Liceo de Cagayan University School of Graduate Studies Page 1

PLANT NUTRITION

 Plants meet their nutritional needs for growth by absorbing soil nutrients, water, and carbon

dioxide, in addition to the required sunlight.

 Nutrients and water are absorbed through the plants root system.

 Carbon dioxide is absorbed through the leaves.

 From seedling to mature plant, there is a complex dynamic between plants and their

environment (soil and atmosphere).

Introduction

Plants are unique organisms that can absorb nutrients and water through their root system, as

well as carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Soil quality and climate are the major

determinants of plant distribution and growth. The combination of soil nutrients, water, and

carbon dioxide, along with sunlight, allows plants to grow. In order to develop into mature,

fruit -bearing plants, many requirements must be met and events must be coordinated.

Take for example the Cucurbitaceae family of plants that were the first cultivated in

Mesoamerica. The family includes many edible species, such as squash and pumpkin, as well

as inedible gourds. First, seeds must germinate under the right conditions in the soil; therefore,

temperature, moisture, and soil quality are important factors that play a role in germination and

seedling development. Soil quality and climate are significant to plant distribution and growth.

Second, the young seedling will eventually grow into a mature plant with the roots absorbing

nutrients and water from the soil.

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At the same time, the aboveground parts of the plant will absorb carbon dioxide from the

atmosphere and use energy from sunlight to produce organic compounds through

photosynthesis. Finally, the fruit are grown and matured and the cycle begins all over again

with the new seeds.

There is a complex dynamic between plants and soils that ultimately determines the outcome

and viability of plant life.

The Chemical Composition of Plants

Plants are composed of water, carbon-containing organics, and non-carbon-containing

inorganic substances such as potassium and nitrogen.

 Water comprises a large percentage of a plant’s total weight and is used to support cell

structure, for metabolic functions, to carry nutrients, and for photosynthesis.

 Water is absorbed from the soil through root hairs and is carried to the rest of the plant

through the xylem.

 Many essential organic and inorganic nutrients are required to sustain plant life.
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Water

Since plants require nutrients in the form of elements

such as carbon and potassium, it is important to

understand the chemical composition of plants. Most

of volume in a plant cell is water; it typically

comprises 80 to 90 percent of the plant’s total weight.

Soil is the water source for land plants. It can be an

abundant source of water even if it appears dry. Plant

roots absorb water from the soil through root hairs and transport it up to the leaves through the

xylem. As water vapor is lost from the leaves, the process of transpiration and the polarity of

water molecules (which enables them to form hydrogen bonds) draws more water from the

roots up through the plant to the leaves

Nutrients

Plant cells need essential substances, collectively called nutrients, to sustain life. Plant nutrients

may be composed of either organic or inorganic compounds. An organic compound is a

chemical compound that contains carbon, such as carbon dioxide obtained from the

atmosphere. Carbon that was obtained from atmospheric CO2 composes the majority of the

dry mass within most plants. An inorganic compound does not contain carbon and is not part

of, or produced by, a living organism. Inorganic substances (which form the majority of the

soil substance) are commonly called minerals: those required by plants include nitrogen (N)

and potassium (K), for structure and regulation.

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Essential Nutrients for Plants

Approximately 20 macronutrients and micronutrients are deemed essential nutrients to

support all the biochemical needs of plants.

 An element is essential if a plant cannot complete its life cycle without it, if no other

element can perform the same function, and if it is directly involved in nutrition.

 An essential nutrient required by the plant in large amounts is called a macronutrient, while

one required in very small amounts is termed a micronutrient.

 Missing or inadequate supplies of nutrients adversely affect plant growth, leading to

stunted growth, slow growth, chlorosis, or cell death.

 About half the essential nutrients are micronutrients such as boron, chlorine, manganese,

iron, zinc, copper, molybdenum, nickel, silicon, and sodium.

Plants require only light, water, and about 20 elements to support all their biochemical needs.

These 20 elements are called essential nutrients. For an element to be regarded as essential,

three criteria are required:

1. a plant cannot complete its life cycle without the element

2. no other element can perform the function of the element

3. the element is directly involved in plant nutrition

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Macronutrients and Micronutrients

The essential elements can be divided into macronutrients and micronutrients. Nutrients that

plants require in larger amounts are called macronutrients. About half of the essential elements

are considered macronutrients: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium,

calcium, magnesium, and sulfur. The first of these macronutrients, carbon (C), is required to

form carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids, and many other compounds; it is, therefore,

present in all macromolecules. On average, the dry weight (excluding water) of a cell is 50

percent carbon, making it a key part of plant biomolecules.

