BUILDING TECHNOLOGY LAYOUT METHODS AND PROCEDURES

1. BEFORE THE CONSTRUCTION BEGINS, SEE TO IT THAT A BUILDING PERMIT IS

LAYOUT AND EXCAVATION
FIRST SECURED FROM THE LOCAL AUTHORITIES CONCERNED.

 SPIRIT LEVEL - INSTRUMENT OR TOOL CAPABLE OF VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL

2. RELOCATE THE BOUDARIES OF THE CONSTRUCTION SITE. IT IS SUGGESTED
LINE CHECK. THAT THE RELOCATION OF THE PROPERTY LINE SHALL BE DONE BY GEODETIC
ENGINEER SPECIALLY FOR THOSE LOTS WITHOUT EXISTING REFERENCE
 PLUMB BOB - IT’S USES FOR VERTICAL LINE CHECK. POINTS OR ADJOINING STRUCTURES.

 PLASTIC HOSE FILLED W/ WATER – A METHOD OF LEVELLING (HORIZONTAL) 3. CLEAR THE SITE OF ANY EXISTING STRUCTURE, TREES, AND OTHER ELEMENTS
BATTERBOARDS WITHOUT TRANSIT. THAT WILL OBSTRUCT THE CONSTRUCTION WORK.

 3-4-5 MULTIPLES W/ THE USE OF STEEL TAPE MEASURE – A MANUAL METHOD OF 4. CONSTRUCT AND ALLOCATE A SPACE FOR LABORERS’ QUARTERS,
SQUARING THE CORNERS OF BUILDING LINES IN BUILDING LAYOUT. CONSTRUCTION OFFICE, BODEGA FOR THE MATERIALS AND WORKING TOOLS
AND TEMPORARY WASTE DISPOSAL.

 SHEET PILLING – A BARRIER FORMED TO PREVENT THE MOVEMENT OF SOIL TO

STABILIZE FOUNDATION. 5. APPLY FOR A TEMPORARY CONNECTIONS OF ELECTRIC AND WATER SUPPLY.
ELECTRIC CURRENT IS IMPORTANT FOR THE POWER NEEDS OF THE TOOLS AND
EQUIPMENT AND IS NECESSARY ON OVERTIME SCHEDULES ESPECIALLY IN THE
LAYOUT AND EXCAVATIONS TIME OF CONCRETING. WATER IS ALSO A PRIME NEED IN CONSTRUCTION.

LAYOUT IS SOMETIMES CALLED “ STAKING OUT” WHICH MEANS THE PROCESS 6. CONSTRUCT A TEMPORARY FENCE AROUND THE CONSTRUCTION.
OF RELOCATING THE POINT OF BOUNDARIES AND PROPERTY LINE OF THE SITE WHERE
THE BUILDING IS TO BE CONSTRUCTED. 7. VERIFY THE MEASUREMENT IN THE PLAN IF THE DISTANCES INDICATED ARE
FORM:
IT INCLUDES CLEARING, STAKING, BATTER BOARDS AND ESTABLISHES THE
EXACT LOCATION OF THE BUILDING FOUNDATION AND WALL LINE ON THE GROUND.
 CENTER TO CENTER

 STAKE – ARE WOODEN STICKS USED AS POSTS SHARPENED AT ONE END DRIVEN
 OUTER TO CENTER
INTO THE GROUND TO SERVE AS BOUNDARIES OR SUPPORTS OF THE BATTER
BOARDS.
 OUTER TO OUTER
 BATTER BOARD – WOOD STICK OR BOARD NAILED HORIZONTALLY AT THE STAKE
WHICH SERVE AS THE HORIZONTAL PLANE WHERE THE REFERENCE POINT OF THE  INSIDE TO INSIDE
BUILDING MEASUREMENTS ARE ESTABLISHED.
8. FIX THE BATTER BOARD TO ITS HORIZONTAL POSITION WITH THE AID OF LEVEL
 STRING – IS EITHER PLASTIC CHORD OR GALVANIZED WIRE ACROSS THE BATTER INSTRUMENT PREFERABLY PLASTIC HOSE WITH WATER.
BOARDS USED TO INDICATE THE OUTLINE OF THE BUILDING WALL AND
FOUNDATION.
9. AFTER ESTABLISHING THE REFERENCE POINT AND LINE OF THE FOOTING,
TRANSFER THE INTERSECTING POINTS OF THE STRING ON THE GROUND BY THE
AID OF PLUMB BOB AND INDICATE THE SIZE AND WIDTH TO BE EXCAVATED.
EXCAVATION
EXCAVATION WORK IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION IS CATEGORIZED INTO TWO
TYPES: THE MINOR AND MAJOR EXCAVATION DEPENDING UPON THE SIZE AND NATURE
OF THE FOUNDATION TO BE CONSTRUCTED. EXCAVATION FOR A SMALL CONSTRUCTION
WITH INDEPENDENT WALL, OR COMBINED FOOTING IS CLASSIFIED UNDER THE MINOR
EXCAVATION, WHILE THE REST WHICH REQUIRES SIZEABLES OR TOTAL EXTRACTION OF
THE EARTH FALL UNDER THE CATEGORY OF MAJOR CONSTRUCTION.
4. WHERE TO DISPOSE THE UNDERGROUND WATER TO BE DRAINED BY THE WATER
PUMP DURING THE PROCESS OF CONSTRUCTION WHICH MIGHT CAUSE MUDDY
ROAD AND CREATE INCONVENIENCE TO TRAFFIC.
5. THE KIND OF SHEETING AND BRACING TO BE USED IN SHORING OR UNDERSPINNING
TO PROTECT THE ADJOINING STRUCTURE MUST BE CONSIDERED.
FOUNDATION AND FOOTING

MINOR EXCAVATION THE FUNCTION OF A FOUNDATION IS TO TRANSFER THE STRUCTURAL LOADS

FROM A BUILDING SAFELY INTO THE GROUND.
EXCAVATION UNDER THIS CATEGORY ARE THOSE CONSTRUCTION HAVING
INDEPENDENT FOOTING AND HOLLOW BLOCK WALL FOOTING WHERE THE DIGGING OF ALL FOUNDATIONS SETTLE TO SOME EXTENT AS THE SOIL AROUND BENEATH
THE SOIL FOR THE FOOTING EXTEND TO A DEPTH FROM 1.00 TO 1.50 METER AND ABOUT THEM ADJUST ITSELF TO THESE LOADS.
HALF A METER DEPTH FOR THE WALL FOOTING.

UNIFORM SETTLEMENT IS USUALLY OF LITTLE CONSEQUENCES IN A BUILDING,

MAJOR EXCAVATION BUT A DIFFERENTIAL SETTLEMENT CAN CAUSE SEVERE STRUCTURAL DAMAGE.

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION THAT REQUIRES WIDE EXCAVATION OR TOTAL 3 MAJOR PARTS OF A BUILDING:
EXTRACTION OF THE SOIL ARE CLASSIFIED INTO TWO CATEGORIES DEPENDING UPON
THE CONDITION OR LOCATION OF THE SITE. WHEN THE AREA OF THE CONSTRUCTION
SITE IS BIG THAT THERE IS ENOUGH SPACE TO ACCOMMODATE WORKING ACTIVITIES,  SUPERSTRUCTURE – WHICH IS THE ABOVE GROUND PORTION OF THE BUILDING.
STORING OF MATERIALS AND DUMPING GROUND FOR THE EXCAVATED SOIL.
 SUBSTRUCTURE – WHICH IS THE HABITABLE BELOW-GROUND PORTION.
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION ON A BUSY COMMERCIAL CENTER WITH ADJACENT
EXISTING STRUCTURE IS CONSIDERED TO THE MOST COMPLICATED AMONG THE
 FOUNDATION – WHICH ARE THE COMPONENTS OF THE BUILDING THAT TRANSFER
VARIOUS CONSTRUCTION WORKS SINCE THIS REQUIRES CAREFUL STUDY AND ANALYSIS
ITS LOAD INTO THE SOIL.
OF THE RIGHT APPROACH.

3 TYPES OF SUBSTRUCTURES:
PROBLEMS MIGHT BE ENCOUNTER:

 SLAB ON FILL
1. THE MANNER OF THE EXCAVATION TO BE EMPLOYED WHICH WILL NOT AFFECT OR
DAMAGED THE ADJOINING STRUCTURE.
 CRAWLSPACE
2. THE KIND OF EQUIPMENT TO BE USED IN THE DIGGING AND EXTRACTING THE
GROUND MAY NOT BE A PROBLEM BUT THE PLACE WHERE TO STATION THE  BASEMENT
EQUIPMENT DURING THE OPERATION.

