TRANSMISSION LINES AND PROTECTION

CHAPTER-1
LINES AND SUBSTATION
LINES:
An overhead power line is a structure used in electric power
distribution and distribution to transmit electrical energy along large
distances. It consists of one or more conductors (commonly multiples
of three) suspended by towers or poles. Since most of the insulation is
provided by air, overhead power lines are generally the lowest-cost
method of power transmission for large quantities of electric energy.
Classification by operating voltage:
Overhead power transmission lines are classified in the electrical power
industry by the range of voltages:
• Low voltage (LV) – less than 1000 volts, used for connection between a
residential or small commercial customer and the utility.
• Medium voltage (MV; distribution) – between 1000 volts (1 kV) and 69
kV, used for distribution in urban and rural areas.
• High voltage (HV; sub transmission less than 100 kV; sub transmission
or transmission at voltages such as 115 kV and 138 kV), used for sub-
transmission and transmission of bulk quantities of electric power and
connection to very large consumers.
• Extra high voltage (EHV; transmission) – from 345 kV, up to about 800
kV, used for long distance, very high power transmission.
• Ultra high voltage (UHV) – higher than 800 kV. The Financial Times
reported UHV lines are a "game changer", making a global electricity
grid potentially feasible. State Grid said that compared to conventional
lines, UHV enables the transmission of five times more power, over six
times the distance.

Fig:1.1 Transmission lines

DEPARTMENT OF EEE -SIET 1

 TRANSMISSION LINES AND PROTECTION

1.1 EHV (EXTRA HIGH VOLTAGE) TRANSMISSION LINES:

It is used in below 400KV substations. Its network comprises of feeders, D.C
distribution boards and batteries. The transmission lines have necessary mechanical
characteristics like strength of supports, sag, tension etc under specified conditions. The
lines which convey the electrical energy from generating stations to the substations are
called as feeders. In our country 3-phase, 3-wire a.c system is most commonly adopted
for generation and transmission of electrical power, where as 3-phase, 4 wire a.c system
is adopted for distribution system through overhead lines.

1.2 MAIN COMPONENTS OF TRANSMISSION LINES:

The effective and efficient operation of O.H transmission lines depends on

the mechanical design of the line. In general components of overhead lines are:

1.2.1 CONDUCTORS:

Conductors means which conducts heavy currents through it with low

resistance , it is one of the most important items in transmission and distribution system
of electric power. Most of the capital cost is inverted on it. Hence, proper choice of
material and size of the conductor is at most importance. All conductors used for O.H
lines are preferably stranded to increase the flexibility. Generally in a stranded
conductor, there is one central wire and around this, there is a successive layer of wire
containing 6,12,18,24 wires.
The commonly used materials as O.H lines are copper, aluminum because of
their least possible electrical resistivity and used for making conductors for all types of
electrical machines, transformers, transmission and distribution lines.
Conductors are divided into four types:
1. ACSR (Aluminum conductor steel reinforce)
➢ Moose
➢ Zebra
➢ Panther
➢ Dog
2. AAC ( All aluminum conduct )
3. AAAC ( All aluminum alloy conductors)
4. ACAR (Aluminum conductor alloy reinforced)

DEPARTMENT OF EEE -SIET 2

 TRANSMISSION LINES AND PROTECTION

Fig: 1.2 Conductor

1.2.2 INSULATORS:

The function of the insulators is to provide insulation resistance for the leakage
current from the O.H line to support or earth and it has high resistance. Examples are
mica, glass, paper, rubber, porcelain. In substations we use porcelain insulators. A true
insulator is material that does not respond to an electric field and completely resists the
flow of electric charge. In practice, however, perfect insulators do not exist. Therefore,
dielectric materials with high dielectric constants are considered insulators. In
insulating materials valence electrons are tightly bonded to their atoms. These materials
are used in electrical equipment as insulators or insulation. Their function is to support
or separate electrical conductors without allowing current through themselves. The
term also refers to insulating supports that attach electric power transmission wires to
utility poles or pylons.

