are psychologically engrained to hold on reputation of
being deviant even if not so.
7. Conflict Theory- behavior and activities that conflict or threatens those in control of
society are deemed deviant.
8. Substance abuse-caused by the influence of substance intake to the body which impairs
mental cognition and induces a person to act or behave irrationally.
The following are the classification of commonly abused substances according to their
effects:
a. Hallucinogens- substances that cause alteration for perception, thought or mood.
b. Stimulants- increase or stimulate the normal activity of the nervous system.
c. Depressants- depress or slow down body functions.
d. Anti-depressants- alleviate mood in the case of serious depression and anxiety
disorders.
9. Neutralization theory (American criminologist Gresham M. Sykes and American
sociologist David Maiza)- explain that deviant behavior results from a state of denial or
the justified belief of one’s action which suspends the applicability of prevailing social
norms.
Five techniques of neutralization to escape from self-guilt and demands of conventionalism:
1. Denial of responsibility
2. Denial of injury
 3. Denial of victim
4. Condemnation of the condemners
5. Appeal to higher loyalties

10. Social control theory-(American criminologist Travis Hirschi introduced the theory
explaining deviant behavior as a result of the absence or weakness of social bonds.
Four dimensions of social bonding and any weakness or lack of the following would lead to
deviant behavior:
1. Attachment
2. Commitment
3. Involvement
4. Beliefs
Social control
Social control- is a society’s ways of promoting order, stability and conformity in social life.
Sanction system- a system of rewards and punishments designed to encourage desired behavior.
The following are some examples of Philippine laws that form part of the penal system to
discourage and prohibit undesirable acts and behavior considered as deviant:

 R.A. No. 9344: juvenile justice and welfare act 2006

 R.A. No. 9262: anti-violence against women and their children act of 2004
 R.A. No. 8353: the anti rape law of 1997
 R.A. No. 9208: anti-trafficking in persons act of 2003
 R.A. No. 9165: Comprehensive dangerous act of 2002
 P.D No. 1612:Anti fencing law of 1979
 R.A 3019: Anti-graft and corrupt practices act
 R.A. 9372: Human security act of 2007
Social Change and Globalization
Social change
Social change- refers to the changes that take place in society as a result of social, cultural,
political, economic, and historical forces that shape the social structure, social organization and
social system.

Factors leading to social change

 Demographic change
 Environmental change
 Technological advancements
 Cultural diffusion
 Education
 Mass media
 Social movements
 Political leadership
 Economic growth
  Historical events

Theories of social change

1. Evolutionary theory- societies gradually move towards increasing complexity as it learns
and devise ways to adapt to the demands of the times and the changing environment
2. Equilibrium theory- societies tend to move towards a state of internal balance or
homeostasis.
3. Conflict theory- economic determination or economic factors determine the course of
social change which also accounts for social class conflict in a struggle towards control of
economic resources that brings about social changes.
4. Cyclical theory- societies fall or lag behind and rise or advance forward depending on
how it creatively responds and strategically copes with the challenges presented by
situations of special difficulty.
Globalization
Globalization-is the process of socio-cultural and economic integration and standardization
through the breakdown of national barriers and increased inter dependency in the global setting.
Globalization process:
1. Advancement and spread of technology collaborative research and production and the
entry of commercial technology through free trade.
2. Expansion of international commerce as in the case of free trade involving exports and
imports with minimal or no restrictions.
3. Rising importance of private capital flows as in the case of stock markets, multinational
corporations and outsourcing.
4. Increasing travel and migration as in the case of international tourism, healthcare.
Tourism and foreign education.
5. Increased communication and interaction between people through various forms and
channels of media especially via the internet.
Impact of globalization
1. The share and transfer of technological know-how and best practices of multinational
companies to the local industry.
2. The opportunities presented to the local labor market and industry to penetrate foreign
markets and have their share in it.
3. The intensive competition drives countries to level up their competitive advantage and
strengthen its economic structural base.
4. The free flow of resources that are made available and accessible through free trade and
merging economies.
5. The interconnectivity and close partnership brought about by the institutional linkages,
and facilitated by the communication and transportation network.