2 BASIC TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS:

3. HOW AND WHERE TO DISPOSE THE EXTRACTED SOIL INVOLVES THE EFFECTIVE
MANNER OF MANEUVERING THE PAYLOAD AND DRUMPTRUCKS IN HAULING
WITHOUT OBSTRUCTING THE PEDESTRIAN AND VEHICULAR TRAFFIC FLOW.  SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS ARE THOSE THAT TRANSFER THE LOAD TO THE EARTH AT
THE BASE OF THE COLUMN OR WALL OF THE SUBSTRUCTURE.
 DEEP FOUNDATIONS TRANSFER THE LOAD AT A POINT FAR BELOW THE
SUBSTRUCTURE.
FOUNDATION IS THAT PORTION OF THE STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS THAT CARRY OR
SUPPORT THE SUPERSTRUCTURE OF THE BUILDING.
FOOTING IS THAT PORTION OF THE FOUNDATION OF THE STRUCTURE WHICH
DIRECTLY TRANSMIT THE COLUMN LOAD TO THE UNDERLYING SOIL OR ROCK, FOOTING
IS THE LOWER PORTION OF THE FOUNDATION STRUCTURE.
FOUNDATION BED - REFERS TO THE SOIL OR ROCK DIRECTLY BENEATH THE
FOOTING.
PILE FOUNDATION – WHEN A FOUNDATION BED IS TOO WEAK TO SUPPORT A RAFT
FOOTING, THERE IS AN URGENT NEED TO PROVIDE A SUITABLE MATERIALS WHERE TO
TRANSFER THE EXCESS LOAD TO A GREATER DEPTH WHEREIN PILES IS THE ANSWER.
PILE – IS A STRUCTURAL MEMBER OF SMALL CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA WITH
REASONABLE LENGTH DRIVEN DOWN THE GROUND BY MEANS OF HAMMERS OR
VIBRATORY GENERATOR.
PILE IS DISTINGUISHED FROM A CAISSON BY BEING DRIVEN INTO PLACE RATHER
THAN DRILED & POURED.
PILES ARE GENERALLY DRIVEN CLOSELY TOGETHER IN CLUSTERS CONTAINING
FROM TWO TO TWENTY-FIVE PILES. EACH CLUSTER IS LATER JOINED AT THE TOP BY A
REINFORCED CONCRETE PILE CAP.
PILE CAP – DISTRIBUTES THE LOAD OF THE COLUMN OR WALL EQUALLY AMONG
THE PILES.
CAISSONS – IS SIMILAR TO A COLUMN FOOTING IN THAT IT SPREADS THE LOAD
FROM A COLUMN OVER A LARGE ENOUGH AREA OF SOIL.
 FOUNDATION WALL – THAT PART OF THE BUILDING FOUNDATION WHICH FORMS
THE PERMANENT RETAINING WALL OF THE STRUCTURE BELOW GRADE.
 GRADE BEAM – THAT PART OF A FOUNDATION SYSTEM W/C SUPPORTS THE
EXTERIOR WALL OF THE SUPERSTRUCTURE AND BEARS DIRECTLY ON THE COLUMN
FOOTING.
 RETAINING WALL – A WALL OR LATERALLY BRACED, THAT BEARS AGAINST AN
EARTH OR OTHER FILL SURFACE AND RESISTS LATERAL AND OTHER FORCES.
 CANTILEVER WALL – A REINFORCED CONCRETE WALL WHICH RESIST
OVERTURNING BY THE USE OF CANTILEVER FOOTING.
 GRAVITY WALL – A MASSIVE CONCRETE WALL THAT RESIST OVERTURNING BY
VIRTUE OF IT’S OWN WEIGHT.
 BEARING WALL – A WALL CAPABLE OF SUPPORTING AN IMPOSED LOAD.
FOOTING ARE CLASSIFIED INTO TWO TYPES:
WALL FOOTING OR STRIP FOOTING – IS A STRIP OF REINFORCED CONCRETE WIDER
THAN THE WALL WHICH DISTRIBUTES THE LOAD TO THE SOIL.
A STEEL PERCENTAGE EQUALS TO 0.2 TO 0.3% OF THE CROSS SECTIONAL AREA
OF CONCRETE IS SAID TO BE ADEQUATE EXCEPT ON UNUSUAL CASES.
COLUMN FOOTING – IS CLASSIFIED INTO THE FOLLOWING TYPES:
1. ISOLATED OR INDEPENDENT FOOTING – IS A KIND OF FOOTING REPRESENTS THE
SIMPLEST AND MOST ECONOMICAL TYPE, IN THE FORM OF:
 SQUARE BLOCK FOOTING
 SQUARE SLOPE FOOTING
 SQUARE STEPPED FOOTING
2. COMBINED FOOTING – IS USED WHEN TWO OR MORE COLUMNS ARE SPACED
CLOSELY TO EACH OTHER THAT THEIR FOOTING WILL ALMOST OR COMPLETELY
MERGE. IT’S EITHER :
 RECTANGULAR
 TRAPEZOIDAL
3. CONTINUOUS FOOTING – IS SOMETIMES CLASSIFIED AS WALL FOOTING WHICH
SUPPORT SEVERAL COLUMNS IN A ROW. IT’S EITHER:
 INVERTED SLAB FOOTING
 INVERTED TEE FOOTING
4. RAFT OR MAT FOOTING – IT’S OCCUPIES THE ENTIRE AREA BENEATH THE  CONCRETE MIXTURE:
STRUCTURE AND CARRY THE WALL AND THE COLUMN LOADS.
CLASS MIXTURE 40kg. 50kg. SAND GRAVEL
 UNIFORM SLAB
“AA” 1:11/2: 3 12 9.5 0.5
 THICKENED SLAB cu.m. 1.0 cu.m.

 BEAM & GIRDER “A” 1:2:4 9 7

0.5 1.0

CONCRETE
“B” 1:21/2:5 7.5 6
0.5 1.0
CONCRETE IS AN ARTIFICIAL STONE MADE OUT FROM THE MIXTURE OF
CEMENT, SAND, GRAVEL AND WATER. THIS IS KNOWN AS SOLID MASS OR PLAIN
CONCRETE. CONCRETE IN WHICH REINFORCEMENT IS EMBEDDED IN SUCH A MANNER “C” 1:3:6 6 5
THAT THE TWO MATERIALS ACT TOGETHER IN RESISTING FORCES IS CALLED 0.5 1.0
REINFORCED CONCRETE.

 SLUMP TEST – A READY MEANS OF DETERMINING THE CONSISTENCY OF FRESHLY

MIXED CONCRETE.  MORTAR MIXTURE:

 DESIGNING OF CONCRETE MIXTURE IS BASED ON THE WATER-CEMENT RATIO. CLASS MIXTURE 40kg. 50kg. SAND

 0.68 lb. OF WATER / lb. OF CEMENT WILL PRODUCE CONCRETE CAPABLE OF “A” 1:2 18 14.5 1.0
DEVELOPING 2,500 PSI IN 28 DAYS. cu.m.

 LESS WATER PRODUCE STRONGER CONCRETE. “B” 1:3 12 9.5 1.0

 MORE WATER PRODUCE LESSER STRENGTH. “C” 1:4 9 7 1.0

 ADMIXTURE – ACCELERATES OR RETARDS CONCRETE SETTING. “D” 1:5 7.5 6 1.0

 SIZES OF MEASURING BOX FOR : POST AND COLUMN

 40 kg. CEMENT – 300mm X 300mm X 300mm
 50 kg. CEMENT - 320mm X 320mm X 330mm
POST – REFERS TO A PIECE OF TIMBER OF EITHER CYLINDRICAL, SQUARE OR OTHER
GEOMETRICAL CROSS SECTION PLACED VERTICALLY TO SUPPORT A BUILDING.
COLUMN – REFERS TO VERTICAL STRUCTURE USE TO SUPPORT A BUILDING MADE OF
STONE, CONCRETE, STEEL OR COMBINATION OF THE ABOVE MATERIALS.

STOREY – IS THE SPACE IN A BUILDING BETWEEN FLOOR LEVELS OR BETWEEN A FLOOR

AND A ROOF ABOVE.
REINFORCED CONCRETE COLUMN ARE CLASSICIFICATION
 SHORT COLUMN – WHEN THE UNSUPPORTED HEIGHT IS NOT GREATER THAN TEN
TIMES THE SHORTEST LATERAL DIMENSION OF THE CROSS SECTION.
 LONG COLUMN – WHEN THE UNSUPPORTED HEIGHT IS MORE THAN TEN TIMES THE
SHORTEST LATERAL DIMENSION OF THE CROSS SECTION.
TYPES OF COLUMNS
 TIED COLUMN – HAS REINFORCEMENT CONSISTING OF VERTICAL OR
LONGITUDINAL BARS HELD IN POSITION BY LATERAL REINFORCEMENT CALLED
LATERAL TIES.
 SPIRAL COLUMN – IS THE TERM GIVEN WHERE A CIRCULAR CONCRETE CORE IN
ENCLOSED BY SPIRALS WITH VERTICAL OR LONGITUDINAL BARS. THE VERTICAL
REINFORCEMENT IS PROVIDED WITH EVENLY SPACED CONTINUOUS SPIRAL HELD
FIRMLY IN POSITION BY AT LEAST THREE VERTICAL BAR SPACERS.
 COMPOSITE COLUMN – WHERE STRUCTURAL STEEL COLUMN IS EMBEDDED INTO
THE CONCRETE CORE OF A SPIRAL COLUMN.
 COMBINED COLUMN – WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL ENCASED IN CONCRETE OF AT
LEAST 7 cm. THK. REINFORCED WITH WIRE MESS SURROUNDING THE COLUMN AT A
DISTANCE OF 3 cm. INSIDE THE OUTER SURFACE OF THE CONCRETE COVERING.
 LALLY COLUMN – IS A FABRICATED STEEL PIPE PROVIDED WITH A FLAT STEEL
BARS OR PLATE WHICH HOLD A GIRDER, GIRTS OR BEAM. THE STEEL PIPE IS
SOMETIMES FILLED WITH GROUT OR CONCRETE FOR CORROSION.
METAL REINFORCEMENT
THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF STRESSES THAT MAY ACT ON THE STRUCTURE ARE:
1. COMPRESSION STRESS
2. TENSION STRESS
3. SHEAR STRESS
4. TORSION STRESS
 REINFORCEMENT NEED TO PROVIDE ON BEAM TO RESPONSE TO POSITIVE AND
NEGATIVE BENDING WHICH MAY CAUSE FAILURE OR COLLAPSE OF THE
STRUCTURE.
 REINFORCED CONCRETE – IS A COMBINATION OF CONCRETE AND STEEL.
 CONCRETE – IS STRONG IN SUPPORTING COMPRESSION LOAD BUT WEAK IN
RESISTING TENSION FORCES.
 STEEL – POSSESSES THE STRENGTH TO RESIST BOTH COMPRESSION AND TENSION.
 BALANCE BEAM – WHEN THE AREA OF THE CONCRETE AND STEEL ARE JUST
ENOUGH TO CARRY THE COMPRESSION AND TENSION FORCES SIMULTANEOUSLY.
 INFLECTION POINTS – REFER TO THE PORTION OF A BEAM WHERE BENDING
MOMENT CHANGES FROM POSITIVE TO NEGATIVE.
 NO BENT BARS – WHEN BARS ARE NOT BENT, AN ADDITIONAL STRAIGHT
REINFORCING BARS ARE PLACED ON THE TOP OF THE BEAM ACROSS THE SUPPORTS
EXTENDED TO THE REQUIRED LENGTH.
 BENT REINFORCING BARS – ARE BENT UP ON OR NEAR THE INFLECTION POINT
AND ARE EXTENDED AT THE TOP OF THE BEAM ACROSS THE SUPPORT TOWARDS THE
ADJACENT SPAN.
 4cm. – ALLOWANCE PROTECTIVE COVERING OF STEEL BARS FROM THE OUTSIDE OF
THE MAIN REINFORCEMENT.
 ADVANTAGE OF THE BEND BARS, ITS RESIST THE DIAGONAL TENSION.
 BUILDING CODE REQUIRED THAT A BALANCE BEAM SHALL PROVIDE, THAT THE
CROSS SECTIONAL AREA OF STEEL REINFORCEMENT SHALL BE EQUAL TO .005 TIMES
THE CROSS SECTIONAL PRODUCT OF THE WIDTH AND THE DEPTH OF THE BEAM.
 USED LATERAL TIES –
10mm dia. IF LONGITUDINAL BARS 32mm SMALLER
12mm dia. IF LONGITUDINAL BARS 36mm BIGGER
 THREE FACTORS FOR SPACING OF THE LATERAL TIES:  BOARD FOOT – THE VOLUME OF A PIECE OF WOOD ONE INCH. THICK, ONE FOOT
WIDE AND ONE FOOT LONG.