Fig:1.3 Insulator
TYPES OF INSULATORS:
1. Suspension type
2. Disc type
3. Strain type

DEPARTMENT OF EEE -SIET 3

 TRANSMISSION LINES AND PROTECTION

4. Shackle type
1.2.3 CROSS ARMS AND CLAMPS:
They may be either wood or steel angle section used to supports the insulators and
conductors along the poles and are fixed to the supports with the help of clamps i.e hot
clamps, T-clamps, L- clamps.
1.2.4 GUYS AND STAYS:
These are fastened to the poles at the termination or angle points to resist the lateral
forces.
1.2.5 EARTH WIRE:

It is run on the top of tower to provide protection to the over head lines against
lightening strokes.
1.2.6 VEE GUARDS:
These are provided below the over head lines running along or across streets
for protection of human being in case of broken of conductors.
1.2.7 BIRD GUARDS:

A wooden or ebonite pieces which is fitted on the cross arm brackets in case
of metallic poles to avoid short circuiting of two phases or one phase and earth due to
sitting of bird on the poles.

1.2.8 BARBED WIRE:

It is provided on the each pole at a height of 2.5m from ground level to
prevent climbing of unauthorized persons.
1.2.9 DANGER PLATES:
These are provided at a height of 2.5m from ground level and indicate
working voltage a word DANGER is written on the danger plate.
1.2.10 GUARD WIRES:
These are provided above or below the power lines while crossing a
communication lines.

SUBSTATION:

DEPARTMENT OF EEE -SIET 4

 TRANSMISSION LINES AND PROTECTION

Substation serve as sources of energy supply for the local areas of

distribution in which these are located. Their main function are to receive energy
transmitted at high voltage from the generating station, reduce the voltage to a value
appropriate for local distribution and provide facilities for switching. Between the
generation of power & consumer point, transmission and distribution is exists. These
are designed to transmit electricity to taking into consideration various factors like cost
of structure , line losses, reliability etc., due to which the transmission takes place at
high voltage. Where as consumer point are connected to low voltage. This transition of
high voltage to low voltage takes place at different stages with the help of transformer&
switchgear. As such a need exists for bulk receiving station and consumer distribution
stations which are termed as substation.

Fig :1.4 Yard of the substation

1.3 TYPES OF SUBSTATIONS:

1.3.1 Outdoor substation:

➢ In any outdoor, Transformer is the heart. A transformer is supplied with power duly
providing the protection and controlling equipment like Circuit Breakers, current
Transformers, Air Break Isolators, Lightning Arresters both on HV and LV side
which are exposed to air.
➢ Similar protection and switchgear equipment is also provided for the lines (feeders)
emanating/entering the sub-station.

These substation are further divided into 2 types. They are :

DEPARTMENT OF EEE -SIET 5

 TRANSMISSION LINES AND PROTECTION

• Pole mounted substation: Such substation are erected for distribution of power in
localities.4-pole&h-pole structure are employed for transformers of
capacityupto25KVA, 125KVA, above 125KVA respectively.
• Plinth mounted substation: These are employed for transformers of capacity
above 250KVA.Such substations are usually for voltages of 33KV &above.
1.3.2 Indoor substation:
The increased demand for electrical energy in big cities and industrials areas has made
in necessary o bring high voltage system directly to the load centers. It is very difficult
and sometimes impossible to find a suitable place for installation of air-insulated
switchgear. At the same time in many areas the air has become very polluted for using
any sort of the type insulation.
All the live parts are metal enclosed and hermetically sealed; the SF6 GIS is completely
immune to the atmospheric pollution and industrial pollution. With SF6 GIS all foreign
bodies (persons, animals, tools) are prevented from coming into contact from live parts.
This ensures maximum safety to personal and increased continuity of operation.
All switchgear enclosers and conductors are made of aluminum. The results of this
design are low enclosure losses and light weight.
The figure 2.a shows the 132KV SF6 Gas Insulated Switchgear (GIS).
1.3.3 Control & relay panel:
The control & relay panel is a cubical construction suitable for floor mounting.
All protective , indicating & control elements are mounted on the front panel for ease
of operation and control. The hinged rear door will provide access to all the internal
components to facilitate easy inspection and maintenance. For cable entry provision is
both from top& bottom.
The control and relay panel accepts CT, PT aux 230 AC and 220V/10V Dc
connections at respective designated terminal points. Dc supply Is used for control
supply of all internal relays &timers &also for energizing closing & triping coils of the
breakers.
Neutral current unbalance relays are for both alarm and trip facilities breaker
control switch with local/remote selector switch, master trip relay &trip alarms
acknowledge and reset facilities.