While there is benefits of globalization, there is also the negative side of it especially to poor
and developing countries. Some of negative impact of globalization point to the following:
1. The damaged culture caused by forced reorientation and adoption of international
standards and incompatible foreign cultural practices.
2. The expanding “corporate empire”, international financial institutions hold governments
and people of poor countries hostage to secure concessions.
3. The fact that there are winners and losers in the globalization setting as not all societies
equally benefit in the arrangements of unequal playing fields.
4. The gap between the rich and poor has widened due to capitalist exploitation over cheap
labor and price manipulation.
5. The consequences of open borders such as money laundering, drug trafficking, sex
trafficking, human trafficking (illegal immigrants) , etc.
 CHAPTER 9

POPULATION EDUCATION AND HUMAN ECOLOGICAL SYSTEM

Population and its Characteristics

Defined as the total number of persons that live at a given a time and interact in certain
geographical area.

Characteristics of Population

1. Sex Composition

Separate count of males and females constituting the population. The number is expressed in a
ratio of the number of males per 100 females.

1.1 Sex - Anatomical or biological differences that distinguishes male from female
according to sexual organ.

1.2 Gender - Psychological, social and cultural differences that distinguish masculinity from
femininity according to role expectations.

2. Age Structure

Number of persons grouped according to age range or different age category bracket.

3. Population Growth rate

Rate at which population size increases in a span of time.

4. Population Density

Proportional distribution of population to land surface area.

Factors affecting population density:

1. Environmental factors – lowlands, temperate climates and are rich in natural resources tend to
have highly dense population compared to highlands or mountainous regions, extremely cold or
hot climates, and areas with fewer resources have sparsely dense population.

2. Political factors – countries with more stable political situation and government tend to have
highly dense population.

3. Social Factors – Groups of people who prefer to live near other groups tend to have highly dense
population compared to groups who prefer to live in isolation have sparsely dense population.

4. Economic factors – places that offer better employment and livelihood opportunities tend to
have highly dense population.

Demography

-scientific study of the characteristics and dynamics of human population.

- derived from demos(people) and graphia(recording).

- Demographic data can be used by researchers to objectively make interferences and

recommendations based from what the numerical figures are conveying.
Sources of Demographic Data

1. Census – comprehensive and periodic accounting of statistical information conducted by

national government regarding the population such as fertility and mortality rate, life expectancy
rate, dependency ratio, literacy rate, unemployment rate etc.

2. Registration Records - Records that contain necessary declared information as requisite for
listing and checking such as certification of birth and civil status, issuance of license etc.

3. Database – Collection of organized information that is managed and updated for easy access
and retrieval such as rank and file employees, payroll, record of student grades etc.

4. Survey Results – response with regards to a subject matter that is solicited from a determined
number of individuals referred to as sample respondents.

Population Dynamics

Population growth can be expressed in mathematical models:

1. Exponential Growth Malthusian Model - The number of individual’s increases overtime with
unlimited growth such that the rate of change of population is proportional to the existing
population.

* Thomas Malthus – Malthusian Model

Population, when unchecked, increases in a geometrical ratio. Subsistence increases only in an

arithmetical ratio. A slight acquaintance with numbers will show the immensity of the first power
in comparison of the second.

2. Logistic Growth/ Verhulst Model – As population size increases, the rate of increase declines,
leading eventually to an equilibrium population size known as the carrying capacity which is the
maximum population size that a given habitat can support.

3. Demographic Transition Thompson Model – describes the process of population transition and
stabilization in the case of industrializing countries.

Model presents a 3 stage cycle period of transition:

Stage 1: Stage at the pre-industrial period shows high birth and death rate that is almost balances
one another resulting in stability.

Stage 2: This stage at a country’s developing stage shows a big decline in death rated while birth
rates continue to increase due to improved quality of health brought about by better nutrition and
sanitation.

Stage 3: This stage of ben a newly industrialized country shows stability in the population again
with both birth and death rates balancing one another on the decline.

Variables of Population Change

1. Fertility Rate – Refers to the number of live births which add to the population.

Factors affecting Fertility Rate:

 1.1 Economic Factors – Number of children sometimes depends on whether parents could
economically-wise support the number of children could economically-wise contribute to
the parents.

