Biology
initiates the attack on foreign bodies
Hypertonic environment – cell has a lower
concentration of solutes; higher water potential than
surrounding extracellular fluid
Osmosis – diffusion of water
An erythrocyte placed in a hypertonic solution
would crenate, become distorted in shape.
Hypotonic environment – cell has a higher
concentration of solutes than the solution outside the
cell which causes the cell to well
Isotonic environment – cell has equal concentration
with the solution outside the cell
Membrane proteins – act as enzymes and receptor
sites; function for chemical transport, intercellular
communication, cell-to-cell recognition, and
attachment to the cytoskeleton and extracellular
matrix
Formation and transport of vesicles:
1. Secretory proteins are assembled by the
ribosomes on the rough ER which, in turn,
extrudes them across the ER into its channels
2. Enzymes embedded the smooth ER may
chemically modify some of the proteins
3. Proteins pass through more channels to the Golgi
body
4. Proteins are encapsulated in vesicles by the
pinching together of membranes of the Golgi
body
5. Vesicles then pass through the cytoplasm, fuse
with the interior surface of the plasma membrane
and release their contents to the exterior.
Lymphocytes – subclass of white blood cells that are
divided into two types: B-lymphoctes and T-
lymphocytes
B-lymphocytes – secretes antibodies for humoral
immune response, where it binds to the antigen and
eventually destroys it.
Non-specific defenses – surface barriers and
defensive chemical cells (which are made in the
body), cellular and chemical defenses such as
neutrophils and interferons (that affect its actions
one pathogens invade the tissues)
T-lymphocytes – processed in the thymus that
Cell-mediated response – accomplished by T-
lymphocytes; involves attacking the virally infected
cells and cancer cells
Mutation – alteration of the form of a particular gene
or chromosome that results in a new trait to be
inherited; can occur in chromosome structure or
chromosome number
Frameshift mutation – the whole frame of the
genetic sequence is changed
Insertion of “I”
THE CAT AND DOG RUN
THE CAI TAN DDO GRU N
Point mutation – only one nucleotide is modified to
become another nucleotide
THE CAT AND THE DOG RUN
THE RAT AND THE DOG RUN
Three type of point mutation:
a) Silent mutation – causes no change in the
activity of the protein
b) Missense mutation – results in a change of the
activity of the protein
c) Nonsense mutation – results to a protein
shorter than usual; non-functional
Population density – population size per unit
area/volume; two kinds of factors: dependent and
independent
Density-dependent factor – intensifies as the
population increases in size
Density-independent factor – not related to
population size
Homeostasis – ability to maintain a stable internal
environment
Development – transform from an immature to a
mature functional form
Adaptation – structural modification in organisms
that enables them to adjust to a changing
environment
Growth – irreversible increase in the number, size
and/or number of cells
Procambium – derivative meristem that develops
into the vascular tissue
Protoderm - develops into surface or dermal tissues
Ground meristems – produces fundamental/ground
tissues (parenchyma, collenchymas and
schlerenchyma)
Cork cambium – produces the protective layer of the
bark, cork
Kingdom - highest level of classification of living
things
Five kingdoms:
 Monera
 Protista – water mold
 Fungi – yeast, mushroom, bread mold
 Plantae
 Animalia – shark and milkfish (Kingdom
Animalia, Phylum Chordata), turtle and snake
(Kingdom Animalia, Phylum Chordata, Class
Reptilia)
D’ Kings Play Chess On Fat Green Stools
Vitiligo – disorder in which melanocytes, cells which
produce melanin pigment, are unable to function;
results to white patches on the skin
Albinism – chromosomal mutation that results in the
cessation of melanin production or a considerable
decline in the amount of melanin
Dihybrid cross – cross that involves two traits
Mendelian Laws of Inheritance – traits will
segregate and assort independently
Genotype – genetic makeup or genes of an individual
Allele – one of the alternative pair of genes; may be
in two forms: dominant and recessive
Dominant – mast the effect of the recessive allele;
represented by a capital letter
Recessive – allele that is masked by the dominant
allele; represented by a small letter
Phenotype – shows the physical appearance of an
individual dictated by the genotype
Antigen - any substance foreign to a body that evoke
an immune response
Antibody – any of a large number of proteins of high
molecular weight that are produced normally by
specialized B cells after stimulation by an antigen; act
specifically against the antigen in an immune
response
Blood type A – has antigen A and antibody against B
Blood type B – has antigen B and antibody against A
Blood type AB – “universal recipient” because it can
receive all blood types; has antigen A and B and has
no antibody
Blood type O – “universal donor” because it can