 SHOULD NOT BE MORE THAN 16 TIMES THE DIA. OF THE LONGITUDINAL

OR MAIN REINFORCING BARS.  BOLIDEN SALT – TREATMENT IN WOLMANIZED LUMBER.

 SHOULD NOT BE MORE THAN 48 TIMES THE DIA. OF THE LATERAL TIES.  DAP – A NOTCH IN A TIMBER FOR RECEIVING ANOTHER TIMBER.

 NOT MORE THAN THE SHORTEST DIMENSION OF THE COLUMN.  DADO – A RECTANGULAR GROOVE CUT ACROSS THE FULL WIDTH OF A PIECE OF
WOOD TO RECEIVE THE END OF ANOTHER PIECE.

WOOD CONSTRUCTION
 SOLIGNUM – TRADE NAME FOR ANTI-TERMITE SURFACE APPLICATION ON WOOD.

 SCAB – A SHORT FLAT PIECE OF LUMBER WHICH IS BOLTED, NAILED OR SCREWED

TO TWO BUTTING PIECES IN ORDER TO SPLICE THEM TOGETHER. FLOOR STRUCTURE

 FISH PLATE – A WOOD OR METAL PIECE USED TO FASTEN TOGETHER THE ENDS OF WOOD FLOOR SYSTEM
TWO MEMBERS WITH NAILS OR BOLTS.
FLOOR FRAMING IS THAT PLATFORM STRUCTURE OF THE BUILDING
 SPLICE PLATE – A METAL PLATE USED FOR FASTENING TWO OR MORE MEMBER SUSPENDED BY POSTS, COLUMNS, WALLS AND BEAMS.
TOGETHER.
THE DESIGN OF A PLATFORM FLOOR SYSTEM DEPENDS UPON THE FOLLOWING
 COGGED JOINT – A CARPENTRY JOINT BY TWO UNEVEN TIMBERS, EACH OF WHICH CONSIDERATIONS:
IS NOTCHED AT THE PLACE WHERE THEY MEET.
1. LIVE LOAD – REFERS TO THOSE MOVABLE LOADS IMPOSED ON THE
FLOOR.
 NOTCHING – JOINING OF TIMBERS, USUALLY MEETING OR CROSSING AT RIGHT
ANGLES, BY CUTTING A DAP IN ONE OR BOTH PIECES.
2. DEAD LOAD – REFERS TO THE STATIC LOAD SUCH AS THE WEIGHT OF
THE CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS WHICH GENERALLY CARRY THE
 CROSSLAP JOINT – A JOINT CONNECTING TWO WOOD MEMBERS WHICH CROSS
LIVE LOAD.
EACH OTHER, HALF THE THICKNESS OF EACH IS CUT SO THAT THE THICKNESS WILL
THE SAME AS THAT OF EACH MEMBER.
3. TYPES OF MATERIALS TO BE USED – THE CHOICE FROM THE
VARIOUS CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS SUCH AS LUMBER, CONCRETE,
 SQUARE SPLICE–A TYPE OF HALF LAPPED USED TO RESIST TENSION. AND STEEL.

 BRIDLE JOINT – A JOINT IN WHICH TWO TONGUES PROJECT FROM THE SIDES OF 4. THE SIZING AND SPACING OF THE STRUCTURAL MEMBERS –
THE TENONED MEMBER, THESE TONGUES FIT INTO CORRESPONDING SLOTS IN THE DEPENDS UPON ITS STRENGTH AND CAPABILITY TO CARRY THE LOAD
MORTISED MEMBER. AT A CERTAIN SPACING.

 TENON – THE PROJECTING END OF A PIECE OF WOOD, OR OTHER MATERIALS WHICH 5. SPAN OF THE SUPPORTS – PERTAINS TO THE DISTANCES BETWEEN
IS REDUCED IN CROSS SECTION, SO THAT IT MAY BE INSERTED IN A THE POSTS, COLUMNS OR SUPPORTING WALLS.
CORRESPONDING CAVITY IN ANOTHER PIECE IN ORDER TO FORM A SECURE JOINT.

 YACAL – LUMBER PREFFERED WHEN IN CONTACT WITH CONCRETE.

THE PLATFORM - FLOOR FRAMING STRUCTURE IS CLASSIFIED INTO THE FOLLOWING
TYPES:
A. THE PLANK AND BEAM FLOOR TYPE
B. THE PANELIZED-FLOOR SYSTEM
C. THE CONVENTIONAL FLOOR FRAMING SYSTEM
THE DIFFERENT PARTS OF A PLATFORM FLOOR SYSTEM ARE:
 GIRDER – IS A PRINCIPAL BEAM EXTENDING FROM WALL TO WALL OF A BUILDING
SUPPORTING THE FLOOR JOISTS OF FLOOR BEAMS.
 SILL – THAT PART OF THE SIDE OF A HOUSE THAT RESTS HORIZONTALLY UPON THE
FOUNDATION.
 FLOOR JOISTS – ARE THOSE PARTS OF THE FLOOR SYSTEM PLACED ON THE
GIRDERS WHERE THE FLOOR BOARDS ARE FASTENED.
 HEADER AND TRIMMER – HEADER IS A SHORT TRANSVERSE JOISTS THAT SUPPORT
THE END OF THE CUT-OFF JOIST AT A STAIR WELL HOLE. TRIMMER IS A SUPPORTING
JOIST WHICH CARRIES AN END PORTION OF A HEADER.
 FLOORING – THE TONGUE AND GROOVE WHICH ARE POPULARLY KNOWN AS T & G
IS GENERALLY SPECIFIED FOR WOOD FLOORING.
 TAIL BEAM OR TAIL PIECE – A SHORT BEAM, JOIST OR RAFTER WHICH IS
SUPPORTED BY A HEADER JOIST AT ONE END AND A WALL AT THE OTHER.
 LEDGER STRIP – A STRIP OF LUMBER WHICH IS NAILED TO THE SIDE OF THE BEAM,
FORMING A SEAT FOR THE JOISTS.
 DRAFTSTOP PLATE – IS A PIECE OF LUMBER USES TO DRESS UP THE EDGE OF THE
JOISTS.
 SOLE PLATE – A HORIZONTAL TIMBER WHICH SERVES AS A BASE FOR THE STUDS IN
A STUD PARTITION.
 SILL PLATE – A HORIZONTAL TIMBER, AT THE BOTTOM OF THE FRAME OF AWOOD
STRUCTURE WHICH REST ON THE FOUNDATION.
 TOP PLATE – A HORIZONTAL TIMBER AT THE UPPER PORTION OF THE STUDS IN
ASTUD PARTITION.
 CRIPPLE STUD – IN ABUILDING FRAME, A STRUCTURAL ELEMENT THAT IS SHORTER
THAN USUAL, AS A STUD ABOVE AND BELOW OPENING.
 BLOCK OR SOLID BRIDGING – SHORT MEMBERS WHICH ARE FIXED VERTICALLY
BETWEEN FLOOR JOISTS TO STIFFEN THE JOISTS.
 CROSS BRIDGING – DIAGONAL BRACING IN PAIRS, BETWEEN ADJACENT FLOOR
JOISTS TO PREVENT THE JOISTS FROM TWISTING.
 HANGER OR STIRRUP – A METAL SEAT, ATTACHED TO A GIRDER TO RECEIVE AND
SUPPORT A JOIST.
 BALLOON FRAMING – CONSTRUCTION HAS STUDS CONTINOUS TO ROOF
SUPPORTING SECOND FLOOR JOISTS.
 WESTERN FRAMING – THAT HAS SUBFLOOR EXTENDED TO THE OUTER EDGE OF
THE FRAME AND PROVIDE A FLAT WORK SURFACE AT EACH FLOOR.
REINFORCED CONCRETE FLOOR SYSTEM
BEAM - IS A STRUCTURAL MEMBER THAT SUPPORTS THE TRANSVERSE LOAD
WHICH USUALLY REST ON SUPPORTS AT ITS END.
GIRDER – IS THE TERM APPLIED TO A BEAM THAT SUPPORTS ONE OR MORE
SMALLER BEAM.
BEAM ARE CLASSIFIED AS :
A) SIMPLE BEAM
B) CONTINUOUS BEAM
C) SEMI – CONTINUOUS
SIMPLE BEAM – REFERS TO THE BEAM HAVING A SINGLE SPAN SUPPORTED AT
ITS END WITHOUT A RESTRAIN AT THE SUPPORT. SIMPLE BEAMS IS SOMETIMES CALLED
AS SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM.
RESTRAINT MEANS A RIGID CONNECTION OR ANCHORAGE AT THE SUPPORT.
 CONTINUOUS BEAM – IS A TERM APPLIED TO A BEAM THAT REST ON MORE
THAN TWO SUPPORTS.
SEMI-CONTINUOUS BEAM – REFERS TO A BEAM WITH TWO SPANS WITH OR
WITHOUT RESTRAINT AT THE TWO EXTREME ENDS.
WEB REINFORCEMENT
WEB REINFORCEMENT IS THE SAME AS THEIR STIRRUPS USED IN THE BEAM TO
HOLD THE REINFORCEMENT IN ITS DESIGNED POSITION. THE WEB REINFORCEMENT IS
NOT ONLY INTENDED TO HOLD THE REINFORCEMENT AND PROVIDE LATERAL SUPPORT
BUT ALSO SERVES TO RESIST DIAGONAL TENSION AND COUNTERACT THE SHEAR ACTION
ON THE STRUCTURE. THE VERTICAL STIRRUPS SHOULD ENCIRCLE THE MAIN
REINFORCEMENT AND HOOK BENT WITH A DIAMETER NOT LESS THAN 5 TIMES THE
DIAMETER OF THE STIRRUPS AT ITS END AND SECURED PROPERLY TO PREVENT SLIPPING
OF THE MAIN REINFORCEMENT IN THE CONCRETE.
REINFORCED CONCRETE SLAB:
REINFORCED CONCRETE FLOOR SLABS ARE CLASSIFIED INTO THE FOLLOWING
TYPES:
ONE WAY SLAB – ONE WAY SLAB IS THE COMMON TYPE OF REINFORCED
CONCRETE FLOOR SYSTEM WHICH THE REINFORCEMENTS RUNS ONLY IN ONE
DIRECTION. MADE OF SOLID SLAB SUPPORTED BY TWO PARALLEL BEAMS. IT IS
COMPARATIVELY ECONOMICAL FOR A MEDIUM AND HEAVY LIVE LOADS ON SHORT
SPANS RANGING FROM 2.00 TO 3.50 METERS LONG. ALTHOUGH THE REINFORCEMENTS
ARE ALSO PLACED IN THE SLAB PARALLEL WITH THE BEAMS PERPENDICULAR WITH THE
MAIN REINFORCEMENTS CALLED “TEMPERATURE REINFORCEMENTS”. USUALLY NO. 3
STEEL BAR IS USED TO COUNTERACT THE EFFECT OF SHRINKAGE AND CHANGES IN
TEMPERATURE. IT ALSO DISTRIBUTES POSSIBLE CONCENTRATION OF LOADS OVER A
LARGER AREA.
TWO WAY SLAB – SLAB WHICH ARE SUPPORTED ON FOUR SIDES WHERE THE
FLOOR PANEL IS NEARLY SQUARE IS GENERALLY ECONOMICAL TO EMPLOY THE TWO
DIRECTIONS OF REINFORCING BARS PLACED AT RIGHT ANGLE WITH EACH OTHER.
THE CODE SPECIFIES THAT THICKNESS OF THE SLAB SHALL NOT BE LESS THAN
4 INCHES OR 10 CM. NOR LESS THAN THE PERIMETER OF THE SLAB DIVIDED BY 180. THE
SPACING OF THE REINFORCEMENT SHALL NOT BE MORE THAN 3 TIMES THE SLAB
THICKNESS.
RIBBED FLOOR SLAB – IS AN ECONOMICAL TYPE OF FLOOR CONSTRUCTION
BUT IS APPLICABLE ONLY TO MEDIUM SPAN LENGTH WITH LIGHT OR MEDIUM LOAD.