1.2 Social Factors – Women who marry at later age tend to have fewer children compared
to early marriage.

1.3 Cultural Factors – Some value having many children or strive to conceive regardless of
the number of children until male child is born.

2. Mortality Rate – Refers to the number of deaths which is subtracted from the population. The
mortality or death rate is expressed in a ratio is expressed in a ratio of the number of deaths per
1,000 in the population.

Factors:

2.1 Public Health – Healthier people are expected to live longer lives made possible by
advances in medical science, extension of immunization, better nutrition, more clean
water, improved sanitation, and greater health consciousness.

2.2 Public Safety – Making the world a safer place to live in increases the chance for survival
made possible through disaster and calamity preparedness and mitigation, accident
prevention, implementation of stricter safety requirements and standards.

2.3 Public Order – People assured for their security are assured of their lives made possible
with effective law enforcement, crime prevention, and promoting a culture of peace.

3. Migration – Refers to involuntary or voluntary movement of people from one place to another
and consist of types:

3.1 Emigration – Takes place when people called emigrants leave their country of origin
because of ‘push factors’ or experienced difficult situation.

3.2 Immigration – Takes place when people called immigrants enter a new country because
of ‘pull factors’.

Factors that influence migration:

1. Environmental factors: climate, natural disasters, calamities, epidemics and pandemics

2. Political: political asylum, persecution, war, socio-political instability, etc.

3. Economic: famine, employment and livelihood opportunities, better economic situation

4. Cultural: freedom educational opportunities, lifestyle preferences.

Consequential socio-cultural effects:

1. Cultural diffusion and assimilation – positive exchange of ideas, transfer of knowledge

2. Competition for resources and opportunities.

3. Brain Drain – refers to lost of human resource assets in the population

4. Spread of disease.
Population Issues

1. Children limit – Some countries like China and Singapore had attempted ‘one child policy’

2. Economic Deterrents – higher taxes, limited access to public services

3. Family Planning – Strategic ways of regulating schedule and number of births

3.1 Rhythm or Calendar Method – natural family planning that require tracking of ovulation
period

3.2 Coitus Interruptions or Withdrawal Method – an attempt to pull out from sexual
intercourse

3.3 Artificial Contraceptive Methods – purpose of preventing pregnancy in the form of:

3.3.1 Pill – oral contraception

3.3.2 Condom – disposable latex rubber sheath worn over the male sex organ

3.3.3 Intra-Uterine Device (IUD) – removable t-shaped object made of plastic or

metal designed to alter the uterus lining making the implantation of fertilized egg
difficult.

3.4 Surgical or Sterilization Method – method entails medical surgery performed on man
or woman’s reproductive system

3.4.1 Vasectomy – Invasive procedure for male sterilization

3.4.2 Tubal Ligation – procedure for female sterilization which involves tying of
fallopian

Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory defines 5 types of systems as follows:

1. Microsystem – immediate environment that the individual has face to face interactions, and
direct and active participation in building social structures and settings such as family, peers,
classmates etc..

2. Mesosystem – connections of the structures and settings in the microsystem such as family and
peers, home and school, church and environment.

3. Exosystem – environment that is beyond the immediate environment of the individual in which
he has indirect involvement

4. Macrosystem – cultural context of society that includes beliefs and values system, political and
economic and social norms

5. Chronosystem – socio-historical circumstances that involve the patterning of environmental

events, critical periods in development and transitions over the course of life of individuals.
 CHAPTER 10

FAMILIAL INSTITUTION

Social Institution – refers to the configuration of integrated beliefs, social norms, and social values
formed and patterned around the social needs, activities, and way of life of members of society.

5 basic social institutions:

1. familial

2. educational

3. religious

4. political

5. economic

Concept and functions of family

Familial institutions – refers to the established normative system of carrying out family living.

The family is the basic unit of society that functions for:

1. Procreation

2. Parenthood

3. Socialization

4. Subsistence

5. Status

6. Habitation

Rights and Obligations between Husband and Wife in Title III of The family code of the Philippines

1. The husband and wife are obligated to live together, observe mutual love, respect and fidelity,
and render mutual help and support.

