Introduction to Compressible

Flow
Dρ
≠0
Dt

The density of a gas changes significantly along a streamline

Compressible Flow
Definition of Compressibility: the fractional change in
volume of the fluid element per unit change in pressure

p p + dp

p p p + dp
v v − dv p + dp

p p + dp

Compressible Flow
V local velocity
1. Mach Number: M = =
c speed of sound
2. Compressibility becomes important for High Speed
Flows where M > 0.3
• M < 0.3 – Subsonic & incompressible
• 0.3 <M < 0.8 – Subsonic & compressible
• 0.8 <M < 1.2 – transonic flow – shock waves appear
mixed subsonic and sonic flow regime
• 1.2 <M < 3.0 - Supersonic – shock waves are present
but NO subsonic flow
• M > 3.0 – Hypersonic Flow, shock waves and other
flow changes are very strong

1
 Compressible Flow
3. Significant changes in velocity and pressure result
in density variations throughout a flow field

4. Large Temperature variations result in density

variations.

As a result we now have two new variables we must solve for:

T&ρ
We need 2 new equations.
We will solve: mass, linear momentum, energy and an equation of state.

Important Effects of Compressibility on Flow

1. Choked Flow – a flow rate in a duct is limited by

the sonic condition
2. Sound Wave/Pressure Waves – rise and fall of
pressure during the passage of an acoustic/sound
wave. The magnitude of the pressure change is
very small.
3. Shock Waves – nearly discontinuous property
changes in supersonic flow. (Explosions, high
speed flight, gun firing, nuclear explosion)
4. A pressure ratio of 2:1 will cause sonic flow

Applications

1. Nozzles and Diffusers and converging

diverging nozzles
2. Turbines, fans & pumps
3. Throttles – flow regulators, an obstruction
in a duct that controls pressure drop.
4. One Dimensional Isentropic Flow –
compressible pipe flow.

2
 Approach
• Control volume approach
• Steady, One-dimension, Uniform Flow
• Additional Thermodynamics Concepts are
needed
• Restrict our analysis to ideal gases

Thermodynamics

• Equation of State – Ideal Gas Law

p = ρ RT
Ru Universal Gas Constant 8314 J/(kmol ⋅ K)
R= = = = 287 J/(kg ⋅ K)
Mm Molecular mass of air 28 .97kg/kmol

Temperature is absolute and the specific volume is

(volume per unit mass):
1
v=
ρ

Thermodynamics – Internal Energy &

Enthalpy
• Internal Energy – individual particle kinetic energy.
Summation of molecular vibrational and rotational energy.
u~ = u~ (v , T )
 ∂ u~   ∂ u~ 
d u~ =   dT +   dv
 ∂T  v  ∂v  T

• For an ideal gas u~ = u~ (T )

d u~ = cv dT

• Recall from our integral form of the Energy Equation for

Enthalpy of an ideal gas: h = u~ + pv
h = h (T )
dh = c p dT

3
 Thermodynamics – Internal Energy &
Enthalpy
h = u~ + pv
h = u~ + RT p
= RT
ρ
dh = d u~ + RdT
Substituting:
dh = c p dT d u~ = c v dT
dh = d u~ + RdT
c p dT = c v dT + RdT
c p = cv + R
c p − c v = R = const

Thermodynamics – Internal Energy &

Enthalpy
cp
Define the ratio of specific heats: k≡ = const
cv
Then,
kR
cp =
k −1
R
cv =
k −1
For Air:
cp = 1004 J/kg-K
k = 1.4

The 2nd Law of Thermodynamics & Isentropic

Processes
We define entropy by:
 δQ 
ds =  
 T  rev
Combining the 1st and 2nd Laws gives us Gibb’s Equation
dp
Tds = dh −
ρ

Tds = c p dT −
dp dh = c p dT
ρ
2 2 2
dT dp 1 R
∫ ds = c ∫
1
p
1
T
− R∫
1
p ρT
=
p

4
 The 2nd Law of Thermodynamics & Isentropic
Processes
T2 p
s 2 − s1 = c p ln − R ln 2
T1 p1

For an Isentropic process: adiabatic and reversible

We get the following power law relationship
k
k
p 2  T2  k −1  ρ 2 
=  =  
p1  T1   ρ1 