DEPARTMENT OF EEE -SIET 6

 TRANSMISSION LINES AND PROTECTION

CHAPTER -2

LIGHTENING ARRESTER

2.1 INTRODUCTION:

Lightening is one of the most serious causes of over-voltages. If the power

equipment so especially at outdoor substation is not protected, the over voltage will
cause burning of insulation. This result into complete shutdown of the power and the
loss may run into cores of rupees.

Fig : 2.1 Line diagram of lightening arrester

2.2 LIGHTENING PHENOMENA:

Lightening is a huge spark caused by electrical discharge taking place

between the clouds, with in the same cloud and between the clouds and earth.

2.3 PROTECTION AGAINST LIGHTENING:-

All electrical equipment must be protected from the severe damage of

lightening stroke. The technique of protection can be studied under the following heads.
1. Protection for transmission lines from direct strokes.
2. Protection for power stations and sub-stations from direct strokes.
3. Protection of Electrical Equipment from travelling waves.

DEPARTMENT OF EEE -SIET 7

 TRANSMISSION LINES AND PROTECTION

2.4 LIGHTENING ARRESTORS:-

The Device which provides protection against travelling surges caused by
lightening. Such protective devices are called Lightening Arrestors (or) Surge
Diverters.

Fig:2.2 Practical view of lightening arrester

2.5 PROPERTIES OF LIGHTENING ARRESTORS:-

1. Works on the principle of negative temperature coefficient of resistance of non-
linear elements.
2. High discharge energy capacity.

DEPARTMENT OF EEE -SIET 8

 TRANSMISSION LINES AND PROTECTION

CHAPTER-3

CAPACITIVE VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS

Capacitor Voltage Transformers (CVT), are used for voltage metering and
protection in high voltage network systems. They transform the high voltage into low
voltage adequate to be processed in measuring and protection instruments secondary
equipment, such as relays and recorders).
A Voltage Transformer (VT) isolates the measuring instruments from the
high voltage of the monitored circuit. VTs are commonly used for metering and
protection in the electrical power industry.

Fig : 3.1 Line diagram of CVT

3.1 Main applications of CVTs in HV Networks :
• Voltage Measuring: They accurately transform transmission voltages down to
useable levels for revenue metering, protection and control purposes
• Insulation: They guarantee the insulation between HV network and LV circuits
ensuring safety condition to control room operators
• HF Transmissions: They can be used for Power Line Carrier (PLC) coupling
• Transient Recovery Voltage: When installed in close proximity to HV/EHV
Circuit Breakers, CVT’s own High Capacitance enhance C/B short line fault /
TRV performance

3.2 Mechanical Features :

• Available with standard/heavy/very heavy creepage distance

• All external components are made by aluminum
• Inbox steel bellows
• High earthquake strength capability

DEPARTMENT OF EEE -SIET 9

 TRANSMISSION LINES AND PROTECTION

• Suitable for ambient temperature -60 / +70 °C (extended range upon request)
• Available for Line Traps mounting on the top

3.3 Electrical Features :

• Best capacitance/accuracy stabilities in all service conditions

• Design solutions allow to reach High Rated Capacitance in reduced CVTs
dimensions
• Passive ferroresonance suppression circuit provides superior damping while not
degrading transient response
• Best accuracy as transient performance – suitable for ultra-rapid line protection
devices