A RIBBED FLOOR SLAB CONSISTS OF SMALL ADJACENT T-BEAM WHEREIN THE

1. ONE WAY SOLID SLAB AND BEAM.
OPEN SPACES BETWEEN THE RIBS ARE FILLED BY CLAY TILES, GYPSUM TILES OR STEEL
FORMS. THE TILES ARE GENERALLY 30 X 90 CM. WITH DEPTH OF 10 TO 40CM. O.C.
2. TWOWAY SOLID SLAB BEAM. PLACED @ 5CM. O.C. MAKING THE RIBS 10 CM. WIDE.

3. RIBBED FLOORS. THE CONCRETE SURFACE LAYER PLACED ON TOP OF THE TILES RANGES FROM 5
TO 6.5 CM. THICK. THE REINFORCEMENT OF A RIBBED FLOOR SYSTEM CONSIST OF TWO
BARS PLACED AT THE LOWER PART OF THE RIB WHERE ONE IS BENT AND THE OTHER
4. FLAT SLAB OR GIRDERLESS FLOORS SOLID OR RIBBED. REMAINED STRAIGHT, OR SOMETIMES, STRAIGHT BARS ARE PALCED AT THE TOP AND
BOTTOM OF THE RIB. TEMPERATURE BARS ARE EITHER NO. 2 BARS OR 6 MM. OR WIRE
EACH TYPE OF THE FLOOR SYSTEM HAS ITS OWN ADVANTAGES IN APPLICATION MESH WHICH RUNS AT RIGHT ANGLE WITH THE RIBS.
DEPENDING UPON THE FOLLOWING FACTORS:
FLAT SLAB – IS A RECTANGULAR SLAB DIRECTLY SUPPORTED BY COLUMNS
1. SPACING OF THE COLUMNS. WITHOUT BEAMS OR GIRDERS. THESLAB IS EITHER UNIFORM IN THICKNESS OR
PROVIDED WITH SQUARE SYMMETRICAL AREA DIRECTLY ABOVE THE COLUMN
REINFORCED WITH BARS RUNNING IN TWO DIRECTIONS. THE INCREASED AREA
2. THE MAGNITUDE OF THE LOADS TO BE SUPPORTED DIRECTLY ABOVE THE COLUMN CALLED DROP PANEL OR SIMPLY DROP. ON THE OTHER
HAND, A FLARED HEAD IS EMPLOYED IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF A FLAT-SLAB FLOOR
3. LENGTH OF THE SPAN MAKING A CAPITAL OF THE COLUMN.

4. THE COST OF THE CONSTRUCTION WHEN THE COLUMN DESIGN IS NOT PROVIDED WITH CAPITAS, A STRAIGHT
FLAT UNDERNEATH IS PROVIDED IN THE SLAB THROUGHOUT THE SYSTEM, WHICH IS
CALLED FLAT PLATE CONSTRUCTION.
 THIS FLOOR SYSTEM IS ECONOMICAL IN TERMS OF MATERIALS AND LABOR. IT IS IMPORTANT TO MAKE A CROSS SECTIONAL SKETCH OF A STAIR BEFORE
MAKING THE FINAL PLAN LAYOUT INDICATING THE NUMBER OF STEPS TO
AVOID ADJUSTMENTS OF THE RUN DURING THE ACTUAL CONSTRUCTION.
 CONSTRUCTION JOINT – A JOINT WHERE TWO SUCCESSIVE PLACEMENT OF
CONCRETE MEET.
TYPE OF STRINGERS
 CONTRACTION JOINT OR EXPANSION JOINT – A JOINT BETWEEN ADJACENT PARTS
OF A STRUCTURE WHICH PERMITS MOVEMENT BETWEEN THEM. THERE ARE SEVERAL FORMS OF STRINGER CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO THE
METHOD OF ATTACHIND THE RISERS AND THE TREADS.
 CONTROL JOINTS – EMPLOYED TO REDUCE RESTRAINT BY ACCOMODATING
MOVEMENT OF MASONRY WALL. 1. CUT

 BLOCK OUT – IN CONCRETE STRUCTURES UNDER CONSTRUCTION, A SPACE WHERE 2. CLEATED

CONCRETE IS NOT TO BE PLACED.
3. BUILT-UP
 COLD JOINT – A JOINT FORMED WHEN A CONCRETE SURFACE HARDEN BEFORE THE
NEXT BATCH OF CONCRETE IS PLACED AGAINST.
4. RABBETED (HOUSE)

 CREEP – PERMANENT DEFORMATION OF A MATERIAL UNDER A SUSTAIN LOAD.

 BALUSTER – ONE OF A NUMBER OF SHORT VERTICAL MEMBERS OFTEN CIRCULAR
IN SECTION, USED TO SUPPORT A STAIR HANDRAIL.
 CAMBER – CONVEX CURVATURE IN BEAM OR TRUSS
 BALUSTRATE – AN ENTIRE RAILING SYSTEM INCLUDING A TOP RAIL, VERTICAL
LAYING OUT OF STAIRS MEMBERS AND BOTTOM RAIL.

THE METHOD OF LAYING OUT STAIRS ARE:
1. DETERMINE THE CLEAR HEIGHT OF THE RISE IN METER.
ORDINARILY, THE RISE PER STEP IS 17 TO 18 CM AND THE MINIMUM TREAD
WIDTH IS 25 CM.
 BULL-NOSED STEP – A STEP USUALLY LOWEST IN AFLIGHT, HAVING ONE OR BOTH
ENDS ROUNDED TO A SEMI-CIRCLE AND PROJECTION BEYOND THE FACE OF THE
STAIR STRING/S.
 BANISTER – HANDRAIL FOR A STAIRCASE.