2. The husband and wife shall fix the family domicile. In case of disagreement, the court shall
decide.

3. The spouses are jointly responsible for the support of the family. The expenses for such support
and other conjugal obligations shall be paid from the community property and, in the absence
thereof, from the income or fruits of their separate properties. In case of insufficiency or absence
of said income or fruits, such obligations shall be satisfied from the separate properties. – Art 70

4. The management of the household shall be the right and the duty of both spouses – Art. 71
Parental Authority

Title IX of the Family Code of the Philippines

Art. 210. Parental authority and responsibility may not be renounced or transferred except in the
cases authorized by law. (313a)

Art. 211. The father and the mother shall jointly exercise parental authority over the persons of
their common children. In case of disagreement, the father's decision shall prevail, unless there is
a judicial order to the contrary.

Family Structures

I. Organizational Structure. basis is on kinship membership and internal organization of family.

1. Nuclear – consist of father, mother with child/ children

2. Extended – Stretched out organization of family that consist of nuclear family and
relatives

3. Polygynous – Family consist of father with 2 or more mothers and their children

4. Polyandrous – Family constitutes of a mother with 2 or more fathers and their children

5. Single-Parent – Family constitute of a single parents, either a father or mother with

children

II. Authority Base. basis is on family members supremacy in the exercise of powers and
predominant influence in managing the family

1. Patriarchal – father plays the dominant role

2. Matriarchal – Mother plays the dominant role in having supremacy and predominant
influence oven in managing the family.

3. Egalitarian – Both father and mother are involved in more or less equal power sharing
and exercise of influence in managing the family.

III. Residential Arrangement. Basis is on the customary practice of fixing the location of the
domicile or permanent residence of the family.

1. Neolocal – customary practice of living independently from the relatives and whose
domicile is fixed away from the extended family

2. Patrilocal – Customary arrangement whereby a married couple is expected to take up

residence with relatives of the father side.

3. Matrilocal – married couple is expected to take up residence with relatives of the mother
side

4. Bilocal – Married couple is free to take up residence with relatives of either the mother
or father side.

IV. Descent Alignment. Basis is on the attachment to the dominating and prevailing cultural norms
of the mother or father side’s family of relatives.

1. Matrilineal – Family on mother side provide greater support, exert greater influence and
predominantly impose its norms on the family.
 2. Patrilineal – Family relatives on father side provide greater support

3. Bilateral – Family relatives on both mother and father side provide support, exert greater
influence and predominantly impose its norms on the family on more or less equal terms.

Courtship and Marriage

Courtship – customary practices in the pursuit of attracting and winning a partner for consensus
relationship.

Marriage – considered as an institution because the essence of it is part of a normative system

built on beliefs, social norms and values.

The family code of the Philippines prescribes the requisites for parties contracting marriage in the
Philippines as follows:

(1) Legal capacity of the contracting parties who must be a male and a female; and

(2) Consent freely given in the presence of the solemnizing officer.

(3) Authority of the solemnizing officer. Marriage maybe solemnized by:

1. Any incumbent member of the judiciary within the court's jurisdiction;

2. Any priest, rabbi, imam, or minister of any church or religious sect duly
authorized by his church or religious sect and registered with the civil registrar
general, acting within the limits of the written authority granted by his church or
religious sect and provided that at least one of the contracting parties belongs to
the solemnizing officer's church or religious sect;

3. Any ship captain or airplane chief only in the case mentioned in Article 31;
4. Any military commander of a unit to which a chaplain is assigned, in the absence
of the latter, during a military operation, likewise only in the cases mentioned in
Article 32;

5. Any consul-general, consul or vice-consul in the case provided in Article 10.

(4) A valid marriage license except in the cases provided for in Chapter 2 of this Title; and

(5) A marriage ceremony which takes place with the appearance of the contracting parties
before the solemnizing officer and their personal declaration that they take each other as
husband and wife in the presence of not less than two witnesses of legal age.

Code of Muslim personal Laws of the Philippines (CMPL) requirements for marriage:

(a) Legal capacity of the contracting parties;

(b) Mutual consent of the parties freely given;

(c) Offer (ijab) and acceptance (qabul) duly witnessed by at least two competent persons
after the proper guardian in marriage (wali) has given his consent; and

(d) Stipulation of customary dower (mahr) duly witnessed by two competent persons.
Marriage Partner Selection Practices

Selection of a marriage partner revolves around two norms imposed b society mainly in
accordance to customs and traditions:

1. Endogamy. Selection of a marriage partner within one’s group through kinship or

ethnicity.