3.4 Features of CVT in substation :

• Available from 46 kV up to 1200 kV

• Designed in accordance with main international standards
• Optimized insulation system design utilizing state-of-the-art processing
techniques with either mineral oil or synthetic insulating fluids
• Composite or Porcelain insulaton
• Bellows puncture pin provides for release of internal pressure in the event of
severe service conditions leading to internal discharges
• High range of Customization according specific customer requirements

Fig :3.2 View of CVT in a substation

DEPARTMENT OF EEE -SIET 10

 TRANSMISSION LINES AND PROTECTION

CHAPTER-4

ISOLATORS

Such switches are often found in electrical distribution and industrial

applications where machinery must have its source of driving power removed for
adjustment or repair. High voltage isolation switches are used in electrical substations
to allow isolation of apparatus such as circuit breakers and transformers, and
transmission lines, for maintenance.
Isolator switches have provisions for a padlock so that inadvertent operation
is not possible. In high voltage or complex systems, these padlocks may be part of a
trapped key interlocked system to ensure proper sequence of operation. In some designs
the isolator switch has the additional ability to earth the isolated circuit there by
providing additional safety. Such an arrangement would apply to circuits which
interconnect power distribution systems where both end of the circuit need to be
isolated.
The major difference between an isolator and a circuit breaker is that an
isolator is an off-load device intended to be opened only after current has been
interrupted by some other control device. Safety regulations of the utility must prevent
any attempt to open the disconnector while it supplies a circuit.
Standards in some countries for safety may require either local motor isolators
or lockable overloads (which can be padlocked)

Fig :4.1 Practical view of isolator in a substation

DEPARTMENT OF EEE -SIET 11

 TRANSMISSION LINES AND PROTECTION

4.1 Types of Electrical Isolators :

There are different types of isolators available depending upon system requirement
such as

1. Double Break Isolator

2. Single Break Isolator
3. Pantograph type Isolator.
Depending upon the position in the power system, the isolators can be categorized as

1. Bus side isolator – the isolator is directly connected with main bus
2. Line side isolator – the isolator is situated at line side of any feeder
3. Transfer bus side isolator – the isolator is directly connected with transfer bus.
4.1.1 DOUBLE BREAK ISOLATOR:
Isolators are disconnect switches operate under no-load condition. They are
not equipped with arc quenching device. They do not have any specific current breaking
capacity or current making capacity.
Two isolators are provided on either side for the maintenance of the circuit
breaker and current transformer. While closing a circuit, the isolator is closed first then
circuit breaker. While opening the circuit, the circuit breaker is opened first then the
isolator. If an isolator is opened carelessly when carrying a heavy current the resultant
arc could easily cause a flash over to ground. This may shutter the supporting insulators
and may even cause a total accident to the operator.
Isolators are necessary on the supply side of the circuit breaker in order to
ensure isolation of circuit breaker from the live parts for the maintenance work.
The conducting part of conducting copper or aluminum rods have fixed and
moving contacts. During the opening operation the conducting rod swings apart and
isolation is obtained. The simultaneous operation of three poles is obtained by
mechanical inter locking. Further for all the poles there is a common operating
mechanism. The operating mechanism is manual plus one of the following:
•Electrical motor mechanism
•Pneumatic mechanism

DEPARTMENT OF EEE -SIET 12

 TRANSMISSION LINES AND PROTECTION

Fig :4.2 Double break isolator

To prevent the mall operation the isolators are provided with the following interlocks.
•Interlocking between three poles for simultaneous operation
•Interlocking with circuit breaker

CHAPTER-5

CIRCUIT BREAKER
The apparatus used for switching, controlling and protecting the electrical
circuits or equipments is known as “SWITCH GEAR”. In order to interrupt heavy fault
currents an automatic circuit breakers are used. A circuit breaker is a switch gear which
can make or break an electrical circuit under normal and abnormal conditions.
DEFINITION :
It is a protective device which can make or break a circuit under all conditions
i.e., no-load, full- load and fault conditions by manually, remotely and automatically.

