09/10/2013

ninth edition TORTORA  FUNKE  CASE

Microbial Metabolism Microbial Metabolism

MICROBIOLOGY  Metabolism: The sum of the chemical reactions  Catabolism provides the building blocks and energy for
an introduction in an organism anabolism.
 Catabolism: The energy-releasing processes
 Anabolism: The energy-using processes
Microbial
Part A Metabolism

PowerPoint® Lecture Slide Presentation prepared by Christine L. Case

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Enzymes

 A metabolic pathway is a sequence of enzymatically  The collision theory states that chemical reactions can
catalyzed chemical reactions in a cell. occur when atoms, ions, and molecules collide.
 Metabolic pathways are determined by enzymes.  Activation energy is needed to disrupt electronic
 Enzymes are encoded by genes. configurations.
 Reaction rate is the frequency of collisions with enough
energy to bring about a reaction.
 Reaction rate can be increased by enzymes or by
increasing temperature or pressure.
PLAY Animation: Metabolic Pathways (Overview)
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Enzymes Enzymes Important Coenzymes

 Biological catalysts  NAD+

 Specific for a chemical reaction; not used up in that  NADP+
reaction  FAD
 Apoenzyme: Protein  Coenzyme A
 Cofactor: Nonprotein component
 Coenzyme: Organic cofactor
 Holoenzyme: Apoenzyme plus cofactor

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Enzymes Enzyme Classification Factors Influencing Enzyme Activity

 The turnover number is generally 1-10,000 molecules  Oxidoreductase: Oxidation-reduction reactions  Enzymes can be denatured by temperature and pH
per second.  Transferase: Transfer functional groups
 Hydrolase: Hydrolysis
 Lyase: Removal of atoms without hydrolysis
 Isomerase: Rearrangement of atoms
 Ligase: Joining of molecules, uses ATP

PLAY Animation: Enzyme–Substrate Interactions

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Factors Influencing Enzyme Activity Factors Influencing Enzyme Activity Factors Influencing Enzyme Activity

 Temperature  pH  Substrate concentration

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Factors Influencing Enzyme Activity Factors Influencing Enzyme Activity Factors Influencing Enzyme Activity

 Competitive inhibition  Noncompetitive inhibition

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Factors Influencing Enzyme Activity Ribozymes Oxidation-Reduction

 Feedback inhibition  RNA that cuts and splices RNA  Oxidation is the removal of electrons.
 Reduction is the gain of electrons.
 Redox reaction is an oxidation reaction paired with a
reduction reaction.

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Oxidation-Reduction The Generation of ATP The Generation of ATP

 In biological systems, the electrons are often  ATP is generated by the phosphorylation of ADP.  Substrate-level phosphorylation is the transfer of a
associated with hydrogen atoms. Biological oxidations high-energy PO4– to ADP.
are often dehydrogenations.

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The Generation of ATP The Generation of ATP Metabolic Pathways

 Energy released from the transfer of electrons  Light causes chlorophyll to give up electrons. Energy
(oxidation) of one compound to another (reduction) is released from the transfer of electrons (oxidation) of
used to generate ATP by chemiosmosis. chlorophyll through a system of carrier molecules is
used to generate ATP.

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Carbohydrate Catabolism Glycolysis Preparatory Stage

 The breakdown of carbohydrates to release energy  The oxidation of glucose to pyruvic acid produces ATP  Two ATPs are
 Glycolysis and NADH. used 1

 Krebs cycle  Glucose is split to

 Electron transport chain form two Glucose-
3-phosphate 3

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Energy-Conserving Stage Glycolysis Alternatives to Glycolysis

 Two Glucose-3-  Glucose + 2 ATP + 2 ADP + 2 PO4– + 2 NAD+   Pentose phosphate pathway
phosphate oxidized to 2 pyruvic acid + 4 ATP + 2 NADH + 2H+  Uses pentoses and NADPH
two Pyruvic acid  Operates with glycolysis
 Four ATP produced  Entner-Doudoroff pathway
 Two NADH produced  Produces NADPH and ATP
9  Does not involve glycolysis
 Pseudomonas, Rhizobium, Agrobacterium

PLAY Animation: Glycolysis

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Cellular Respiration Intermediate Step Krebs Cycle

 Oxidation of molecules liberates electrons for an  Pyruvic acid (from  Oxidation of acetyl CoA produces NADH and FADH2.
electron transport chain. glycolysis) is oxidized
 ATP is generated by oxidative phosphorylation. and decarboyxlated.

PLAY Animation: Krebs Cycle

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Krebs Cycle The Electron Transport Chain

 A series of carrier molecules that are, in turn, oxidized

and reduced as electrons are passed down the chain.
 Energy released can be used to produce ATP by
chemiosmosis.