11.1 Levirate – Customary practice that prescribes or prompts a widow to become

a successor as wife of the brother or nearest male relative of her deceased
husband.

11.2 Sororate - Customary practice that prescribes or prompts a widower to

become a successor as husband of the sister or nearest female relative of her
deceased husband.

2. Exogamy. Selection of marriage partner from outside one’s group who is not related by
kinship

3 norms of marriage

1. Monogamy – marriage that take place between man and woman

2. Polygamy – multiple partners

2.1 Polygyny – Man and multiple wives

2.2 Polyandry – Woman and multiple husbands

2.3 Group Marriage – between multiple pair taken as group

Annulment and Legal Separation

Divorce – absolute termination of marriage contract resulting to extinguished marital status and
all of its rights and privileges.

- Not allowed in the Philippines

Legal Separation – dissolves conjugal partnership but not status of being married

The Family Code of the Philippines grounds for legal separation as follows:

(1) Habitual and Grave Violence or Abuse. Repeated physical violence or grossly abusive
conduct directed against the petitioner, a common child, or a child of the petitioner;
(2) Coercion on Beliefs. Physical violence or moral pressure to compel the petitioner to
change religious or political affiliation;
(3) Corruption of Minor. Attempt of respondent to corrupt or induce the petitioner, a
common child, or a child of the petitioner, to engage in prostitution, or connivance in such
corruption or inducement;
(4) Penalty of “Prison Mayor”. Final judgment sentencing the respondent to imprisonment
of more than six years, even if pardoned;
(5) Dangerous Vices. Drug addiction or habitual alcoholism of the respondent;
 (6) Homosexuality. Lesbianism or homosexuality of the respondent;
(7) Bigamy. Contracting by the respondent of a subsequent bigamous marriage, whether
in the Philippines or abroad;
(8) Abnormal Sexual Behavior. Sexual infidelity or perversion;
(9) Threat to life. Attempt by the respondent against the life of the petitioner; or
(10) Desertion. Abandonment of petitioner by respondent without justifiable cause for
more than one year.
Annulment - nullifies or voids the marriage due to the following reasons listed under Title I,
Chapter 3 The Family Code of the Philippines grounds for legal separation as follows:

(1) Ineligibility. That the party in whose behalf it is sought to have the marriage annulled
was eighteen years of age or over but below twenty-one, and the marriage was solemnized
without the consent of the parents, guardian or person having substitute parental
authority over the party, in that order, unless after attaining the age of twenty-one, such
party freely cohabited with the other and both lived together as husband and wife;
(2) Mental illness. That either party was of unsound mind, unless such party after coming
to reason, freely cohabited with the other as husband and wife;
(3) Fraud. That the consent of either party was obtained by fraud, unless such party
afterwards, with full knowledge of the facts constituting the fraud, freely cohabited with
the other as husband and wife;
(4) Forced Marriage. That the consent of either party was obtained by force, intimidation
or undue influence, unless the same having disappeared or ceased, such party thereafter
freely cohabited with the other as husband and wife;
(5) Sexual Incapacity. That either party was physically incapable of consummating the
marriage with the other, and such incapacity continues and appears to be incurable; or
(6) Sexually Transmitted Disease. That either party was afflicted with a sexually-
transmissible disease found to be serious and appears to be incurable.
Crimes against Marriage
Act No. 3815 The Revised Penal Code of the Philippines with subsequent related penal laws:
1. Adultery. is committed by any married woman who shall have sexual intercourse with a
man not her husband and by the man who has carnal knowledge of her knowing her to be
married, even if the marriage be subsequently declared void. (Article 333)
2. Concubinage. Any husband who shall keep a mistress in the conjugal dwelling, or shall
have sexual intercourse, under scandalous circumstances, with a woman who is not his
wife, or shall cohabit with her in any other place, shall be punished by prision correccional
in its minimum and medium periods. (Article 334)
3. Bigamy. The penalty of prision mayor shall be imposed upon any person who shall
contract a second or subsequent marriage before the former marriage has been legally
dissolved, or before the absent spouse has been declared presumptively dead by means
of a judgment rendered in the proper proceedings. (Article 349)
4. Marital Rape. Unlawful sexual acts of the husband against the will of the wife
 CHAPTER 11
EDUCATIONAL AND RELIGIOUS INSTITUTION

Educational Institution – refers to the established normative of providing and receiving education
and training.