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Macronutrients

CHO Throughout the plant, organic compounds, sugar, cellulose,

starch, lipids
Component of amino acids (required for protein synthesis)
N nucleic acids (DNA, RNA), chlorophyll
Regulates osmotic balance, especially in stomatal
K opening/closing; enzyme activator
Major component of cell wall, mediate membrane
Ca permeability
Carries chemical energy in ATP
P

Micronutrients

 Carbohydrate synthesis and sugar transport in plants

Boron  Cell wall formation
Chlorine  Helps plant growth and regulates water loss
 Improve crop quality
Copper  CHO and N metabolism
 Well wall strength
Iron  Production of chlorophyll
 Component of enzyme
Manganese  Nitrogen metabolism
 Important in photosynthesis
Molybdenum  Nitrogen metabolism and protein synthesis
 Pollen formation
Zinc  Energy production
 Growth regulation
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Deficiencies in any of these nutrients, particularly the macronutrients, can adversely affect

plant growth. Depending on the specific nutrient, a lack can cause stunted growth, slow growth,

or chlorosis. Extreme deficiencies may result in leaves showing signs of cell death.
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The Soil

Soil is a mix of varying amounts of inorganic matter, organic matter, water, and air.

 The chemical composition of the soil, the topography, and the presence of living organisms

determines the quality of soil.

 In general, soil contains 40-45% inorganic matter, 5% organic matter, 25% water, and 25%

air.

 In order to sustain plant life, the proper mix of air, water, minerals, and organic material is

required.

 Humus, the organic material in soil, is composed of microorganisms (dead and alive) and

decaying plants.

 The inorganic material of soil is composed of rock, which is broken down into small

particles of sand (0.1 to 2 mm), silt (0.002 to 0.1 mm), and clay (less than 0.002 mm).

 Loam is a soil that is a mix sand, silt, and humus

Soil Composition

Plants obtain inorganic elements from the soil, which serves as a natural medium for land

plants. Soil is the outer, loose layer that covers the surface of Earth. Soil quality, a major

determinant, along with climate, of plant distribution and growth, depends not only on the

chemical composition of the soil, but also the topography (regional surface features) and the

presence of living organisms.

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Components of soil: The four major components of soil are shown: inorganic

minerals, organic matter, water, and air.

The amount of each of the four major components of soil depends on the quantity of vegetation,

soil compaction, and water present in the soil. A good, healthy soil has sufficient air, water,

minerals, and organic material to promote and sustain plant life.

The organic material of soil, called humus, is made up of microorganisms (dead and alive),

and dead animals and plants in varying stages of decay. Humus improves soil structure,

providing plants with water and minerals. The inorganic material of soil is composed of rock,

slowly broken down into smaller particles that vary in size. Soil particles that are 0.1 to 2 mm

in diameter are sand. Soil particles between 0.002 and 0.1 mm are called silt, and even smaller

particles, less than 0.002 mm in diameter, are called clay. Some soils have no loams.

dominant particle size, containing a mixture of sand, silt, and humus; these soils are called
loams.
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Soil Formation

Soil formation is the result of a combination of five factors: parent material, climate,

topography, biological factors, and time.

 Parent material is the organic and inorganic material from which soil is formed.

 Climate factors, such as temperature and wind, affect soil formation and its

characteristics; the presence of moisture and nutrients is also needed to form a

quality soil.

 Topography, or regional surface features, affects water runoff, which strips away

parent material and affects plant growth (the steeper the soil, the more erosion takes

place).

 The presence of microorganisms in soil creates pores and crevices; plants promote

the presence of microorganisms and contribute to soil formation.

 Soil formation takes place over long periods of time.

Soil formation is the consequence of a combination of biological, physical, and chemical

processes. Soil should ideally contain 50 percent solid material and 50 percent pore space.

About one-half of the pore space should contain water, while the other half should contain air.

The organic component of soil serves as a cementing agent, returns nutrients to the plant,

allows soil to store moisture, makes soil tillable for farming, and provides energy for soil

microorganisms. Most soil microorganisms, bacteria, algae, or fungi, are dormant in dry soil,

but become active once moisture is available.

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Parent Material

The organic and inorganic material in which soils form is the parent material. Mineral soils

form directly from the weathering of bedrock, the solid rock that lies beneath the soil; therefore,

they have a similar composition to the original rock. Other soils form in materials that came

from elsewhere, such as sand and glacial drift. Materials located in the depth of the soil are

relatively unchanged compared with the deposited material. Sediments in rivers may have

different characteristics, depending on whether the stream moves quickly or slowly. A fast-

moving river could have sediments of rocks and sand, whereas a slow-moving river could have

fine-textured material, such as clay.