PLAY Animation: Electron Transport Chains and Chemiosmosis

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Chemiosmosis Chemiosmosis Respiration

 Aerobic respiration: The final electron acceptor in the

electron transport chain is molecular oxygen (O2).
 Anaerobic respiration: The final electron acceptor in the
electron transport chain is not O2. Yields less energy
than aerobic respiration because only part of the Krebs
cycles operations under anaerobic conditions.

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Anaerobic Respiration

 Energy produced from complete oxidation of one

glucose using aerobic respiration.
Pathway Eukaryote Prokaryote
Electron acceptor Products NADH FADH2
Pathway ATP produced produced produced
Glycolysis Cytoplasm Cytoplasm
NO3– NO2–, N2 + H2O
Glycolysis 2 2 0
Intermediate step Cytoplasm Cytoplasm
SO4– H2 S + H 2 O
Intermediate step 0 2
Krebs cycle Mitochondrial matrix Cytoplasm
CO32 – CH4 + H2O
Mitochondrial inner Plasma Krebs cycle 2 6 2
ETC membrane membrane
Total 4 10 2

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Fermentation Fermentation

 ATP produced from complete oxidation of one glucose  Releases energy from oxidation of organic molecules
using aerobic respiration.  Does not require oxygen

By substrate-
By oxidative  Does not use the Krebs cycle or ETC
phosphorylation
Pathway level
phosphorylation From From  Uses an organic molecule as the final electron acceptor
NADH FADH
Glycolysis 2 6 0
Intermediate step 0 6
Krebs cycle 2 18 4

Total 4 30 4

 36 ATPs are produced in eukaryotes.

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Fermentation Fermentation Fermentation

 Alcohol fermentation: Produces ethyl alcohol + CO2.

 Lactic acid fermentation: Produces lactic acid.
 Homolactic fermentation: Produces lactic acid only.
 Heterolactic fermentation: Produces lactic acid and
other compounds.

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Lipid Catabolism Protein Catabolism Protein Catabolism

Extracellular proteases
Protein Amino acids

Deamination, decarboxylation, dehydrogenation

Organic acid Krebs cycle

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Biochemical tests Photosynthesis Photosynthesis

 Used to identify  Photo: Conversion of light energy into chemical energy

bacteria. (ATP)
 Light-dependent (light) reactions
 Synthesis: Fixing carbon into organic molecules
 Light-independent (dark) reaction, Calvin-Benson
cycle

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Photosynthesis Cyclic Photophosphorylation Noncyclic Photophosphorylation

 Oxygenic:
6 CO2 + 12 H2O + Light energy  C6H12O6 + 6 H2O + 6 O2
 Anoxygenic:
CO2 + 2 H2S + Light energy  [CH2O] + H2O + 2 S0

PLAY Animation: Photosynthesis

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 Halobacterium uses
bacteriorhodopsin, not
chlorophyll, to generate
electrons for a
chemiosmotic proton
pump.

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Chemotrophs Chemotrophs Phototrophs

 Use energy from chemicals  Use energy from chemicals  Use light energy
 Chemoheterotroph  Chemoautotroph, Thiobacillus ferroxidans
Chlorophyll
ETC
Glucose NAD+ 2Fe2+ NAD+
ETC ETC
Chlorophyll
oxidized ADP + P ATP
Pyruvic acid NADH 2Fe3+ NADH
ADP + P ATP ADP + P ATP
2 H+  Photoautotrophs use energy in the Calvin-Benson cycle
 Energy used in the Calvin-Benson cycle to fix CO2. to fix CO2.
 Energy is used in anabolism.
 Photoheterotrophs use energy.
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Metabolic Diversity Among Organisms Metabolic Pathways of Energy Use Metabolic Pathways of Energy Use

 Polysaccharide biosynthesis  Lipid biosynthesis

Nutritional type Energy source Carbon source Example

Photoautotroph Light CO2 Oxygenic:

Cyanobacteria plants.
Anoxygenic: Green,
purple bacteria.
Photoheterotroph Light Organic Green, purple
compounds nonsulfur bacteria.

Chemoautotroph Chemical CO Iron-oxidizing

bacteria.

Chemoheterotroph Chemical Organic Fermentative bacteria.

compounds Animals, protozoa,
fungi, bacteria.

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Metabolic Pathways of Energy Use Metabolic Pathways of Energy Use Metabolic Pathways of Energy Use

 Amino acid and protein biosynthesis  Amino acid and protein biosynthesis  Purine and
pyrimidine
biosynthesis

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Amphibolic Pathways Amphibolic Pathways

 Are metabolic pathways that have both catabolic and

anabolic functions.

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