Education – defined as a process of learning that involves developing the cognitive, affective and
psychomotor skills of a person which leads to change.

Educational Purpose

1. Knowledge Acquisition – Schools lay down the foundations for structured learning and
providing students with range learning tools, materials and interactive learning experience.

2. Skills Development – Develop talents through support and training

3. Values Formation – schools mould the character of students

4. Socialization – school offers new environment, a second home and second family.

5. Life Preparation – School prepare the student for a life of independence, self-reliance and
competence for an occupation or job.

Getzels-Guba Model of Organization as a Social System

1. Structure – Administration and supervisions are considered to be a series of super ordinate-

subordinate relationship within a social system.

2. Function – refers to hierarchy of relationships as the basis for allocating and integrating roles
to accomplish goals.

3. Operation – process that occurs in person-person interaction.

The social system seen in the educational system contains 2 interdependent but interacting
dimension:

1. Ideographic Dimension – This pertains to the personal dimension of goals expressed

through individuals, personalities

2. Nomothetic Dimension – Institutional dimension that is defined in terms of terms of

roles and role expectations designed to fulfil goals.

Getzels and Guba maintain that all institutions have the common characteristics and necessary
functions as enumerated:

1. Purposes. Institutions are goal-oriented and function towards the attainment of goal

2. Structure. Institutional goals are achieved through diverse tasking or distribution of

labor according to assigned roles.

3. Normative System. Roles serve as norms for the behaviour of others within the ranks
they similarly occupy.

4. Sanctions. Institutions apply a system of incentives and sanctions for ensuring

compliance with established norms.
Philippine Education System

Educational Objectives

In accordance to Batas Pambansa 232 known as Education Arts of 19822 has the following aims:

1. Provide for a broad general education that will assist each individuals in the peculiar
ecology of his own society, to (a) attain his potentials as a human being; (b) enhance the
range and quality of individual and group participation in the basic functions of society;
and (c) acquire the essential educational foundation of his development into a productive
and versatile citizen;
2. Train the nation's manpower in the middle-level skills for national development;
3. Develop the profession that will provide leadership for the nation in the advancement
of knowledge for improving the quality of human life; and
4. Respond effectively to changing needs and conditions of the nation through a system of
educational planning and evaluation.
Types of education

Republic Act NO. 9155 known as Governance of Basic education Act of 2001 defines 3 types of
education:

1. Formal Education – is the systematic and deliberate process of hierarchically structured

and sequential learning corresponding to the general concept of elementary and
secondary level of schooling. At the end of each level, the learner needs a certification in
order to enter or advance to the next level;
2. Informal Education – is a lifelong process of learning by which every person acquires and
accumulates knowledge, skills, attitudes and insights from daily experiences at home, at
work, at play and from life itself;
3. Non-Formal Education – is any organized, systematic educational activity carried outside
the framework of the formal system to provide selected types of learning to a segment of
the population;
Educational Agencies
1. Department of education (deped). Supervises all basic education institutions.
1.1 Bureau of Elementary education (BEE) – responsible for providing access and
quality elementary education for all.
1.2 Bureau of Secondary Education (BSE) - responsible for providing access and
quality secondary education for all.
1.3 Bureau of Alternative Learning System (BALS) – contributes to improvement of
poor through literacy and continuing programs.
1.4 Bureau of Physical Education and School Sports (BPESS)
2. Commission on Higher Education (CHED) – The commission is responsible for the
development and efficient operation of the system of higher education in the country.
3. Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA). The authority sets skills
standards and tests for technical-vocational education and training.
Structure and Organization
I. Basic Education. It is the education intended to meet basic learning needs which lays the
foundation on which subsequent learning can be based.
a. Kindergarten Education. The level of education hat intends to prepare 5-6 year old
children for formal schooling and at the same time narrow down adjustment and learning
gaps.
b. Elementary Education – First stage of free compulsory, formal education primarily
concerned with providing basic education to pupils typically aged 7-12.
c. Secondary Education – stage of free formal education following the elementary level
concerned for continuity of basic education typical ages 13 to 16.
II. Special Needs Education. Pupils who are identified as gifted or talented, and those with learning
impediments or impairments that require special needs and approach.
III. Alternative Learning System. A parallel learning system that provides a viable alternative to the
existing formal educational instruction and encompasses both non-formal and formal sources of
knowledge and skills.
1. Basic Literacy Program. Aims at eradicating illiteracy among out of school youth and
adults.
2. Accreditation and Equivalency Programs (A&E) program aims at providing an alternative
pathway of learning for those who are literate but have not completed basic education.
3. Indigenous People Education. Research and Development project aims to provide basic
education support services to indigenous communities.
4. Arabic Literacy and Islamic Values Education (ALIVE). Refers to madrasah educational system
designed for Arabic and Islamic-oriented basic education of Muslims.
IV. Vocational Education. Education process designed at post-secondary and lower tertiary levels,
officially recognized as non-degree programs aimed at preparing technicians, para professionals
and other middle-level workers.
V. Higher Education. Internal formation of professionally competent, service-oriented, principled
and productive citizens by time of graduation.
1. State Universities and Colleges
2. Local Universities and Colleges
3. Private Institution
3.1 Sectarian Schools
3.2 Non-Sectarian Schools
Problems and Issues in Public School Education
1. Budget Allocation.
2. Schools and Classroom.
3. School Facilities.
4. Student-teacher Ratio.
5. Teacher Salary.
6. Textbooks.
7. Medium of Interaction.
8. Student Drop-out Rate.
9. Teacher Competency.
10. Curriculum

Religious institution refers to the established normative system of religious worship and practice
as part significant aspect of social life.
Religion – system of beliefs and practices towards the sacred and the divine.
Classification of Belief Systems
1. Animism. Around idea of invisible forces in nature and existence of spirits dwelling in
physical world and ways influence the living.
2. Monotheism. Idea of a single supreme being with no co-equal or inferior gods.
3. Hemotheism. Revolves around idea of single supreme-being with multi personas or
infinite forms such as Hindulum.
4. Polytheism. Revolves idea as a family or hierarchy of Gods.

Religious organization responsible for this institutional function and purposes as enumerated:
1. Spiritual Guidance. Religion influences belief of a person
2. Regulation.
3. Legitimacy. Religion incorporates some beliefs, social norms and values of society.
4. Socialization.
5. Brotherhood. Helping brothers and sisters out.
Religious Norms
1. Apostasy. Taking out text what scripture says
2. Blasphemy. Speaking about God that constitutes verbal abuse
3. Sacrilege. Transgression against religious virtues including inappropriate acts of treating
religious persons.
4. Heresy. Teachings contrary to faith regarded as false, lies and deceiving
5. Hariin. Term in islamic religion equivalent to taboo or something strictly forbidden.

Sources of Religious Authority, Faith and Teachings

1. Sacred Scriptures. Refers to divine revelations that have been written down as instructed by the
divine.
2. Philosophy and Theology. Truth discovered in the light of natural reason to the extent of rational
capability of man.
3. Tradition. This can refer to the oral narratives of those who bear witness to the events of life
4. Spiritual Encounter. Persons encounter with the divine as in the case of being called upon for a
mission or vocation.

Structural Elements of Religion

1. Dogmas. Pertains to established beliefs, definitive declaration and infallible truths.
2. Doctrines. Refer to the official teachings of the religion which members of a religion must know,
understand and follow
3. Rituals and Ceremonies. Includes all forms of solemn acts involving sacrifices, celebration of
mass, religious practices.
4. Prayer and Worship. Refer to communicating and connecting with the divine or spirits.
5. Symbols and Relics. Any objects that represents or symbolize the sacred or divine.

Classification of Religious Organization

1. The Church. Used to refer to the dominant religion in the society in terms of majority members.
2. Sect. Religious groups or factions that have separated out of conflict of parent church.
3. Denomination. Independently founded and are originators of their own religious group
4. Cult. Group with fanatical following founded on lose doctrines but more on tight rituals and
ceremonies.