DEPARTMENT OF EEE -SIET 13

 TRANSMISSION LINES AND PROTECTION

These are designed to operate manually at no load conditions and

automatically under fault conditions.

Fig : 5.1 Internal structure of CB

5.1 SYMBOL:

CB

5.2 STANDARD EQUIPMENT NUMBER - 52

5.3 TYPES OF CIRCUIT BREAKER:

1. Oil circuit breaker

I. Minimum oil circuit breaker
II. Bulk oil circuit breaker

2. Air blast circuit breaker

I. Axial blast circuit breaker
II. Cross blast circuit breaker
III. Radial blast circuit breaker
3. SF6 gas circuit breaker
4. Vacuum circuit breaker
5.3.1 OIL CIRCUIT BREAKER:
In such circuit breaker some insulating oil is used as an ARC QUENCHING
medium. The contacts are opened under oil an arc is struck between them. The heat of
the arc evaporates the surrounding oil & dissociates it into a substantial volume of gases
hydrogen at high pressure. The hydrogen gas occupies a volume about 1000 times that

DEPARTMENT OF EEE -SIET 14

 TRANSMISSION LINES AND PROTECTION

of oil decomposed. Therefore the oil is pushed away from the arc & expanding
hydrogen gas bubble surround the arc region & adjacent portions of the contacts.
Mainly two processed facilitate the arc extinction :
• The hydrogen gas has heat conductivity and cools the arc thus aiding the de-
ionization of the medium between the contacts.
• The gas sets up turbulence in the oil & forces it into the space between contacts.
Thus eliminating the arcing protects from the arc path.

I. BULK OIL CIRCUIT BREAKER: which uses a large quantity of oil. The oil
has serve two purposes. Firstly, it extinguishes the arc during opening of
contacts. Secondly, it insulates current conducting parts from one another &
from the earthed tank.
II. MINIMUM OIL CIRCUIT BREAKER: in this circuit breaker small quantity of
oil is used. In such circuit breaker oil is used only for extinction, the current
conducting parts are insulated by air or porcelain or organic insulating mater.
5.3.2 AIR BLAST CIRCUIT BREAKER:
These breakers consists a high pressure air blast as an arc quenching
medium. The contacts are opened in the flow of air blast established by the sweeps
away the arcing products to the atmospheres. This rapidly increases the dielectric
strength of the medium between contacts & prevents from re-establishing flow of
current is interrupted.
5.3.3 SULPHUR HEXA FLUORIDE (SF6) CIRCUIT BREAKER:
In such circuit breaker sulphur hexa fluoride gas is used as the arc
quenching medium. The SF6 is an electro negative gas & has a strong tendency to
absorb free electrons. The contacts of the circuit breaker are opened in the high pressure
flow of SF6 gas & an arc is struck between them. The conducting free electrons in the
arc are rapidly captured by the gas to form relatively immobile negative ions. This loss
of conducting electrons in the arc quickly builds up enough insulation strength to
extinguish the arc. The SFA6 circuit breaker have been found to be very effective for
high power & high voltage services.

DEPARTMENT OF EEE -SIET 15

 TRANSMISSION LINES AND PROTECTION

Fig: 5.2 Practical view of SF6 circuit breaker in a substation

5.3.4 VACCUM CIRCUIT BREKER:
The vacuum interrupter comprises a pair of fixed & movable contacts
enclose din an evacuated housing. A metallic below is fixed to the moving contact so
that the housing can be sealed & movement of the movable contact can be permitted.
The chamber is evacuated to high vacuum of the range order from 10 ̂ -7 to 10 ̂ -5mm
of mercury. The high vacuum of has high dielectric strength & is a good arc-
extinguishing medium. As the contacts are separated under high vacuum, the arc is
extinguished near current zero of the wave. The dielectric strength of vacuum is
recovered at a very fast rate after the arc extinction.