2. DIVIDE THE RISE ( HEIGHT IN METER) BY .17 OR .18 TO DETERMINE THE  RISER – A VERTICAL FACE OF ASTAIR.
NUMBER OF STEPS.
 KICKER PLATE – STAIR ANCHOR TO CONCRETE.
3. DIVIDE THE RUN DISTANCE IN METER BY .25 OR .30m.
TYPES OF ROOF
4. IF THE RESULT, FOUND IN STEP THREE IS LESS THAN THE NUMBER FOUND IN
STEP TWO, THE RUN LENGTH HAS TO BE EXTENDED.
THERE ARE SEVERAL FORMS OF ROOF AND NUMEROUS VARIETY OF SHAPES
THAT ONE HAS TO BE FAMILIAR WITH:
5. THERE SHOULD BE NO FUNCTIONAL VALUE OF A RISER. SHOULD THERE BE
FROM THE RESULT OF STEP TWO, ADJUST A FUNCTIONAL VALUE IN EQUAL
PROPORTION TO THE NUMBER OF RISER HEIGHT, BUT IN NO CASE SHALL THE SHED OR LEAN-TO ROOF- IS CONSIDERED AS THE SIMPLEST FORM OF ROOF
RISE PER STEP BE GREATER THAN 19 CM OR LESS THAN 17 CM OTHERWISE, THE CONSISTING OF ONE SINGLE SLOPE.
STAIRS WILL NOT BE AN IDEAL ONE.
 GABLE OR PITCH ROOF- THE MOST COMMON TYPE AND ECONOMICAL FORM 1. RAFTERS TYPE
OF ROOF MADE OF TRIANGULAR SECTIONS CONSISTING OF TWO SLOPES MEETING AT
THE CENTER OF THE RIDGE FORMING A GABLE.
2. TRUSS TYPE

SAW TOOTH ROOF- IS THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SHED MADE INTO A SERIES
3. LAMINATED TYPE
TO LEAN-TO ROOF COVERING ONE BUILDING. THIS IS COMMONLY USED ON FACTORIES
WHERE EXTRA LIGHT IS REQUIRED THROUGH THE WINDOW ON A VERTICAL SIDE.
THE VARIOUS KINDS OF RAFTERS FOR ROOF CONSTRUCTIONS ARE:
DOUBLE GABLE ROOF- IS A MODIFICATION OF A GABLE OR A HIP AND VALLEY
ROOF.  COMMON RAFTERS- ARE RAFTERS EXTENDED AT RIGHT ANGLES FROM THE PLATE
OR GIRTS T THE RIDGE.
HIP ROOF- IS ALSO A COMMON FORM USED IN MODERN HOUSES HAVING
STRAIGHT SIDES ALL SLOPING TOWARD THE CENTER OF THE BUILDING TERMINATING AT  HIP RAFTERS- ARE RAFTERS LAID DIAGONALLY FROM THE CORNER OF A PLATE OR
THE RIDGE. GIRTS TO THE RIDGE.

HIP AND VALLEY ROOF- IS A COMBINATION OF THE HIP ROOF AND AN  VALLEY RAFTERS- RAFTERS PLACED DIAGONALLY FROM THE PLATE OR GIRTS AT
INTERESTING GABLE ROOF FORMING A T OR L SHAPED BUILDING. THIS TYPE OF ROOF THE INTERSECTION OF GABLE EXTENSION WITH THE MAIN ROOF.
FORM HOWEVER, HAS A VARIETY OF MODIFICATION WHICH ARE NOT ILLUSTRATED.

 OCTAGONAL RAFTERS- ARE RAFTERS PLACED ON AN OCTAGONAL SHAPED PLATE

PYRAMID ROOF- IS A MODIFICATION OF THE HIP ROOF WHEREIN THE FOUR AT THE CENTRAL APEX OR RIDGE POLE.
STAIGHT SIDES ARE SLOPING TOWARDS THE CENTER TERMINATING AT A POINT.

 JACK RAFTERS- ANY RAFTER WHICH DOES NOT EXTEND FROM THE PLATE OR
GAMBREL ROOF- IS A MODIFICATIN OF THE GABLE ROOF WITH EACH SIDE GIRTS TO THE RIDGE.
HAVING TWO SLOPES.

JACK RAFTERS ARE CLASSIFIED INTO:

BUTTERFLY ROOF- IS A TWO SHED ROOF WHERE THE SLOPE MEET AT THE
CENTER OF THE BUILDING.
1. HIT JACKS
MANSARD ROOF- WHERE THE SIDES OF THE ROOF SLOPE STEEPLY FROM EACH
SIDE OF THE BUILDING TOWARDS THE CENTER FORMING A FLAT DECK ON TOP. 2. VALLEY JACKS

FRENCH OR CONCAVE MANSARD ROOF- IS A MODIFICATION OF THE 3. CRIPLE JACKS

MANZARD ROOF WHERE THE SIDES ARE CONCAVE.
JACK RAFTERS FRAMED BATWEEN HIP RAFTERS AND GITS ARE CALLED HIP JACKS. THE
DOME- IS A HEMISPHERICAL FORM OF ROOF USUALLY USED ON FRAME BETWEEN THE RIDGE AND VALLEY RAFTERS ARE CALLED VALLEY JACKS,
OBNSERVATORIES. WHILE THOSE FRAMES BETWEEN THE HIP AND THE VALLEY RAFTERS ARE CALLED
CRIPPLE JACKS.
CONICAL ROOF OR SPHIRE- IS A STEEP ROOF OF CIRCULAR SECTION THAT
TAPERS UNIFORMLY FROM THE CIRCULAR BASE TO A CENTRAL POINT TRUSS – IS A BUILT-UP FRAME COMMONLY EMPLOYED ON A LONG SPAN ROOF
UNSUPPORTED BY INTERMEDIATE COLUMNS OR PARTITIONS. TRUSS IS A DESIGN OF A
SERIES OF TRIANGLES USED TO DISTRIBUTE LOAD, STIFFEN THE STRUCTURE AND
TYPES OF ROOF FRAME FLEXIBILITY FOR THE INTERIOR SPACING AS WELL AS STRENGTH AND RIGIDITY.

THE THREE TYPES OF ROOF FRAME COMMONLY USED ARE:

THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF TRUSSES ARE: ROOF AND ROOFING MATERIALS

LIGHT TRUSSES: THE TERM ROOF USED HERE MEANS THE TOP COVERING OF A BUILDING THAT
SERVES AS A PROTECTIVE COVERING FROM THE WEATHER.
PITCHED HOWE
ROOFING CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO THE MATERIALS USED:
SCISSORS RAISED CHORD
 FIBER
SAWTOOTH 1 ½ STORY FRAME
 WOOD
FLAT UTILITY
 METAL
BOWSTRING
 SLATE

 TILES
HEAVY TRUSSES:
 REINFORCED CONCRETE
HOWE TRUSS BELGIAN
 PLASTICS
FINK PRATT
 FIBERGLASS
SCISSORS CAMBERED FINK
METAL ROOFING – IS THE MOST COMMON MATERIALS IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION,
WARREN FLAT HOWE THIS ARE CLASSIFIED AS FOLLOWS:

SAW TOOTH FLAT PRATT  GALVANIZED IRON

PURLINS – THE STRUCTURAL MEMBER PLACED ON TOP OF A RAFTER OR TOP CHORD OF  ALUMINUM
A TRUSS THAT SUPPORTS THE ROOF SHEATING.
 TIN
PURLINS SIZE AND SPACING:

 TITANIUM COPPER ZINC

SPAN: 2.00 SIZE: 50mm X 75mm

 COPPER
3.00 50mm X 100mm

 STAINLESS STEEL
3.50 50mm X 150mm

 LEAD
4.50 50mm X 200mm
 AMONG THE METAL ROOFING ENUMERATED, GALVANIZED IRON SHEET IS THE FORM, SCAFFOLDING AND STAGING
MOST COMMONLY SPECIFIED CONSIDERING THE ADVANTAGES THAT IT OFFER.

FORM IS A TEMPORARY BOARDING, SHEATING OR PANS USED TO PRODUCE

GALVANIZED IRON ROOFING IS EITHER PLAIN OR CORRUGATED. THE
THICKNESS ARE MEASURED IN TERMS OF “GAUGE” FROM ga. 14 TO ga. 30. Gauge 26 IS THE
MOST COMMONLY USED FOR ROOFING.
THE STANDARD COMMERCIAL SIZE WIDTH IS 0.80 m. WITH LENGTH THAT
RANGES FROM 1.50 TO 3.60 m.
PLAIN G.I. SHEET COMMERCIAL STANDARD SIZE IS 0.90m. X 2.40m. IT’S ALSO
USED FOR ROOFING, GUTTERS,FLASHING,RIDGE,HIP AND VALLEY ROLLS, DOWNSPOUT,
AND STRAP FOR RIVETING.
CORR. G.I.ROOFING FASTENERS:
 NAILING
 RIVETING
 PANTILE – A ROOFING TILE WHICH HAS THE SHAPE OF “S” LAID ON IT’S SIDE.
 MISSION TILE – A CLAY ROOFING TILE, APPROX. SEMI-CYLINDRICAL IN SHAPE LAID
IN COURSES WITH THE UNIT HAVING THEIR CONVEX SIDE ALTERNATELY UP AND
DOWN.
THE DESIRED SHAPE AND SIZE OF CONCRETE. FORMS ARE USED IN CONCRETE
CONSTRUCTION. STRUCTURAL MEMBERS OF A BUILDING ARE BUILT-UP INTO ITS
SPECIFIED DIMENSIONS BY THE USE OF FORMS THAT SERVES AS MOULD FOR THE MIXED
CONCRETE.
FORMS SHOULD BE WATERTIGHT, RIGID AND STRONG ENOUGH TO SUSTAIN
THE WEIGHT OF CONCRETE. IT SHOULD BE SIMPLE AND ECONOMICALLY DESIGNED TO
BE REMOVE EASILY AND REASSEMBLED WITHOUT DAMAGE TO THEMSELVES OR TO THE
CONCRETE.
FACTORS CONSIDERED IN THE SELECTION OF FORMS ARE:
 COST OF MATERIALS
 THE CONSTRUCTION AND ASSEMBLING COST
 THE NUMBER OF TIMES IT COULD BE USED
 STRENGTH AND RESISTANCE TO PRESSURE AND THE TEAR & WEAR
WOOD BOARD AND PLYWOOD FORMS

WOOD FORM IS THE MOST COMMON AND WIDELY USED FORMS IN MINOR OR
 ROMAN TILE – A CHANNEL SHAPED, TAPERED, SINGLE LAP ROOPING TILE.
MAJOR CONSTRUCTION.