Separation of Church and State

Article II, section 6 of the 1997 constitution which states that “The separation of the Church and
State shall be inviolable”.
 CHAPTER 12

POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC INSTITUTION

Political Institution or politics refers to the established normative system of acquiring and exercising
power through political processes and activities. Social Functions are as follows:

1. The promotion and protection of the common interest of members of society.

2. The maintenance of peace and order in society.

3. The regulation of the rights and freedoms of members of society.

4. The provision of social services to the public.

5. The dispensation of justice and society.

Power – ability to influence and control the actions and behaviour of others.

1. Legitimacy Rule. Claim for valid recognition of position and function derived and confirmed from
consensus of people such as through election and patronage.

2. Authority. Rightful assumption to command obedience and direct course of action through established
superiority or ascendancy.

3. Influence. Ways and means of producing and manipulating desired outcomes.

State and Government

1. People. Refers to inhabitants of a place composed of at least two persons of opposite sexes who are
able to reproduce together in close proximity.

2. Territory. Refers to the terrestrial (land), fluvial (bodies of water), and aerial (airspace) that the state
has jurisdiction.

3. Government. Refers to the instrument of the state through which the will of the state is carried out.

4. Sovereignty. Refers to the supreme authority or ultimate will of the state.

Forms of Government

I. According to establishment

1. De Jure – government recognized as legitimate in accordance to legal provisions and process

2. De Facto – established without any legal basis or legitimate claim contrary to existing laws.

II. According to Sovereignty

1. Dictatorship or Monarchy – Gov. wherein sovereign power rests in only one person.

1.1 Absolute Monarchy – unlimited and unchecked powers

1.2 Constitutional Monarchy – powers are provided and limited by a constitution

2. Oligarchy or Aristocracy – Gov. wherein sovereign power rests in a group who belong to elite.

2.1 Oligarchy – used to refer to rule by oligarchs who occupy upper social strata.

2.2 Aristocracy – rule by aristocrats or persons of nobility.

3. Democracy – sovereign power rests in the majority.

3.1 Direct or Pure Democracy – directly participates in political affairs

 3.2 Indirect or Representative democracy – indirectly participates

III. According to Power Concentration

1. Unitary. Power are centralized or concentrated towards the center which is the national or central
government.

2. Federal. Federal government exercise powers only for national and foreign affairs.

Economic Structure and Sytems

Ecoonomic units are enumerated as follows:

1. Households. Workers, buyers, customers, clients, etc.

2. Business Firms. Operated by entrepreneurs to produce and supply goods and services for consumers.

3. Financial Agencies. Provide business capital, credit and investments to households.

4. Government. Public officials and servants.

5. Foreign economics. Countries that have established economic relations

Economic Activities

1. Production. Making or generating goods and services

Factors:

1. Land. Important factor in production

2. Labor

3. Capital

4. Enterprenur

2. Distribution. Allocating or delivering goods and services by consumers

3. Consumption. Utilizes of goods and services by consumers

4. Exchange. Transaction and trading for goods and services for acquisition of lacking resources.

Economic Systems

Refers to set of institutions that direct or guide economic activities through established mechanisms.

1. Tradition.

2. Command.

3. Market.

Economic Ideology

Refers to belief system of an ideal or preferred economic order for society.

1. Capitalism.

2. Socialism.

3. Communism.
Political Ideology

1. Conservatism. Established customary and traditional practices and laws and long-time held values

2. Liberalism. Rational beings are assumed to be responsible and capable enough to direct progress

3. Authoritarianism. Individuals are assumed to be incapable and irresponsible on their own

4. Anarchism. Base on the assumption that people are better left on their own through voluntary
association

International Community and Relations

Some International Law:

1. Geneva Conventions of 1949

2. Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations

3. Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties

4. Vienna Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)

5. Paris Convention of 1919

Poverty-Related Problems

1. Food Security.

2. Land and Housing.

3. Unemployment and Underemployment.

4. Job security.

5. Cost Living.

6. Labor Issues.

7. Healthcare.

8. Public Infrastructures.

9. Tax evasion.

10. Domestic and Foreign debts.