DEPARTMENT OF EEE -SIET 16

 TRANSMISSION LINES AND PROTECTION

Fig: 5.3 Vacuum circuit breaker

5.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF CIRCUIT BREAKER:
It is electronegetively charged.
➢ Circuit breaker is tripped when fault occurs and when hand tripped.
5.5 CIRCUIT BREAKER SELECTION IS BASED ON:
➢ Spring charge
➢ Trip coils
➢ AC supply
➢ SF6 gas pressure
➢ DC supply
➢ Closing coils.

HOW TO USE A CIRCUIT BREAKER :

It is used to TRIP or CLOSE the circuit at NO-LOAD, FULL- LOAD, FAULT
& NORMAL CONDITIONS either automatically or manually.
CIRCUIT BREAKER DESIGN :
It is based on 3 phase short circuit current.

CHAPTER-6

DEPARTMENT OF EEE -SIET 17

 TRANSMISSION LINES AND PROTECTION

RELAY

DEFINITION :
Relay is a device which detects the fault and initiates information to the circuit
breaker, which in turn trips the faulty breaker.
Relays are two types :
➢ Primary Relay
➢ Back-up Relay
6.1 PRIMARY RELAY:
It is a relay normally expected to operate first in case of fault in the protected
zone.
Examples:
➢ Distance relay
➢ Differential rely
➢ Static relay
6.2 BACK UP RELAY:
It is the relay which operates after certain delay, if the primary relay fails to
operate.
Examples:
➢ Over current relay
➢ Over voltage relay
➢ Thunder frequency
➢ Earth fault relay, etc.,
6.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF RELAY:
➢ SELECTIVITY: The protective system must select correctly the faulty part of the
power system & disconnect some without disturbing the rest of the system. Thus
the property of discrimination is absolutely necessary for a protective gear.
➢ SENSITIVITY: The protective systems must be as sensitive as possible, it should
operate for low values of fault current.
➢ SPEED: The protective system should respond as quick as possible in order to
improve quality of service, increase safety of life & equipment & increase stability
of operation.

DEPARTMENT OF EEE -SIET 18

 TRANSMISSION LINES AND PROTECTION

➢ RELIABILITY: The protective system must operate definitely under predetermined

condition.
➢ NON INTERFERENCE WITH FUTURE EXTENSION: The initial installation is
to be carried out in such away that future extension should be possible interfering
the original one.
6.4 CLASSIFICATION OF RELAYS:
1. According to construction & principle of operation relays may be classified as:
➢ Attracted Armature type
➢ Solenoid type
➢ Induction type
➢ Electrodynamics type
➢ Moving coil type
➢ Thermal type
2. According to applications the relays may be classified as:
➢ Over voltage or over current or over power relay
➢ Under voltage or under current or under power relay
➢ Directional or the reverse current relay
➢ Directional or the reverse power relay
➢ Differential relay
➢ Distance relay
3. According to timing characteristics the relays can be divided into following classes
➢ Instantaneous relay
➢ Definite time lag relay
➢ Inverse time lag relay
➢ Inverse definite minimum time lag relay

CHAPTER-7

DEPARTMENT OF EEE -SIET 19

 TRANSMISSION LINES AND PROTECTION

EARTHING

Earthing means the direct connection of the non current carrying parts of
electrical equipments such as metallic frame work, electric motor body, metallic
covering of cables, earth terminal of socket outlet, transmission tower etc., (to earth to
ground) is known as “EARTHING” or “GROUNDING”.
The earthing is done by connecting the body of the appliance to earth by
employing some good conductor known as earth wire. The rod, wire, pipe or plate
embedded in earth for the purpose of making an effective connection with earth is
known as Earth electrode.
7.1 PURPOSE OR NECESSITY OF EARTHING:
The main purpose of earthing is
1. To save human life from electric shock.
2. To avoid risk of fire due to earth leakage current through unwanted path.
3. To maintain the line voltage constant (since neutral of every alternator transformer
is earthed).
4. To ensure that no current carrying conductor rises to a potential with respect to earth
than its desired insulation.
7.2 CLASSIFICATION OF EARTHING:
The various methods of earthing are as follows
1. Rod earthing
2. Wire earthing
3. Pipe earthing
4. Plate earthing
7.2.1 Rod Earthing :
This method of earthing is the simple, cheap and does not need the earth
evasion. It is suitable for the areas, which are having loose soil condition. Some times
it may be necessary to drive more than one rod to reduce the earth resistance to
desired value.

