®

 

Cauchy’s Theorem 26.5

 

Introduction
In this Section we introduce Cauchy’s theorem which allows us to simplify the calculation of certain
contour integrals. A second
I result, known as Cauchy’s integral formula, allows us to evaluate some
f (z)
integrals of the form dz where z0 lies inside C.
C z − z0

 
• be familiar with the basic ideas of functions
Prerequisites of a complex variable
Before starting this Section you should . . . • be familiar with line integrals

 


• state and use Cauchy’s theorem

Learning Outcomes
• state and use Cauchy’s integral formula
On completion you should be able to . . .
 

HELM (2008): 39
Section 26.5: Cauchy’s Theorem
1. Cauchy’s theorem

Simply-connected regions
A region is said to be simply-connected if any closed curve in that region can be shrunk to a point
without any part of it leaving a region. The interior of a square or a circle are examples of simply
connected regions. In Figure 11 (a) and (b) the shaded grey area is the region and a typical closed
curve is shown inside the region. In Figure 11 (c) the region contains a hole (the white area inside).
The shaded region between the two circles is not simply-connected; curve C1 can shrink to a point
but curve C2 cannot shrink to a point without leaving the region, due to the hole inside it.

C2

C1

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 11

Key Point 2
Cauchy’s Theorem
The theorem states that if f (z) is analytic everywhere within a simply-connected region then:
I
f (z) dz = 0
C

for every simple closed path C lying in the region.

This is perhaps the most important theorem in the area of complex analysis.

I
As a straightforward example note that z 2 dz = 0, where C is the unit circle, since z 2 is analytic
I C
everywhere (see Section 261). Indeed z 2 dz = 0 for any simple contour: it need not be circular.
C

Consider the contour shown in Figure 12 and assume f (z) is analytic everywhere on and inside the

40 HELM (2008):
Workbook 26: Functions of a Complex Variable
 ®

contour C.
y

D
B

A
C
E

Figure 12
Then by analogy with real line integrals
Z Z I
f (z) dz + f (z) dz = f (z) dz = 0 by Cauchy’s theorem.
AEB BDA C

Therefore
Z Z Z
f (z) dz = − f (z) dz = f (z) dz
AEB BDA ADB

(since reversing the direction of integration reverses the sign of the integral).
This implies that we may choose any path between A and B and the integral will have the same
value providing f (zz ) is analytic in the region concerned.
Integrals of analytic functions only depend on the positions of the points A and B, not on the path
connecting them. This explains the ‘coincidences’ referred to previously in Section 26.4.

Task Z 1+2i
Using ‘simple’ integration evaluate cos z dz, and explain why this is valid.
i

Your solution

Answer
Z 1+2i  1+2i
cos z dz = sin z = sin(1 + 2i) − sin i.
i i

This way of determining the integral is legitimate because cos z is analytic (everywhere).

HELM (2008): 41
Section 26.5: Cauchy’s Theorem
We now investigate what occurs when the closed path of integration does not necessarily lie within
a simply-connected region. Consider the situation described in Figure 13.

y E

F
C2

C1
A

Figure 13
Let f (z) be analytic in the region bounded by the closed curves C1 and C2 . The region is cut by the
line segment joining A and B.
Consider now the closed curve AEABF BA travelling in the direction indicated by the arrows. No
line can cross the cut AB and be regarded as remaining in the region. Because of the cut the shaded
region is simply connected. Cauchy’s theorem therefore applies (see Key Point 2).
Therefore
I
f (z) dz = 0 since f (z) is analytic within and on the curve AEABF BA.
AEABF BA

Note that
Z Z
f (z) dz = − f (z) dz, being a simple change of direction.
AB BA

Also, we can divide the closed curve into smaller sections:

I Z Z Z Z
f (z) dz = f (z) dz + f (z) dz + f (z) dz + f (z) dz
AEABF BA AEA AB BF B BA
Z Z
= f (z) dz + f (z) dz = 0.
AEA BF B

i.e.
I I
f (z) dz − f (z) dz = 0
C1 C2

(since we assumeI that closed paths

I are travelled anticlockwise).
Therefore f (z) dz = f (z) dz.
C1 I C 2

This allows us to evaluate f (z) dz by replacing C1 by any curve C2 such that the region between
C1
them contains no singularities (see Section 261) of f (z). Often we choose a circle for C2 .