 GALVANIZED – ZINC COATED MATERIALS.

 PLYWOOD AS FORM IS GENERALLY ECONOMICAL BOTH IN LABOR AND MATERIALS.

 A FRAME – A 3-PIECE RIGID STRUCTURAL FRAME IN THE SHAPE OF THE UPRIGHT

 PLYWOOD HAS PLAIN EVEN SURFACE WITH UNIFORM THICKNESS.
CAPITAL “A”.

 IT OFFERS FITTED JOINTS, ELIMINATE DRESSING, PLANING OF THE SURFACE WHICH

 CHORD – A PRINCIPAL MEMBER OF A TRUSS.
IS NORMAL TO WOODEN BOARDS FORMS.

 BATTEN – WOOD STRIPS TO SUPPORT ROOF TILES.

 THE LAMINATED CROSS-GRAINED OF PLYWOOD HAS MADE THE BOARD STRONGER
AND FREE FROM WARPING.
 SPLIT RING – CHORD SPLICE CONNECTORS FOR TRUSSES.
 PLYWOOD IS LIGHT-WEIGHT, HANDY AND FAST TO WORK ON.
 PRODUCE SMOOTH FINISHES OF CONCRETE THAT SOMETIMES NEED LITTLE OR NO  PERPENDICULAR RIB TYPE
PLASTERING AT ALL.
TYPES OF COLUMN FORMS:
METAL FORM ARE SELDOM USED IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION BECAUSE OF
THE VARIED DESIGNS AND SHAPES OF THE STRUCTURES. ALTHOUGH METAL FORMS ARE
EXTENSIVELY USED ON ROAD CONSTRUCTION. METAL FORMS ARE GENERALLY MADE  SQUARE
OUT OF G.I. SHEET, OR BLACK IRON SHEET, SUPPORTED BY FLAT AND ANGLE BARS
DESIGNED TO BE ASSEMBLED AND LOCKED BE MEANS OF CLAMP, BOLTS AND NUTS.  RECTANGULAR

CONSTRUCTION OF FORMS  CIRCULAR

CONCRETE WEIGHS ABOUT 2,200 TO 2,400 kg./cu.m. FORMS SHALL BE GUARDED BEAM FORMS CONSIST OF ONE BOTTOM FORM AND A PAIR OF SIDE FORMS.
AGAINST BULGING AND SAGGING FAILURE THAT OCCUR DURING THE PROCESS OF
POURING. THE THICKNESS OF THE FORM AND THE SIZES OF THE FRAME AND RIBS
TYPES OF WALL FORMS:
DEPENDS UPON THE NATURE OF THE STRUCTURE TO BE SUPPORTED CLASSIFIED AS
SMALL, MEDIUM AND MASSIVE STRUCTURE.
 CONTINUOUS
 SMALL STRUCTURE CONSISTING OF SMALL FOOTINGS, COLUMNS AND BEAM FOR
ONE OR TWO STOREY BUILDING WHEREIN 6mm. THK. PLYWOOOD IS SATIFACTORILY  FULL UNIT
USED SUPPORTED BY 50mm X 50mm WOOD FRAME AND RIBS.
 LAYER UNIT
 MEDIUM STRUCTURE ARE THOSE HAVING CONCRETE COLUMNS, BEAMS, AND
CONCRETE FLOOR SLAB GENERALLY OF 2 TO 3 STOREY HIGH. WHEREIN 6mm OR
12mm THK. PLYWOOD IS USED AS FORM SUPPPORTED BY 50mm X 50mm OR 50mm X GREASING OF FORMS
75mm WOOD FRAME AND RIBS.
THE PURPOSE OF GREASING THE FORM IS TO MAKE THE WOOD WATER PROOF,
THUS PREVENTING ABSORPTION OF WATER IN THE CONCRETE WHICH CAUSES SWELLING
 MASSIVE STRUCTURE ARE THOSE HAVING HEAVY LOADS USES FORMS OF VARIOUS
AND WARPING. IT’S ALSO PREVENTS ADHERENCE OF CONCRETE TO THE PORES OF THE
THICKNESS THAT RANGE FROM 6mm TO 19mm THK. PLYWOOD SUPPORTED BY 50mm
WOOD.
X 50mm TO 50mm X 100mm WOOD FRAME AND RIBS.

YOKE – IS A HORIZONTAL FRAMEWORK AROUND THE FORMWORK FOR A COLUMN.

TWO TYPES OF FRAMING:

SCAFFOLDING – WORKER’S PLATFORM

 LONGITUDINAL RIB TYPE

PRECAST AND PRESTRESSED CONSTRUCTION

INTRODUCTION

THE INTRODUCTION OF PRECAST-CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION WAS BROUGHT

ABOUT BY BUILDING COSTS THAT HAS CONSIDERABLY INCREASED FASTER THAT MOST
INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTS THAT ARE AFFECTED BY THE LARGE AMOUNT OF ON-SITE
LABOR INVOLVED IN THE TRADITIONAL METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION.
 THE DEMAND FOR SKILLED WORKERS ON ON-SITE BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
IS INCREASINGLY OUTRUNNING THE SUPPLY. THE ANSWER TO THERE PROBLEMS WERE
BROUGHT ABOUT BY THE INDUSTRIALIZATION OF CONSTRUCITON AND SUBSTITUTION
OF SITE LABOR BY FACTORY PRODUCED PRECAST CONCRETE STRUCTURE WHICH HAS
RAPIDLY DEVELOPED AND GAINED IMPORTANCE.
THE CONCRETE IS CAST IN PERMANENT FORMS OF STEEL, CONCRETE, GLASS-
FIBER-REINFORCED PLASTIC.
TO IMPROVE THE THERMAL INSULATION OF THE PANEL, FOAM GLASS, GLASS
FIBER OR EXPANDED PLASTIC IS INSERTED BETWEEN TWO LAYERS OF LIGHTWEIGHT
CONCRETE ADEQUATELY BONDED INTERCONNECTING THE TWO LAYERS TO ACT AS ONE
UNIT. STRESSES IN HANDLING AND ERECTION OF THE MEMBER IS MORE THAN THAT OF
THE FINISHED FILLED STRUCTURE, HENCE, CONTROL OF CRACKING IS OF GREAT
IMPORTANCE.
PRECAST COLUMN

THE WET CONCRETE IS VIBRATED MECHANICALLY IN THE FORMS TO ACHIEVE
MAXIMUM DENSITY AND HIGHEST SURFACE QUALITY.
CONCRETE STRENGTH IN PRECAST IS USUALLY 5000 PSI, WHILE 270,000 PSI FOR
STRENGTH OF STEEL.
PRECAST COLUMN SIZES ARE FROM .30 x .30m. to .60 x .60m. IN A MULTI-STOREY
CONSTRUCTION, THE COLUMNS ARE MADE CONTINUOUS UP TO FOUR STORIES WHEREIN
CORBELS ARE USED TO PROVIDE BEARING FOR THE BEAM. TEE COLUMN IS SOMETIMES
USED TO SUPPORT DIRECTLY DOUBLE TEE FLOOR MEMBERS WITHOUT THE USE OF
INTERMEDIATE MEMBERS.

PRECAST BEAMS
PRECAST CONCRETE ELEMENTS ARE USUALLY STEAM CURED WITH THE USE
OF HIGH EARLY STRENGTH CEMENT TO ENABLE A PRECAST TO REMOVE IN FORM IN 24
HOURS. THE SHAPE OF PRECAST BEAMS DEPENDS UPON THE MANNER OF FRAMING.
THE VARIOUS SHAPES ARE:
FORMS ARE CALLED CASTING BEDS. THE CASTING BEDS AVERAGE 125 METERS
TO EXTEND 250 METERS IN LENGTH.  RECTANGULAR BEAM

TYPES OF PRECAST STRUCTURE  INVERTED TEE BEAM

WALL PANELS – THIS TYPE OF PRECAST STRUCTURE HAS NUMEROUS DESIGNS  L –SHAPED BEAM
DEPENDING UPON THE ARCHITECTURAL REQUIREMENTS. THE COMMON SHAPES
PRODUCED FOR ONE TO FOUR STOREY HIGH STRUCTURES ARE SECTIONS HAVING A
WIDTH UP TO 2.40 m. THEY ARE USED AS CURTAIN WALLS ATTACHED TO COLUMNS AND  AASHTO BRIDGE GIRDER – AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF STATE HIGHWAY
BEAMS OR SOMETIMES AS BEARING WALLS. AND TRANSPORTATION OFFICIALS.

THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF WALL PANELS ARE: ROOF AND FLOOR MEMBERS

1. FLAT TYPE  SOLID FLAT SLAB – WIDE RANGES FROM 0.60M. TO 2.4M.

2. DOUBLE TEE TYPE  HOLLOW CORE SLAB – WIDE RANGES FROM 0.60M. TO 2.4M.

3. RIBBED TYPE  DOUBLE TEE – WIDE RANGES FROM 2.4 TO 3.0M.

4. WINDOW OR MULLION TYPE  SINGLE TEE – WIDE RANGES FROM 2.4 TO 3.0M.

PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF A PECAST CONCRETE STRUCTURE

 ESTIMATE THE DEPTH OF A PRECAST SOLID SLAB AT 1/40 OF ITS SPAN. DEPTH
TYPICALLY RANGE FROM 90-200mm.
 AN 200mm PRECAST HOLLOW-CORE SLAB CAN SPAN APPROXIMATELY 7.60M., 250mm
SLAB APPROX. 9.80M., AND A 300mm SLAB APPROX. 12.0M. SPAN.
 ESTIMATE THE DEPTH OF PRECAST CONCRETE DOUBLE TEES AT 1/28 OF THEIR
SPAN. THE MOST COMMON DEPTHS OF DOUBLE TEES ARE 300,350,400,450,510,610,
AND815mm.
 A PRECAST CONCRETE SINGLE TEE 928mm DEEP SPANS APPROXIMATELY 26.0M. AND
1142mm TEE FOR 32.0M. SPAN.
 ESTIMATE THE DEPTH OF PRECAST CONCRETE BEAMS AND GIRDERS AT 1/16 OF
THEIR SPAN FOR LIGHT LOADINGS AND 1/12 OF THEIR SPAN FOR HEAVY LOADINGS.
THESE RATIOS APPLY TO RECTANGULAR, INVERTED TEE AND L-SHAPED BEAMS.
THE WIDTH OF A BEAM OR GIRDER IS USUALLY ABOUT ½ ITS DEPTH. THE
PROJECTING LEDGERS ON INVERTED TEE AND L-SHAPED BEAMS ARE USUALLY
150mm WIDE AND 300mm DEEP.
 TO ESTIMATE THE SIZE OF A PRECAST CONCRETE COLUMN. ADD UP THE TOTAL
ROOF AND FLOOR AREA SUPPORTED BY THE COLUMN. A 250mm. COLUMN CAN
SUPPORT UP TO ABOUT 185 sq.m. OF AREA. A 300mm. COLUMN FOR 240 sq.m. AREA. A
400mm. COLUMN FOR 370 sq.m. AREA. A 500mm. COLUMN FOR 560 sq.m. AREA. A
600MM. COLUMN FOR 740 sq.m. AREA.
JOINING PRECAST CONCRETE ELEMENTS
BOLTING, WELDING, AND GROUTING ARE ALL COMMONLY EMPLOYED IN THESE
CONNECTIONS. EXPOSED METAL CONNECTORS NOT COVERED BY TOPPING ARE
USUALLY DRY PACKED WITH STIFF GROUT AFTER BEING JOINED, TO PROTECT THEM
FROM FIRE AND CORROSION.
THE SIMPLEST JOINTS IN PRECAST CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION ARE THOSE
THAT RELY UPON GRAVITY BY PLACING ONE ELEMENT ON TOP OF ANOTHER, AS IS DONE
WHERE SLAB ELEMENTS REST ON A BEARING WALL OR BEAM, OR WHERE A BEAM RESTS
ON THE CORBEL OF A COLUMN. BEARING PADS ARE USUALLY INSERTED BETWEEN THE
CONCRETE MEMBERS AT BEARING POINTS TO AVOID THE CONCRETE-TO-CONCRETE
CONTACT THAT MIGHT CREATE POINTS OF HIGH STRESS. BEARING PADS ALSO ALLOW
FOR EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION IN THE MEMBERS. FOR SOLID AND HOLLOW-CORE
SLABS THESE PADS ARE STRIPS OF HIGH-DENSITY PLASTIC. UNDER ELEMENTS WITH
HIGHER POINT LOADING SUCH AS TEES AND BEAMS, PADS OF SYNTHETIC RUBBER
AREUSED.
PRESTRESSING OF CONCRETE
THERE ARE SEVERAL METHODS EMPLOYED IN APPLYING PRESTRESSED FORCE
TO A CONCRETE BEAM:
 PRECOMPRESSING METHOD – IS A PROCESS OF USING JACKS REACTING AGAINST
ABUTMENT.
 SELF-CONTAINED METHOD – THE PROCESS IS DONE BY TYING THE JACK BASE
TOGETHER WITH WIRES OR CABLES LOCATED ON EACH SIDE OF THE BEAM.
USUALLY THE WIRES AND CABLES ARE PRESSED THROUGH A HOLLOW CONDUIT
EMBEDDED IN THE CONCRETE BEAM. ONE END OF THE TENDON IS ANCHORED AND
FORCES ARE APPLIED AT THE OTHER END. AFTER ATTAINING THE DESIRED
PRESTRESS FORCE, THE TENDON IS THEN WEDGED AGAINST THE CONCRETE,
REMOVING THE JACK EQUIPMENT.
 BOND FRICTION – THE PRESTRESSING STRANDS ARE STRETCHED BETWEEN
MASSIVE ABUTMENT PRIOR TO CASTING OF CONCRETE IN THE BEAM FORMS.
AFTER THE CONCRETE HAS GAINED SUFFICIENT STRENGTH, THE JACKS ARE THEN
RELEASED TRANSFERRING THE PRESTRESSED FORCE TO THE CONCRETE BY BOND
AND FRICTION ALONG THE STRANDS.
THE SELF CONTAINED AND THE BOND AND FRICTION METHODS CAN
GENERALLY BE CLASSIFIED AS PRE-TENSIONING OR POST-TENSIONING SYSTEM. THESE
METHODS CAN BE APPLIED TO MASS PRODUCTION OF CASTING SEVERAL METERS LONG
OF STRUCTURE AND CUTTING THE INDIVIDUAL BEAM OR POST TO THE DESIRED LENGTH
OUT FROM THE LONG CASTING.
 THERMAL PRESTRESSING – THE STEEL IS PREHEATED BY MEANS OF ELECTRIC
POWER WHICH ARE ANCHORED AGAINST THE OPPOSITE END OF THE CONCRETE
BEAM. THE COOLING PROCESS PRODUCES PRESTRESS FORCE THROUGH
RESTRAINED CONTRACTION.
THE CAUSES OF PRESTRESS LOSSES ARE:
1. SLIP AT ANCHORAGE
2. ELASTIC SHORTENING OF CONCRETE
3. CREEP OF CONCRETE
4. SHRINKAGE OF CONCRETE
5. RELAXATION OF STEEL STRESS BUILDING MATERIALS
6. FRICTIONAL LOSS DUE TO INTENDED OR UNINTENDED CURVATURE IN THE
WOOD MATERIALS
TENDONS.

WOOD HAS DURABILITY AND BEAUTY. IT HAS GREAT ABILITY TO ABSORB SHOCKS
CONCRETE FOR PRESTRESSING
FROM SUDDEN LOAD AND LIGHT IN WEIGHT WHICH ADAPTABLE IN A COUNTLESS
VARIETY OF PURPOSES.
CONCRETE OF HIGHER COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH IS USED FOR PRESTRESSED
STRUCTURES. MOST OF THE PRESTRESSED CONSTRUCTION SPECIFY A COMPRESSIVE
TWO MAJOR CLASSIFICATION OF WOOD:
STRENGTH OF CONCRETE BETWEEN (4,000 to 6,000 psi) 280-422 kg/cm2 BECAUSE OF THE
FOLLOWING ADVANTAGES THAT IT OFFERS.
 SOFTWOOD – THESE ARE USED FOR GENERAL CONSTRUCTION.
A) HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETE HAS A HIGHER MODULUS OF
ELASTICITY. IT MINIMIZE THE REDUCTION OF PRESTRESS LOSS.  HARDWOOD – THESE ARE USED FOR FLOORING, STAIRS, PANELLING,
FURNITURES AND INTERIOR TRIM.
B) INCREASING THE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF THE CONCRETE
MEETS THE PROBLEM OF HIGH BEARING STRESSES AT THE ENDS OF PROPERTIES OF WOOD:
POST AND BEAM WHERE THE PRESTRESSING FORCE IS TRANSFERRED
FROM THE TENDON TO THE ANCHORAGE DOWELS WHICH DIRECTLY
BEARS AGAINST THE CONCRETE.  HARDNESS – MEASURED BY THE COMPRESSION, WHICH A PIECE
UNDERGOES WHEN A WEIGHT IS APPLIED.

C) HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETE DEVELOPS STRONGER BOND

PRESTRESSES TO PRETENSIONING CONSTRUCTION.  FLEXIBILITY – THE AMOUNT A PIECE WILL BEND BEFORE BREAKING.

D) HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETE GIVES HIGHER STRENGTH TO PRECAST  STRENGTH – TO THE GRAIN.
CONSTRUCTION WHEN CURING IS CAREFULLY CONTROLLED.
 DURABILITY – THE RELATIVE VALUE / LIFESPAN OF WOOD.
MEASUREMENT OF PRESTRESSING FORCE
DEFECTS OF LUMBER:
PRESTRESSING FORCE COULD BE DETERMINED BY:
 DECAY – CAUSED BY THE ATTACKED OF FUNGI.
1. MEASURING THE TENDON ELONGATION.
 CHECKS – CRACKS OR LENGTH WISE SEPARATION ACROSS THE
2. EITHER BY CHECKING JACK PRESSURE ON A CALIBRATED GAGE OR ANNUAL RINGS OF GROWTH.
LOAD CELL OR BY THE USED OF CALIBRATED DYNAMOMETER.
 KNOTS – IRREGULAR GROWTHS IN THE BODY WHICH INTERRUPS
 POST TENSIONING – THE STRESSING OF UNBONDED TENDONS AFTER CONCRETE SMOOTH CURVE.
HAS CURED.
 PITCH POCKETS – WELL REFINED OPENINGS BETWEEN ANNUAL RINGS
CONTAINING SOLID OR LIQUID PITCH.

 WANE – IS THE LACK OF WOOD ON THE EDGE OR CORNER OF A PIECE.