DEPARTMENT OF EEE -SIET 20

 TRANSMISSION LINES AND PROTECTION

Fig : 7.1 Rod earthing

7.2.2 Wire Earthing :
In this method of earthing a metal wire is used as earthing electrode. This type
of earthing is preferred at places where soil is rocky with an earth bed over it, because
the excavation is difficult at such places. The length of the wire depends upon the
requirement of earth resistance. Some times it may be necessary to use more than one
wire laid in parallel.

Fig : 7.2 Wire earthing

7.2.3 Pipe Earthing :

In this method of earthing, a 38mm internal diameter, and perforated
galvanized pipe of a length 2.5m is placed vertically in a permanently wet soil. Where
rock is encountered at a depth of the less than 2.5m the electrode may be buried inclined
to the vertical. The pipe is surrounded by the pieces of coke and salt in alternate layers
of about 15cm around be the pipe is used to decrease the earth.For effective earthing
water should be purred 2 to 4 buckets now and then through funnel particulars. It is
necessary to reduce the depth of burial of an electrode under unavoidable circumstance,
this can be done without increasing the earth resistance.This method is used for

DEPARTMENT OF EEE -SIET 21

 TRANSMISSION LINES AND PROTECTION

domestic installations, for 11KV/400V distribution transformers, for motors of rating

upto 100 H.P induction motors, for conduit pipe in a wall and distribution poles

Fig : 7.3 Pipe earthing

7.2.4 Plate earthing :
In this type of earthing plate electrode should be buried with its face vertical such
that the top edge is at a depth of not less than 1.5m below the surface of the ground.
The electrode is surrounded by alternators layer of broken pieces of coal and salt. The
earth wire is securely bolted to an earth plate with the help of a bolt, nut and washer
made of copper for copper electrode and G.I for G.I electrode. This method is used for
large installation such as for transmission towers, all sub stations and generating
stations.

Fig : 7.4 Copper plate

7.3 FACTORS AFFECTING THE EARTH RESISTANCE :
➢ Soil condition.
➢ Moisture content in the soil and temperature of the soil.
➢ Size of the earth electrode and material of the electrode.
➢ Quality of coal and salt.

CHAPTER-8
BUS ARRANGEMENT

DEPARTMENT OF EEE -SIET 22

 TRANSMISSION LINES AND PROTECTION

8.1 BUS BARS:

Bus bars are the important components in a substation. The incoming and
outgoing lines in a substation are connected to the bus bars. Bus bars are merely
convenient means of connecting switches and other equipments into various
arrangements, which permits working on almost any piece of equipment with
interruption to incoming or outgoing feeders. Sometimes two bus bars are used. The
one bus usually called “MAIN BUS” and the other bus is “AUXILIARY or
TRANSFER BUS”. The main bus have a more elaborate system of measuring
instrument, relays etc., the bus bars used in substations are bare rectangular cross
section bar but they can be of other shapes also as round tubes, round solid bars or
square tubes.
The bus bars are usually made of aluminum because is as high conductivity, low
cost, less weight, excellent corrosion resistance over the copper bars. The most
commonly used bus bar arrangements in substations are
1. Single bus bar arrangement
2. Double bus bar arrangement
8.2 SINGLE BUS BAR ARRANGEMENT :
It consists of single bus bar the incoming and the outgoing lines are connected
to it. Advantages are simple in operation, less maintenance, low initial cost. The
disadvantages is any fault occurs repair and maintenance is difficult.