Control Volume Analysis of a Finite Strength

Pressure Wave
Moving Wave of Frontal Area A Stationary Wave
Reference frame moving with wave
c
1 2
p + ∆p p p + ∆p
p
ρ ρ + ∆ρ ρ ρ + ∆ρ
T + ∆T T T + ∆T
T
V =0 ∆V V =c V = c − ∆V

Steady State Continuity Equation (Solve for the induced velocity ∆V):

∫ ρ (V • nˆ )dA = − ∫ ρcdA + ∫ (ρ + ∆ρ )(c − ∆V )dA

r
0=
CS 1 2

ρ cA = ( ρ + ∆ ρ )(c − ∆ V )A
ρ c = c ( ρ + ∆ ρ ) − ∆ V (ρ + ∆ ρ )
∆ρ
∆V = c (A)
ρ + ∆ρ
The Speed of sound (c) is the rate of propagation of a pressure wave of infinitesimal
strength through a still fluid.

Control Volume Analysis of a Finite Strength

Pressure Wave
1 2
p p + ∆p
Steady State Momentum Equation: ρ + ∆ρ
ρ
(Find ∆p and c) T + ∆T
T

∫ ρV (V • nˆ )dA = m& (V
r
− V1 )
V = c − ∆V
∑F
V =c
x = x 2
CS

pA − ( p + ∆ p ) A = ρ cA (c − ∆ V − c )
∆ p = ρ c∆ V (B)
Now combine A & B and solve for the speed of sound:
∆ p ρ + ∆ ρ ∆p  ∆ρ 
c2 = =  1 + 
∆ρ ρ ∆ρ  ρ 
∂p
c2 = in the limit of ∆ ρ → 0
∂ρ

p
Small Amplitude moderate frequency waves are
= const
isentropic and
ρk

5
 Control Volume Analysis of a Finite Strength
Pressure Wave
Calculating the Speed of Sound for an ideal gas:
p
= const
ρk
∂p p p
=k c= k = kRT
∂ρ ρ ρ

c= kRT Typical Speeds of Sound

Fluid c (m/s)
Gases:
For Air: H2 1,294
Air 340
cp
k= ≈ 1 .4
cv Liquids:
R = 287 J/(kg ⋅ K) Water 1,490
Ethyl Alcohol 1,200

Data From White 2003

Example 1: Speed of sound calculation

Determine the speed of sound in Argon (Ar) at 120 oC. MW = 40
kg/kmol:

c= kRT
Ru 8314 J/(kmol ⋅ K)
R= = = 207 .9 J/(kg ⋅ K)
Mm 4 0kg/kmol
cp
k= ≈ 1 .668
cv

c = 1 .668 (207 .9 J/kgK )(393 K ) = 318 .8 ms -1

Movement of a sound source

and wave propagation

Source moves to the right at a speed V

Zone of silence
Mach cone
3 c ∆t
α
V<c V>c

V=0
V ∆t V ∆t
V ∆t
V 1
sin α = =
c M

6
 Example 2: a needle nose projectile traveling at a
speed of M=3 passes 200m above an observer. Find
the projectiles velocity and determine how far
beyond the observer the projectile will first be heard

M =3

200 m

Example 2: a needle nose projectile traveling at a

speed of M=3 passes 200m above an observer. Find
the projectiles velocity and determine how far
beyond the observer the projectile will first be heard

c = kRT = 1.4(287 )(300 ) = 347.2m/s

V = Mc = 3(347.2 ) = 1041.6m/s
 1  −1  1 
α = sin −1   = sin   = 19.5
o

M   3
200m
tan α =
x
200m
x= = 565m
tan 19.5

Steady Isentropic Flow – Control Volume

Analysis

Applications where the assumptions of steady,

uniform, isentropic flow are reasonable:

1. Exhaust gasses passing through the blades

of a turbine.
2. Diffuser near the front of a jet engine
3. Nozzles on a rocket engine
4. A broken natural gas line

7
 Steady Isentropic Flow
1 2
h h + dh
ρ ρ + dρ
V V + dV
T T + dT
p p + dp

dx
Steady State Continuity Equation:

( )
r
0 = ∫ ρ V • nˆ dA = − ρ1V1 A1 + ρ 2V 2 A2
CS

ρ VA = ( ρ + d ρ )(V + dV )( A + dA )
ρ VA = ρ AV + ρ VdA + VAd ρ + Vd ρ dA + ρ AdV + ρ dAdV + Ad ρ dV + d ρ dAdV