Climate

Temperature, moisture, and wind cause different patterns of weathering, which affect soil

characteristics. The presence of moisture and nutrients from weathering will also promote

biological activity: a key component of a quality soil.

Topography

Regional surface features (familiarly called “the lay of the land”) can have a major influence

on the characteristics and fertility of a soil. Topography affects water runoff, which strips away

parent material and affects plant growth. Steep soils are more prone to erosion and may be

thinner than soils that are relatively flat or level.

Biological factors

The presence of living organisms greatly affects soil formation and structure. Animals and

microorganisms can produce pores and crevices.

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Plant roots can penetrate crevices to produce more fragmentation. Plant secretions promote the

development of microorganisms around the root in an area known as the rhizosphere.

Additionally, leaves and other material that fall from plants decompose and contribute to soil

composition.

Time

Time is an important factor in soil formation because soils develop over long periods. Soil

formation is a dynamic process. Materials are deposited over time, decompose, and transform

into other materials that can be used by living organisms or deposited onto the surface of the

soil.

Physical Properties of Soil

Soils are made up of combinations of

four distinct layer types or horizons:

O horizon, A horizon, B horizon, and

C horizonSome soils may have

additional layers, or lack one of these

layers. The thickness of the layers is

also variable, depending on the

factors that influence soil formation.

In general, immature soils may have

O, A, and C horizons, whereas mature

soils may display all of these, plus additional layers.

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Nutritional Adaptations of Plants

Nitrogen Fixation: Root and Bacteria Interactions

Plants cannot extract the necessary nitrogen from soil, so they form symbiotic relationships

with rhizobia that can fix it as ammonia.

 Diatomic nitrogen is abundant in the atmosphere and soil, but plants are unable to use it

because they do not have the necessary enzyme, nitrogenase, to convert it into a form that

they can use to make proteins.

 Soil bacteria, or rhizobia, are able to perform biological nitrogen fixation in which

atmospheric nitrogen gas (N2) is converted into the ammonia (NH3) that plants are able to

use to synthesize proteins.

 Both the plants and the bacteria benefit from the process of nitrogen fixation; the plant

obtains the nitrogen it needs to synthesize proteins, while the bacteria obtain carbon from

the plant and a secure environment to inhabit within the plant roots.

Nitrogen is an important macronutrient because it is part of nucleic acids and proteins.

Atmospheric nitrogen, which is the diatomic molecule N2, or dinitrogen, is the largest pool of

nitrogen in terrestrial ecosystems. However, plants cannot take advantage of this nitrogen

because they do not have the necessary enzymes to convert it into biologically useful forms.

However, nitrogen can be “fixed.” It can be converted to ammonia (NH3) through biological,

physical, or chemical processes. Biological nitrogen fixation (BNF), the conversion of

atmospheric nitrogen (N2) into ammonia (NH3), is exclusively carried out by prokaryotes,

such as soil bacteria or cyanobacteria.

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Biological processes contribute 65 percent of the nitrogen used in agriculture.

The most important source of BNF is the symbiotic interaction between soil bacteria and

legume plants, including many crops important to humans. The NH3 resulting from fixation

can be transported into plant tissue and incorporated into amino acids, which are then made

into plant proteins. Some legume seeds, such as soybeans and peanuts, contain high levels of

protein and are among the most important agricultural sources of protein in the world.

Diagram of the Nitrogen Cycle: Schematic representation of the nitrogen cycle. Abiotic nitrogen fixation has been omitted.

Nitrogen fixation in crops: Some common edible legumes, such as (a) peanuts, (b) beans, and (c) chickpeas, can interact
symbiotically with soil bacteria that fix nitrogen.
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Soil bacteria, collectively called rhizobia, symbiotically interact with legume roots to form

specialized structures called nodules in which nitrogen fixation takes place. This process

entails the reduction of atmospheric nitrogen to ammonia by means of the enzyme nitrogenase.

Therefore, using rhizobia is a natural and environmentally-friendly way to fertilize plants as

opposed to chemical fertilization that uses a non-renewable resource, such as natural gas.

Through symbiotic nitrogen fixation, the plant benefits from using an endless source of

nitrogen from the atmosphere. The process simultaneously contributes to soil fertility because

the plant root system leaves behind some of the biologically-available nitrogen. As in any

symbiosis, both organisms benefit from the interaction: the plant obtains ammonia and bacteria

obtain carbon compounds generated through photosynthesis, as well as a protected niche in

which to grow.