42 HELM (2008):
Workbook 26: Functions of a Complex Variable
 ®

ExampleI12
6
Determine dz where C is the curve |z − 3| = 5 shown in Figure 14.
C z(z − 3)

y
C
C2 C1
2 3 x

Figure 14

Solution
6
We observe that f (z) = is analytic everywhere except at z = 0 and z = 3.
z(z − 3)
Let C1 be the circle of unit radius centred at z = 3 and C2 be the unit circle centered at the origin.
By analogy with the previous example we state that
I I I
6 6 6
dz = dz + dz.
C z(z − 3) C1 z(z − 3) C2 z(z − 3)

(To show this you would need two cuts: from C to C1 and from C to C2 .)

The remaining parts of this problem are presented as two Tasks.

Task
6
Expand into partial functions.
z(z − 3)

Your solution

Answer
6 A B A(z − 3) + Bz
Let ≡ + ≡ . Then A(z − 3) + Bz ≡ 6.
z(z − 3) z z−3 z(z − 3)
If z = 0 A(−3) = 6 ∴ A = −2. If z = 3 B×3=6 ∴ B = 2.
6 2 2
∴ ≡− + .
z(z − 3) z z−3

HELM (2008): 43
Section 26.5: Cauchy’s Theorem
Thus:
I I I I I
6 2 2 2 2
dz = dz − dz + dz − dz = I1 − I2 + I3 − I4 .
C z(z − 3) C1 z−3 C1 z C2 z−3 C2 z

Task
Find the values of I1 , I2 , I3 , I4 , using Key Point 1 (page 35):

(a) Find the value of I1 :

Your solution

Answer
Using Key Point 1 we find that I1 = 2 × 2πi = 4πi.

(b) Find the value of I2 :

Your solution

Answer
1
The function is analytic inside and on C1 so that I2 = 0.
z
(c) Find the value of I3 :

Your solution

Answer
1
The function is analytic inside and on C2 so I3 = 0.
z−3
(d) Find the value of I4 :

Your solution

Answer
I4 = 4πi again using Key Point 1.

(e) Finally, calculate I = I1 − I2 + I3 − I4 :

Your solution

44 HELM (2008):
Workbook 26: Functions of a Complex Variable
 ®

Answer
I
6 dz
= 4πi − 0 + 0 − 4πi = 0.
C z(z − 3)

Exercises
Z 2+3i
1. Evaluate sin z dz.
1+i
I
4
2. Determine dz where C is the contour |z − 2| = 4.
C z(z − 2)
Answers
Z 2+3i  2+3i
1. sin z dz = − cos z = cos(1 + i) − cos(2 + 3i) since sin z is analytic everywhere.
1+i 1+i

2.
y
C
C2 C1
2 2 6 x

4
f (z) = is analytic everywhere except at z = 0 and z = 2.
z(z − 2)
I I I
4 4 4
Call I = dz = dz + dz.
C z(z − 2) C1 z(z − 2) C2 z(z − 2)

4 2 2
Now ≡− + so that
z(z − 2) z z−2
I I I I
2 2 2 2
I = dz − dz + dz − dz
C1 z − 2 C1 z C2 z − 2 C2 z
= I1 + I2 + I3 + I4

I2 and I3 are zero because of analyticity.

I1 = 2 × 2πi = 4πi, by Key Point 1 and I4 = −4πi likewise.

Hence I = 4πi + 0 + 0 − 4πi = 0.