Steady Isentropic Flow

1 2
h h + dh
ρ ρ + dρ
V V + dV
T T + dT
p p + dp

dx
Steady State Continuity Equation:

∫ ρ (V • nˆ )dA = − ρ V A
r
0= 1 1 1 + ρ 2V 2 A2
CS

ρ VA = ( ρ + d ρ )(V + dV )( A + dA ) ~ 0 ~0 ~0 ~0
ρ VA = ρ AV + ρ VdA + VAd ρ + Vd ρ dA + ρ AdV + ρ dAdV + Ad ρ dV + d ρ dAdV

dA d ρ dV
0= + +
A ρ V

Only retain 1st order differential terms & divide

By ρVA

Steady Isentropic Flow

1 2
h h + dh
ρ ρ + dρ
V V + dV
T T + dT
p p + dp

dx

Steady State Energy Equation with

1 inlet & 1 exit:
Q& − W& s V 22 − V12
= + g ( z 2 − z1 ) + (u~ + pv )2 − (u~ + pv )1
m& 2
Neglecting potential energy and recalling: h = u~ + pv
Q& − W& s V 22 − V12
= + h2 − h1
m& 2
Assuming and ideal gas:
Q& − W& s V 22 − V12
= + c p (T2 − T1 )
m& 2

8
 Steady Isentropic Flow
1 2
h h + dh
ρ ρ + dρ
V V + dV
T T + dT
p p + dp

Steady State Energy Equation with 1 inlet dx

& 1 exit, neglecting potential energy &
assuming Isentropic duct flow:

V22 V2
+ h2 = 1 + h1
2 2
Assuming and ideal gas:
V22 V2
+ c p T2 = 1 + c p T1
2 2
V22 k V2 k
+ RT 2 = 1 + RT1
2 k −1 2 k −1

Stagnation Conditions 2
Insolated
walls
1

Assume the area A2is so big V2 ~ 0, then

V12
h2 = + h1 = ho Stagnation enthalpy
2
Similarly, as we adiabatically bring a fluid parcel to zero velocity
there is a corresponding increase in temperature
V22 V2
+ c p T2 = 1 + c p T1
2 2
V2
To = +T Stagnation Temperature
2c p

Stagnation Conditions – maximum velocity

V2
To = +T (+)
2c p

If the temperature, T is taken taken down to absolute zero,

then (+) can be solved for the maximum velocity:

V max = 2 c p To

No higher velocity is possible unless energy is added to the

flow through heat transfer or shaft work.

9
Stagnation Conditions – Mach number relations
V
Recall, that the Mach number is defined as: M =
c
V2
To = +T For Ideal gases:
2c p
 kR 
2
To V 1
= +1 c pT =  T = kRT
T T 2c p  k −1 k −1
c2
To k − 1 V 2 k −1 2 cp
= 2
+1 = M +1
T 2 c 2

To k − 1 2
= M +1
T 2

Stagnation Conditions – Isentropic pressure &

density relationships

To k − 1 2
= M +1
T 2
k k
p o  To  k −1  k − 1 2  k −1
=  = M + 1
p T   2 
1 1
ρ o  To  k −1  k − 1 2  k −1
=  = M + 1
ρ T   2 

Critical Values: conditions when M = 1

T*  2 
= 
To  k + 1 
k
p *  2  k −1
= 
po  k + 1 
1
ρ *  2  k −1
= 
ρo  k +1 
1
c*  2  2
= 
co  k + 1 

10
 Critical Values: conditions when M = 1
For Air k = 1.4
T*  2 
=  = 0 .8333
To  k + 1 
k
p *  2  k −1
=  = 0 .5283
po  k + 1 
1
ρ *  2  k −1
=  = 0 .9129
ρo  k + 1
1
c*  2  2
=  = 0 .9129
co  k + 1 

In all isentropic flow, all critical values are constant.