donate to all blood types, has no antigen but has
antibody against A and B
Prokaryotes – do not have nuclear membrane, has
its DNA exposed to the cytoplasmic environment;
Kingdom Monera (bacteria, reproduces through
binary fission, and blue-green algae)
Developmental biology – study of the development
of animals; processes involved in the transformation
of fertilized egg to a more complexed individual
Gametogenesis (production of gametes) –>
Fertilization –> Cleavage –> Gastrulation (formation
of germ layers) –> Organogenesis (development into
different tissues and organs) –> Growth and
histological differentiation
Biome – ecological community dominated with
distinctive plants and animals
Tropical rainforests – found in areas near the
equator where rainfall is abundant and the dry
season lasts for no more than a few months; richest
biome in terms of number of species
Taiga – heavy snowfall; conifer forests
Desert – sandy and receive less rainfall
Savannah – grassland regional and seasonal rain
Tundra – cold with frozen undersoil
Estuary – part of a river (freshwater) joined with the
sea (saltwater)
Diplohaplontic life cycle – alternation of generation
(life cycle of plants)
Dominant diploid sporophyte – ferns, pine trees
and common weeds
Dominant haploid gametophyte – mosses
Haploid gametophyte – part of the plant life cycle
having haploid nuclei; gives rise to sex cells that
produce a diploid sporophyte after fusing.
Meiosis – cell division responsible for the formation
of gametes or sex cells which results to four cells with
half the ploidy number of the mother cell; divided
into two stages: Meiosis I and Meiosis II where
during Telophase I, the number of chromosomes
will be reduced to half
Mitosis – somatic cell divides to form to identical
diploid daughter cells
a) Prophase - condensation/coiling of
chromosomes
b) Metaphase – alignment of chromosomes along
the equatorial plate
c) Anaphase – separation of sister chromatids
d) Telophase – mitotic apparatus formed during
prophase is disassembled
Sinoatrial node – found at the right atrium; send
impulses through the atria resulting in atrial systole;
considered as the pacemaker of the heart
Atrioventricular node – the heart’s electrical
system activated by the impulse caused by the SA
node; passes impulses down to the bundle of His
resulting in the ventricular systole
Cardiac cycle:
a) Deoxygenated blood travels through the vena
cava
b) The blood will flow through the right atrium,
right ventricle and lungs and becomes oxygenated
c) It will then travel through the left atrium, left
ventricle, aorta and to all the cells in the body
The sound of pumping of the heart is caused by the
valves.
Order from the outside of a woody eudicot (true
cotyledon) stem:
cortex -> primary phloem -> secondary phloem ->
vascular cambium -> secondary xylem -> primary
xylem -> pith
Centriole – can only be found in animal cells
Cell wall – exclusive to plant cells
Ethylene – plant hormone that promotes ripening;
carbon dioxide will inhibit the action of ethylene by
preventing ethylene from accumulation
Organogenesis - formation of organs
Differentiation – cells choose to become a
particular type of cell that will function for a specific
organ
Differentiated cell – utilizes a particular set of
proteins to perform its function; assume a specific
shape to function effectively to the tissue it belongs;
metabolically active to perform its function for a
specific organ; examples are muscle cells, nerve cells
and red blood cells
Cell cycle – divided into two parts: interphase and
M-phase (dividing phase)
Interphase:
a) Gap 1 (G1) phase – has a specific checkpoint that
decides whether or not to begin replication;
enters G0 phase, if the condition is not ideal,
where they are maintained for prolonged periods
in a non-dividing state; growth and production of
substances needed inside and outside the cell
b) Synthesis (S) phase - DNA replication and
formation of proteins in DNA
c) Gap 2 (G2) phase – organization of specialized
structures required for chromosome movement
and replication
Scientific name – made up of two names: genus
(generic name) and species (specific epithet)
Dichlorophenlytrichloroethane (DDT) and
Polychlorinated biphenols (PCBs) – well-known
pesticides that are harmful and becomes more
concentrated in the successive trophic levels of the a
food web
Traffic of molecules across the membrane:
a) Small polar uncharged molecules (water and
carbon dioxide) will easily pass
b) Hydrophobic molecules (hydrocarbons and
oxygen) can cross with ease because they can
dissolve in the lipid bilayer
c) Large polar uncharged molecules (proteins and
sugars) will not pass
d) Ions (H+, Na+, Cl-, K+) will not readily pass and will
need transport proteins or channels
Sodium-potassium pump – one of the important
means of transport of molecules
a) An active transport process that uses up energy
in the form of ATP
b) Responsible for establishing the charge difference
maintaining the nerve cell membrane resisting
potential
c) Works through a series of conformation changes
in the transmembrane protein