HELM (2008): 45
Section 26.5: Cauchy’s Theorem
2. Cauchy’s integral formula
This is a generalization of the result in Key Point 2:

Key Point 3
Cauchy’s Integral Formula
If f (z) is analytic inside and on the boundary C of a simply-connected region then for any point z0
inside C,
I
f (z)
dz = 2πi f (z0 ).
C z − z0

ExampleI 13
z
Evaluate dz where C is the path shown in Figure 15:
C z2 + 1
1
C1 : |z − i| = 2

C1
i

x
i

Figure 15

Solution
We note that z 2 + 1 ≡ (z + i)(z − i).
z z z/(z + i)
Let = = .
z2 +1 (z + i)(z − i) z−i
The numerator z/(z + i) is analytic inside and on the path C1 so putting z0 = i in the Cauchy
integral formula (Key Point 3)
I  
z i 1
2
dz = 2πi = 2πi. = πi.
C1 z + 1 i+i 2

46 HELM (2008):
Workbook 26: Functions of a Complex Variable
 ®

Task I
z
Evaluate dz where C is the path (refer to the diagram)
C z2 +1
1
(a) C2 : |z + i| = 2
(b) C3 : |z| = 2.

C3
i

x
i
C2

I
z
(a) Use the Cauchy integral formula to find an expression for dz:
C2 z2 + 1

Your solution

Answer
z z/(z − i)
2
= . The numerator is analytic inside and on the path C2 so putting z0 = −i in the
z +1 z+i
Cauchy integral formula gives
 
−i
I
z
2
dz = 2πi = πi.
C2 z + 1 −2i

I
z
(b) Now find dz:
C3 z2 + 1

Your solution

Answer
By analogy with the previous part,
I I I
z z z
2
dz = 2
dz + 2
dz = πi + πi = 2πi.
C3 z + 1 C1 z + 1 C2 z + 1

HELM (2008): 47
Section 26.5: Cauchy’s Theorem
The derivative of an analytic function
If f (z) is analytic in a simply-connected region then at any interior point of the region, z0 say, the
derivatives of f (z) of any order exist and are themselves analytic (which illustrates what a powerful
property analyticity is!). The derivatives at the point z0 are given by Cauchy’s integral formula for
derivatives:
I
(n) n! f (z)
f (z0 ) = dz
2πi C (z − z0 )n+1
where C is any simple closed curve, in the region, which encloses z0 .
Note the case n = 1:
I
0 1 f (z)
f (z0 ) = dz.
2πi C (z − z0 )2

Example 14
Evaluate the contour integral
z3
I
2
dz
C (z − 1)

where C is a contour which encloses the point z = 1.

Solution
z3 z3
I I
Since f (z) = has a pole of order 2 at z = 1 then f (z) dz = dz
(z − 1)2 C C0 (z − 1)2
where C 0 is a circle centered at z = 1.
I I
3 g(z)
If g(z) = z then f (z) dz = 2
dz
C C 0 (z − 1)

Since g(z) is analytic within and on the circle C 0 we use Cauchy’s integral formula for derivatives
to show that
z3
I
1 0  2
2
dz = 2πi × [g (z)]z=1 = 2πi 3z z=1 = 6πi.
C (z − 1) 1!

48 HELM (2008):
Workbook 26: Functions of a Complex Variable
 ®

Exercise
I
z
Evaluate dz where C is the path:
C z2 +9
(a) C1 : |z − 3i| = 1 (b) C2 : |z + 3i| = 1 (c) C3 : |z| = 6.
Answers
z z z/(z + 3i)
(a) We will use the fact that = =
z2 +9 (z + 3i)(z − 3i) z − 3i
z
The numerator is analytic inside and on the path C1 so putting z0 = 3i in
z + 3i
Cauchy’s integral formula
I  
z 3i 1
2
dz = 2πi = 2πi × = πi.
C1 z + 9 3i + 3i 2
z/(z − 3i)
(b) Here
z + 3i
The numerator is analytic inside and on the path C2 so putting z = −3i in Cauchy’s
integral formula:
 
−3i
I
z
2
dz = 2πi = πi.
C2 z + 9 −3i − 3i
(c) The integral is the sum of the two previous integrals and has value 2πi.

HELM (2008): 49
Section 26.5: Cauchy’s Theorem