Critical Values: conditions when M = 1

Critical Velocity: is the speed of sound c*
1
c*  2  2
= 
co  k + 1 
1 1
 2  2  2 kRT o  2
V * = c* = kRT * = c o   = 
 k +1  k +1 

Example 3: Stagnation Conditions

Air flows adiabatically through a duct. At point 1 the velocity
is 240 m/s, with T1 = 320K and p1 = 170kPa. Compute
(a) To
(b) Po
(c) ro
(d) M
(e) Vmax
(f) V*

11
 Steady Isentropic Duct Flow
1 2
h h + dh
ρ ρ + dρ
V V + dV
T T + dT
p p + dp

dx
Recall, for Steady isentropic flow Continuity:
dA d ρ dV dA d ρ dV
(†) 0 = + + =− −
A ρ V A ρ V
For compressible, isentropic flow the momentum equation is:
2
(*) 0 = dp + dV = dp + VdV Bernoulli’s Equation!
ρ 2 ρ neglecting gravity

Substitute (†) into (*)

dA dρ dp dp  1 dρ 
=− + =  − 
A ρ ρV 2 ρ  V 2 dp 

Steady Isentropic Duct Flow

1 2
h h + dh
ρ ρ + dρ
V V + dV
T T + dT
p p + dp

dA dp  1 dρ 
=  − 
A ρ  V 2 dp 
∂p
Recall that the speed of sound is: c =
2

∂ρ
dA dp  1 1  dp  V 2 
=  − =  1 − 2 
A ρ  V 2 c 2  ρ V 2  c 
V
Substituting the Mach number: M =
c
Describes how the pressure
dA
A
=
dp
ρV 2
(1 − M 2 ) behaves in nozzles and diffusers
under various flow conditions

Nozzle Flow Characteristics

dA
A
=
dp
ρV 2
(1 − M 2 )

1. Subsonic Flow: M < 1 and dA < 0, then dP < 0:

indicating a decrease in pressure in a converging P P
channel.
2. Supersonic Flow: M > 1 and dA < 0, then dP > 0:
indicating an increase in pressure in a converging P P
channel.
3. Subsonic Flow: M < 1 and dA > 0, then dP > 0 :
indicating an increase in pressure in a diverging P P
channel.
4. Supersonic Flow: M > 1 dA > 0, then dP < 0 :
indicating a decrease in pressure in a diverging P P
channel.

12
 Steady Isentropic Duct Flow – Nozzles
Diffusers and Converging Diverging Nozzles
Describes how the pressure
(††)
dA
A
=
dp
ρV 2
(1 − M 2 ) behaves in nozzles and diffusers
under various flow conditions

Recall, the momentum equation here is:

dp dp
0= + VdV = −VdV (**)
ρ ρ
Now substitute (**) into (††) :
dA dV
A
=
V
(M 2 − 1)
Or,
dA
=
dV V
A
(
M 2 −1 )

Nozzle Flow Characteristics

dA dV
A
=
V
M 2 −1( )

1. Subsonic Flow: M < 1 and dA < 0, then dV > 0:

indicating an accelerating flow in a converging
channel.
2. Supersonic Flow: M > 1 and dA < 0, then dV < 0:
indicating an decelerating flow in a converging
channel.
3. Subsonic Flow: M < 1 and dA > 0, then dV < 0 :
indicating an decelerating flow in a diverging
channel.
4. Supersonic Flow: M > 1 dA > 0, then dV > 0 :
indicating an accelerating flow in a diverging
channel.

Converging-Diverging Nozzles
Amin
Subsonic Supersonic
M=1

Amax
M<1
Subsonic Subsonic
Supersonic Supersonic
M>1

Flow can not be sonic

13
 Choked Flow – The maximum possible mass flow through a
duct occurs when it’s throat is at the sonic condition
Consider a converging Nozzle:
receiver pr
po
pe
To
Ve
ρo
plenum

Mass Flow Rate (ideal gas):

p V V
m& = ρ VA = VA M = =
RT c kRT
p k
m& = M kRT A = p MA
RT RT

k
m& = p MA
RT

Choked Flow
Mass Flow Rate (ideal gas):
k
m& = p MA
RT
Recall, the stagnation pressure and Temperature ratio and substitute:
k
po  k − 1 2  k −1 To k − 1 2
= M + 1 = M +1
p  2  T 2
k +1
k  k − 1 2  2 (1− k )
m& = p o MA  1 + M 
RT o  2 
If the critical area (A*) is where M=1:
k +1
k  k + 1  2 (1− k )
m& = p o A *  
RT o  2 
The critical area Ratio is:
k +1
A 1  2 + (k − 1)M 2  2 ( k −1 )
=  
A* M  k +1 

14