Rhizobia: Soybean roots contain (a) nitrogen-fixing nodules. Cells within the nodules are infected with Bradyrhyzobium
japonicum, a rhizobia or “root-loving” bacterium. The bacteria are encased in (b) vesicles inside the cell, as can be seen in
this transmission electron micrograph.
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Mycorrhizae: The Symbiotic Relationship between Fungi and Roots

Many plants form associations called mycorrhizae with fungi that give them access to

nutrients in the soil, protecting against disease and toxicities.

 Because nutrients are often depleted in the soil, most plants form symbiotic relationships

called mycorrhizae with fungi that integrate into the plant’s root.

 The relationship between plants and fungi is symbiotic because the plant obtains phosphate

and other minerals through the fungus, while the fungus obtains sugars from the plant root.

 The long extensions of the fungus, called hyphae, help increase the surface area of the plant

root system so that it can extend beyond the area of nutrient depletion.

 Ectomycorrhizae are a type of mycorrhizae that form a dense sheath around the plant roots,

called a mantle, from which the hyphae grow; in endomycorrhizae, mycelium is embedded

within the root tissue, as opposed to forming a sheath around it.

 In endomycorrhizae, mycelium is embedded within the root tissue, as opposed to forming

a sheath around it; these are found in the roots of most terrestrial plants.

A nutrient depletion zone can develop when there is rapid soil solution uptake, low nutrient

concentration, low diffusion rate, or low soil moisture. These conditions are very common;

therefore, most plants rely on fungi to facilitate the uptake of minerals from the soil.

Mycorrhizae, known as root fungi, form symbiotic associations with plant roots. In these

associations, the fungi are actually integrated into the physical structure of the root. The fungi

colonize the living root tissue during active plant growth.

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Mycorrhizae: Hyphae proliferate within

the mycorrhizae, which appears as off-
white fuzz in this image. These hyphae
greatly increase the surface area of the
plant root, allowing it to reach areas that
are not depleted of nutrients.

Ectomycorrhizae: Ectomycorrhizae
form sheaths, called a mantle,
around the roots of plants, as shown
in this image.

There are two types of mycorrhizae:

ectomycorrhizae and endomycorrhizae. Ectomycorrhizae form an extensive dense sheath

around the roots, called a mantle. Hyphae from the fungi extend from the mantle into the soil,

which increases the surface area for water and mineral absorption. This type of mycorrhizae is

found in forest trees, especially conifers, birches, and oaks. Endomycorrhizae, also called

arbuscular mycorrhizae, do not form a dense sheath over the root. Instead, the fungal mycelium

is embedded within the root tissue. Endomycorrhizae are found in the roots of more than 80

percent of terrestrial plants.

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Nutrients from Other Sources

Many species of plants are unable to make their food via photosynthesis and must acquire

nutrients in a variety of additional ways.

 Some plants are parasites, which acquire all of some of their nutrients from another host

plant and are, therefore, entirely dependent upon it for their survival.

 Saprophytes acquire nutrients from dead matter, using enzymes to convert complex organic

compounds into simpler forms from which the plant can absorb nutrients.

 A symbiont experiences a mutually-beneficial arrangement with a plant; both partners

contribute necessary nutrients to the other.

 An epiphyte is a plant that grows on other plants, but is not dependent upon the other plant

for nutrition; instead, it uses the other plant for physical support.

 Insectivorous plants have special adaptations for attracting and trapping insects, which they

use to supplement their own nutrients, depleted in the surrounding soil.

Some plants cannot produce their own food and must obtain their nutrition from outside

sources. This may occur with plants that are parasitic or saprophytic: ingesting and utilizing

dead matter as a food source. In other cases, plants may be mutualistic symbionts, epiphytes,

or insectivorous.
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Plant Parasites

A parasitic plant depends on its host for

survival. Some parasitic plants have no leaves.

Example is the Rafflesia, it is parasitic on

members of the genus Tetrastigma It has no

roots or leaves and most of the time lives

unobserved inside the woody stems and roots of

its host The parasitic plant obtains water and
nutrients through these connections. The plant is
a total parasite (a holoparasite) because it is
Rafflesia arnoldii
This southeast Asian plant has the largest known
individual flower in the world.. Rafflesia arnoldii only
becomes visible when its plump buds emerge through
the bark of its host and develop into the large, fleshy
flowers which are pollinated by carrion-flies.

completely dependent on its host. Other parasitic plants, called hemiparasites, are fully

photosynthetic and only use the host for water and minerals. There are about 4,100 species of

parasitic plants.