Progesterone – substance that prepares the
endometrium in the uterus for implantation of
fertilized egg; inhibits the follicle-stimulating
hormone thus preparing the uterus for pregnancy;
secreted by the corpus luteum
Corpus luteum – comes from a ruptured follicle that
is repaired and turned yellowish
Infundibulum – funnel-shaped distal end of each
uterine tube (fallopian tube)
Graafian follicle – mature ovarian follicle
Seminiferous tubule – site of spermatogenesis
Charles Darwin’s Natural Selection – as the
conditions of nature change, individuals that are
fittest and can adapt will survive and evolve
Genetic drift – chance events result in a change of
allele frequencies
Migration – populations exchange members to
converge toward one another
Theory of Uses and Disuse – as the organism
continues to use a certain part of its body, it enlarges
or elongates
Cell cleavage – increase in cell number and in the
amount of genetic material; formation of blastula
Development of neural crest – happens after the
formation of the three germ layers; derived from the
ectoderm
Cellular respiration – enables cells to harvest the
energy stored in food; a catabolic process in which
organic compounds breakdown into simpler
substances through the transfer of electrons during
redox reactions; an oxidation-reduction process;
occurs in the mitochondria of cells
Anabolic processes – consume energy to build
complex molecules from simpler ones
Unicellular organism – made up of only one cell;
undergoes reproduction when its cell divides
Multicellular organism – undergoes growth when
its cell divides
Development – transformation from an immature to
a mature functional form
Turner syndrome - a disorder caused by missing or
incomplete X chromosomes (XO); individual shows
the external physical appearance of a female and
does not develop secondary sex characteristics;
shows the appearance of only one X chromosome due
to non-disjunction (sex chromosomes fail to separate
during the formation of the egg)
Aneuploidy – a type of numerical chromosomal
abnormality that refers to an extra or missing
chromosome such as in Trisomy 21 (Down
Syndrome) or Monosomy (Turner Syndrome)
Polyploidy – another type of numerical
chromosomal abnormality that refers to an addition
of an entire complement of haploid chromosomes
such as triploidy in which three haploids sets occur
like XXX, XXY or XYY.
These abnormalities may involve either autosomes or
sex chromosomes. Some common trisomies are:
a) Trisomy 13 (Patau syndrome) – gross multiple
structural defects involving polydactyly (having
more than the normal number of fingers and
toes) and cleft lip or palate
b) Trisomy 18 (Edwards syndrome) – severe
psychomotor and growth retardation
c) Trisomy 21 (Down syndrome) – most common
viable autosomal trisomy; depressed nasal
bridge, shortened extremities and mental
retardation
Producers – placed on the base of the energy
pyramid because they have the large quantity of
energy available by being the organism that can
convert light energy into chemical energy
Pituitary gland – divided into anterior and
posterior pituitary
Anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis) – produces
growth hormones, luteinizing hormone, thyroid-
stimulating hormone, adrenocorticotropic hormone
and follicle-stimulating hormone
 Growth hormone – targets body cells and
stimulates growth and repair
 Adrenocorticotropic hormone – targets the
cortex of adrenal glands; helps in metabolism
regulation and body stress release
 Prolactin – stimulates milk production and
secretion
Posterior pituitary gland (neurohypophysis) –
produces oxytocin and the antidiuretic hormones
  Antidiuretic hormone (vasopressin) –
targets the kidneys; increases reabsorption of
water during urine production which results
to less urine
 Oxytocin – causing the contraction of the
uterus and ejection of milk
DNA structure – double strand twisted with one
another to form a spiral staircase; complementary
bases are A-T (Adenine and Thymine) and G-C
(Guanine and Cytosine)
Extraembryonic membranes – developed by some
vertebrates because of the delicate condition of the
eggs of animals (i.e. yolk sac, chorion, allantois and
amnion, which contains the amniotic fluid)