8.3 DOUBLE BUS BAR ARRANGEMENT:

This type consists two bus bars. One is “MAIN BUS” and other is “SPARE
BUS BAR”. Each bus bar has the capacity to take up the entire substation load. The
incoming and outgoing lines can be connected with the help of bus bar coupler, which
consists isolators and circuit breakers.

CONCLUSION

DEPARTMENT OF EEE -SIET 23

 TRANSMISSION LINES AND PROTECTION

Transmission and distribution stations exist at various scales throughout a

power system. In general, they represent an interface between different levels or
sections of the power system, with the capability to switch or reconfigure the
connections among various transmission and distribution lines. The major stations
include a control room from which operations are coordinated. Smaller distribution
substations follow the same principle of receiving power at higher voltage on one side
and sending out a number of distribution feeders at lower voltage on the other, but they
serve a more limited local area and are generally unstaffed. The central component of
the substation is the transformer, as it provides the effective in enface between the high-
and low-voltage parts of the system. Other crucial components are circuit breakers and
switches. Breakers serve as protective devices that open automatically in the event of a
fault, that is, when a protective relay indicates excessive current due to some abnormal
condition. Switches are control devices that can be opened or closed deliberately to
establish or break a connection. An important difference between circuit breakers and
switches is that breakers are designed to interrupt abnormally high currents (as they
occur only in those very situations for which circuit protection is needed), whereas
regular switches are designed to be operable under normal currents. Breakers are placed
on both the high- and low-voltage side of transformers. Finally, substations may also
include capacitor banks to provide voltage support.

REFERENCE

DEPARTMENT OF EEE -SIET 24

 TRANSMISSION LINES AND PROTECTION

1. Kutil, A.; Frohlich, K. “A multistress test procedure for qualification of composite

insulation materials in GIS”, IEEE International Symposium on Electrical
Insulation, pp.58-61, 1994.
2. Cook, R. D., “Concepts and Applications of Finite Element Analysis”, Wiley, New
York, NY.
3. Steinbigler, H., “Combined application of Finite Element Method and Charge
Simulation Method for the computation of Electric Fields”, 3rd International
Symposium on High Voltage Engineering, Milan, Issue : 11, August, 1979.
4. Mumcu, G.; Valerio, M.; Sertel, K.; Volakis, J.L. “Applications of the Finite
Element Method to Designing Composite Meta materials” International conference
on Electromagnetic in advanced applications, pp.818-821, 2007.
5. Heung-Jin Ju; Bongseong Kim; Kwang-Cheol Ko, “Optimal design of an
elliptically graded permittivity spacer configuration in gas insulated switchgear”,
IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electric Insulation, Volume: 18, Issue: 4,
pp. 1268-1273, 2011.
6. S. Okabe, N. Hayakawa, H. Murase, H. Hama, and H. Okubo, “Common Insulating
Properties in Insulating Materials”, IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical
Insulation, Volume: 13, pp.327-335, 2006.
7. S. Okabe, S. Kaneko, M. Yoshimura, H. Muto, C. Nishida and M. Kamei: “Partial
Discharge Diagnosis Method Using Electromagnetic Wave Mode Transformation
in Gas Insulated Switchgear”, IEEE Transactions on Dielectric and Electrical
Insulation, Volume: 14, pp.702-709, 2007.
8. S. Okabe, S. Kaneko, M. Yoshimura, H. Muto, C. Nishida and M. Kamei: “Partial
Discharge Diagnosis Method Using Electromagnetic Wave Mode Transformation
in Gas Insulated Switchgear”, IEEE Transactions on Dielectric and Electrical
Insulation, Volume: 14, pp.702-709, 2007.
9. Hikita, M. “Fundamental principles and application of diagnosis for GIS using
partial discharge measurements” International Conference on Electrical
Engineering and Informatics (ICEEI), pp.1-6, 2011.

DEPARTMENT OF EEE -SIET 25