Saprophytes

A saprophyte is a plant that does not have

chlorophyll, obtaining its food from dead

matter, similar to bacteria and fungi. (Note

that fungi are often called saprophytes,

which is incorrect, because fungi are not

Mushrooms contain no chlorophyll and most are plants). Plants such as these use enzymes to
considered saprophytes. That is, they obtain their
nutrition from metabolizing non living organic matter. convert organic food materials into simpler
They break down and "eat" dead plants, like your
compost pile does.
Liceo de Cagayan University School of Graduate Studies Page 20

forms from which they can absorb nutrients. Most saprophytes do not directly digest dead

matter. Instead, they parasitize mycorrhizae or other fungi that digest dead matter, ultimately

obtaining photosynthate from a fungus that derived photosynthate from its host. Saprophytic

plants are uncommon with only a few, described species.

Symbionts

A symbiont is a plant in a symbiotic relationship with

other organisms, such as mycorrhizae (with fungi) or

nodule formation. Root nodules occur on plant roots

(primarily Fabaceae) that associate with symbiotic,

nitrogen-fixing bacteria. Under nitrogen-limiting

conditions, capable plants form a symbiotic

relationship with a host-specific strain of bacteria

known as rhizobia. Within legume nodules, nitrogen

gas from the atmosphere is converted into ammonia,

which is then assimilated into amino acids (the

Symbionts: Lichens, which result from the
symbiotic relationship between fungi and green
building blocks of proteins), nucleotides (the algae, are often seen growing on trees.

building blocks of DNA and RNA, as well as the

important energy molecule ATP), and other cellular constituents such as vitamins, flavones,

and hormones.
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Epiphytes

An epiphyte is a plant that grows on other plants, but

is not dependent upon the other plant for nutrition; it is

non-parasitic. The epiphyte derives its moisture and

nutrients from the air, rain, and sometimes from debris

accumulating around it instead of from the structure to

which it is fastened. Epiphytes have two types of roots:

clinging aerial roots (which absorb nutrients from

Epiphytic orchids have a number of special
adaptations to their roots to help them cling
humus that accumulates in the crevices of trees) and to trees and gather moisture from the air.

aerial roots (which absorb moisture from the atmosphere).

Insectivorous Plants

An insectivorous plant has specialized leaves to

attract and digest insects. The Venus flytrap is

popularly known for its insectivorous mode of

nutrition and has leaves that work as traps. There are

three sensitive hairs in the center of each half of

Insectivorous plants: A Venus flytrap has
specialized leaves to trap insects, which it
each leaf. The edges of each leaf are covered with
uses to supplement the low level of nutrients
in the soil in which it lives. long spines. Nectar secreted by the plant attracts

flies to the leaf. When a fly touches the sensory hairs, the leaf immediately closes. Fluids and

enzymes then break down the prey and minerals are absorbed by the leaf.
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QUIZZ

I. Multiple Choice

1. Which one of the following is not a micronutrient?

a) Magnesium
b) Molybdenum
c) Iron
d) Zinc
2. Which deficiency is associated with Nitrogen
a) Light green foliage, poor fruit development
b) Dark green foliage, suseptible to disease/pests.
c) Yellowing of the older leaves spreading to the younger ones.
3. Air temp is a major factor for crop production and growth factors
a) True
b) False
4. How many nutrients aid in the production of plants
a) 17
b) 14
c) 20
5. What are the beneficial Elements
a) Oxygen, Hydrogen, Carbon
b) Silicon, Vadinum, Cobalt
c) Nitrogen, Phosphorous, and Potassium
6. Most plants obtain their nitrogen from the soil in the form of
a) Nitric acid
b) Nitrates
c) Free nitrogen gas
d) Nitrogen oxide
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7. Obligate parasites are those organisms which

a) live only on living host
b) live only on dead and decaying organic matter
c) are essentially parasites but can also become saprophytes
d) are essentially saprophytes but can also become parasites
8. Nitrifying bacteria
a) Reduce nitrates to free nitrogen
b) Oxidize ammonia to nitrates
c) Convert free nitrogen to nitrogen compounds
d) Convert proteins into ammonia
9. Inorganic nutrients are present in the soil in the form of
a) Molecules
b) Atoms
c) Electrically charged ions
d) Organic compounds
10. Insectivorous plants grow where
a) There is carbohydrate deficient soil
b) There is nitrogen deficient soil
c) Vitamin c is required
d) Hormones are required

II. Essay

1. Explain the nitrogen cycle and why it is important to plants

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 OpenStax College, Biology. October 17, 2013. Provided by: OpenStax CNX. Located at:
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