Amniotic fluid – serves as a cushion sac around the
embryo against physical trauma; bathes the embryo
serving as a barrier of the embryo against mechanical
injury
Skeletal muscle – elongated, multinucleated,
striated, nucleus found at the periphery of the cell
(i.e. muscles of the arm)
Smooth muscles – spindle-shaped, uninucleated,
non-striated, nucleus found at the center (i.e.
stomach, blood vessels)
Cardiac muscles – striated, uninucleated, nucleus
found at the enter of the cell, presence of intercalated
disks (i.e. heart)
Myofibrils – rod-like bundles in each muscle fiber
containing a thin protein, actin, and a thicker protein,
myosin
Phylum Arthropoda – animals characterized by
joined legs; five classes namely: Insecta, Crustacea,
Arachnida, Chilopoda, and Diplopoda
Class Crustacea – arthropods having two pairs of
antennae and various pairs of legs (i.e. crabs,
lobsters, shrimps)
Class Arachnida – scorpions
Class Chilopoda – centipedes
Class Insecta – grasshoppers
Macronutrients – elements needed by the plants in
relatively large amounts (i.e. oxygen, carbon,
hydrogen, nitrogen, potassium, calcium, magnesium,
phosphorus, and sulfur.
Recombinant DNA – one of the successful
applications of genetics in our society; reason behind
mass production of vaccines, hormones, and others
(i.e. insulin production)
Insulin production – insulin gene from human DNA
is cut with the use of restriction enzyme, combined in
a plasmid (secondary DNA) and inserted into
Escherichia coli
Primary ecological succession:
1. Begins in a lifeless area where soil has not yet
formed such as a new volcanic island or a rubble
left behind by a retreating glacier
2. In glaciers (like in Glacier Bay, Alaska), the barren
ground is occupied by mosses and lichens then by
dwarf willows
3. After approximately 50 years, alders form dense
stands
4. These eventually give way to Sitka spruce, joined
later by hemlock (spruce-hemlock forest)
recognize today as taiga
Oogenesis – meiosis that occurs in the ovary of
female organisms
During the process of Meiosis I and II, the primary
oogonium divides the cytoplasm unevenly (one polar
body produce from Meiosis I, another polar body
produced from Meiosis II), producing a polar body,
thus only one active cell is formed.
Autonomic nervous system – section of the nervous
system which controls involuntary functions; has two
divisions: sympathetic and parasympathetic
Sympathetic division – prepares the body for
emergency responses; has effects such as the
widening of the trachea, increasing of the heart rate
and liver stimulation for glucose release
Parasympathetic division – rests the body and
produces calm responses, has effects such as the
increasing of stomach contractions to promote
digestion, narrowing of the pupils of the eyes and the
constriction of the trachea
Neuron – functional unit of the nervous system
Parts of the neuron:
 Dendrite – receives the message
 Axon – send the message to another dendrite
 Soma – cell body where nucleus is located

Germinal layers - includes the ectoderm, mesoderm

and endoderm; rudiments from which the different
organs of the body are derived
Ectoderm – outer germinal layer; gives rise to the
skin epidermis and organs of the nervous system
Mesoderm – origin of the skeletal muscles and blood
vascular system; divided into two layers: dorsal
mesoderm and lateral mesoderm
Dorsal mesoderm – three regions: myotome (form
the muscles), sceleretome (form the vertebra and
other bones, except facial bone) and dermatome
(form the dermis of the skin of the lower back)
Endoderm – develops the digestive tracts and glands

Hemophilia – an X-linked recessive genetic disorder

in which blood fails to clot properly due to gene
mutations; individual affected may experience easy
bruising and sudden bleeding

Symbiosis – interaction between two different

organisms
Mutualism – both the host and the symbiont benefit
from each other
Commensalism – relationship in which the symbiont
benefits but the host is neither helped nor harmed
Parasitism – the symbiont benefits at the expense of
the host by either living within the host
(endoparasite) or outside the host (ectoparasite)

Source: MSA National Medical Admission Test (NMAT)

Practice Test I in Biology