TYPES OF WARPING:
 CUPPING – IS A DISTORTION OF THE BOARD IN WHICH THE FACE IS
CONVEX/CONCAVE ACROSS THE BOARD.
 BOWING – IS A DISTORTION OF THE BOARD IN WHICH THE FACE IS
CONVEX/CONCAVE LONGITUDINALLY.
 TWISTING – IS A DISTORTION OF THE BOARD IN WHICH ONE CORNER IS
RAISED.
DEFINITION OF TERMS:
 STRIPS – PIECES LESS THAN 2” THICK AND LESS THAN 8” WIDE.
 BOARDS – PIECES LESS THAN 2” THICK AND AT LEAST 8” WIDE.
 DIMENSION LUMBER – PIECES MORE THAN 2” THICK AND LESS THAN 5”
IN ANY DIMENSION.
 TIMBER – PIECES 4” OR MORE ON THE SMALLEST DIMENSION.
 LOG – PIECES 12” OR MORE ON THE SMALLEST DIMENSION.
THREE CATEGORIES OF LUMBER:
 YARD LUMBER – USED FOR ORDINARY LIGHT CONSTRUCTION AND
FINISHING WORK. COMMONLY USED FOR FLOORING, PLANK SIDING,
TRIM AND MOULDING.
 SHOP LUMBER – IT IS INTENDED FOR USE IN SHOPS OR IN MILLS
MAKING SASH, DOORS, AND CABINETS.
 STRUCTURAL LUMBER – IS INTENDED FOR USE IN HEAVY
CONSTRUCTION FOR LOAD-BEARING PURPOSES AND IS CUT INTO
TIMBERS OF LARGER SIZE.
WOOD GRAIN:
 EDGE GRAIN – ANNUAL RINGS RUN APPROX. AT RIGHT ANGLE TO THE
FACE.
 FLAT GRAIN – WHEN THE ANNUAL RINGS RUN MORE OR LESS PARALLEL
TO THE SURFACE.
 ANGLE GRAIN – WHEN THE ANNUAL RINGS ARE AT ABOUT 45 DEG. TO
THE FACE.
SEASONING OF LUMBER:
 AIR DRYING – LUMBER IS STRIP-PILED AT ASLOPE ON ASOLID
FOUNDATION. THIS ALLOWS AIR TO CIRCULATE AROUND EVERY PIECE
WHILE THE SLOPING ALOOWS WATER TO RUN OFF QUICKLY.
 KILN-DRYING – MORE EXPENSIVE LUMBER WHICH IS REQUIRED FOR
MORE REFINED USES SO AS WOOD WILL NOT MOVE. IT MUST BE DRIED
TO A MOISTURE CONTENT OF NOT MORE THAN 5 TO 10 PERCENT. THIS
IS DONE IN AN AIRTIGHT STRUCTURE SCIENTIFICALLY HEATED BY
STEAM PIPES IN WHICH THE LUMBER IS ARTIFICIALLY DRIED TO THE
CORRECT MOISTURE CONTENT.
MANUFACTURE BOARDS:
MANUFACTURED BOARDS ARE MADE OF WOOD BUT DOES NOT
APPEAR IN THEIR NATURAL STATE. THIS TYPE OF BUILDING MATERIALS CAN BE
CLASSIFIED AS A TYPE OF LUMBER AS THEY ARE THE BY-PRODUCT IN THE
MANUFACTURE OF LUMBER. THE COMPLETE UTILIZATION OF WOOD HAS LEAD TO AN
EXPANDED FIELD OF MANUFACTURED BOARDS.
TYPES OF BOARDS:
 PLYWOOD – IS MADE OF AN ODD NUMBER VENEER SHEETS GLUED
TOGETHER WITH THE GRAINS RUNNING AT RIGHT ANGLE TO EACH
OTHER. IT IS LIGHT IN WEIGHT AND STRONG THAT SCREW OR NAIL CAN
BE DRIVEN CLOSE TO THE EDGES WITHOUT DANGER OF SPLITTING.
THE DIFF. TYPES OF PLYWOOD:
 SOFT PLYWOOD - THE MOST COMMON FOR STRUCTURAL USE
 HARDWOOD PLYWOOD – ARE USED FOR PANELLING AND
FINSHING WHERE USUALLY ON ONE FACE IS HARD FINISHED.
 EXTERIOR OR MARINE PLYWOOD – IS MADE FOR EXTERNAL
USE.
  HARDBOARD – IS MADE FROM WOOD CHIPS WHICH ARE EXPLODED
INTO FIBERS UNDER STREAM OF HIGH PRESSURE. THE LINING IN THE
WOOD ITSELF BINDS PRESSED WOOD TOGETHER WITH NO FILLERS OR
 PARTICLE BOARD – IS MANUFACTURES FROM WOOD CHIPS, CURLS,
FIBERS, FLAKES, STRANDS, SHAVING, SLIVERS ETC. BOUND TOGETHER
AND PRESSED INTO SHEETS AND OTHER MOLDED SHAPED. PARTICLE
BOARD HAS EQUAL STRENGTH IN ALL DIRECTION OF A GIVEN CROSS
SECTIONAL AREA, IT IS NOT BRITTLE AND CAN RESIST WARPING.
MASONRY
MASONRY REFERS TO A MAN-MADE UNITS WHICH ARE FORMED AND
HARDENED INTO MODULAR BUILDING UNITS.
BASIC BRICKWORK TERMINOLOGY:
 COURSE – IS A HORIZONTAL LAYER OF BRICKS OR OTHER MASONRY UNITS.
 BED JOINT – IS THE HORIZONTAL MORTAR IN EVERY COURSE.
 HEAD JOINT – IS THE VERTICAL MORTAR IN EVERY MASONRY UNIT.
 STRETCHER IS A BRICK LAID WITH ITS FACE PARALLEL TO THE WALL AND ITS
LONG DIMENSION HORIZONTAL.
 HEADER – IS A BRICK LAID SO AS TO BOND TWO WYTHES TOGETHER.
 WYTHE – IS A VERTICAL LAYER OF MASONRY UNITS, ONE UNIT THICK.
 SOLDIER – IS A BRICK LAID ON ITS END WITH ITS FACE PARALLEL TO THE WALL.
 ROWLOCK – IS A BRICK LAID ON ITS FACE WITH ITS END VISIBLE IN THE WALL
FACE.
STRUCTURAL BONDS FOR BRICKWORK:
 RUNNING BOND CONSISTS ENTIRELY OF STRETCHERS.
 COMMON BOND HAS A HEADER COURSE EVERY SIXTH COURSE
ARTIFICIAL ADHESIVES APPLIED. PRESSED WOOD IS EQUALLY STRONG
IN ALL DIRECTIONS BUT VERY BRITTLE. ITS COLOR VARIES FROM LIGHT
TO DARK BROWN.
 ENGLISH BOND ALTERNATES COURSES OF HEADERS AND STRETCHERS.
 FLEMISH BOND ALTERNATES HEADERS AND STRETCHERS IN EACH COURSE.
JOINT TOOLING PROFILES FOR BRICKWORK:
WEATHERED JOINT CONCAVE JOINT VEE JOINT
FLUCH JOINT RAKED JOINT
STRIPPED JOINT
STRUCK JOINT
REINFORCED BRICK MASONRY
A REINFORCED BRICK WALL IS CREATED BY CONSTRUCTING TWO WYTHES
OF BRICK 50 –100mm APART, PLACING THE REINFORCING STEEL IN THE CAVITY, AND
FILLING CAVITY WITH GROUT. GROUT IS A MIXTURE OF CEMENT, AGGREGATES, AND
WATER
BRICK BOUNDS
 THE METHOD OF LAYING BRICKS IN A WALL IN ORDER TO FORM SOME
DISTINCTIVE PATTERN OR DESIGN IS REFERRED TO AS THE PATTERN
BOND.
 THE METHOD BY WHICH THE INDIVIDUAL UNITS IN A BRICK STRUCTURE
ARE TIED TOGETHER EITHER BY OVERLAPPING OR BY METAL TIES IS
KNOWN AS THE STRUCTURAL BOND.
 THE ADHESION OF MORTAR TO BRICKS OR TO STEEL REINFORCEMENT
USED IN CONJUNCTION WITH THEM IS CALLED THE MORTAR BOND.
CONCRETE HOLLOW BLOCKS:
CONCRETE HOLLOW BLOCKS ARE CLASSIFIED AS BEARING AND NON-
BEARING BLOCKS. LOAD BEARING BLOCKS ARE THOSE WHOSE THICKNESS RANGES
FROM 15 CM. TO 20 CM. AND ARE USED TO CARRY LOAD ASIDE FROM ITS OWN
WEIGHT. NON-BEARING BLOCKS ON THE OTHER HAND, ARE BLOCKS WHICH ARE
INTENDED FOR WALLS, PARTITIONS, FENCES OR DIVIDERS CARRYING ITS OWN SAND - FOUND IN RIVERBEDS,
WEIGHT WHOSE THICKNESS RANGES FROM 7.5 CM. TO 10 CM. FREE OF SALT

CONCRETE HOLLOW BLOCKS HAS THREE CELLS AND TWO ONE HALF CELLS AND MUST BE WASHED.
AT BOTH ENDS HAVING A TOTAL OF FOUR.
FINE AGGREGATE - ¼” AND SMALLER
CONCRETE DIAMETER STONES.

CEMENTS COARSE AGGREGATE - BIGGER THAN ¼” DIAMETER

STONES.
PORTLAND CEMENT
CONCRETE MIXES
MADE FROM MATERIALS WHICH MUST CONTAIN IN THE PROPER PROPORTIONS OF
LIME, SILICA, ALUMINA AND IRON COMPONENTS. FOUR PARTS OF LIMESTONE TO ONE CLASS “AA” - 1: 1 ½: 3 - CONCRETE UNDER WATER,
PART CLAY ARE BASIC INGREDIENTS. THESE ARE MIXED, BURNED THEN PULVERIZED. RETAINING
PORTLAND CEMENT IS SOLD EITHER IN CEMENT BAGS OF 40 & 50 KILOS WEIGHT OR
IN BULK INTO CEMENT TRUCKS.
WALLS

SPECIAL CEMENTS
CLASS A - 1:2:4 - FOOTINGS, COLUMNS
BEAMS, R.C.
 WHITE PORTLAND CEMENT – SAME MATERIALS AS NORMAL PORTLAND EXCEPT
IN COLOR. THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS IS CONTROLLED TO PRODUCE A
SLABS
PURE WHITE, NON-STAINING CEMENT. IT IS USED PRIMARILY FOR
ARCHITECTURAL PURPOSES SUCH AS CURTAIN WALL AND FACING PANELS,
DECORATIVE CONCRETE STUCCO AND TILE GROUT, OR WHEREVER WHITE OR
COLORED CONCRETE OR MORTAR IS SPECIFIED.
CLASS B - 1: 2 1/ 2:5- SLAB ON FILL, NON BEARING WALLS
 MASONRY CEMENT OR TILE ADHESIVES – HAS BEEN SPECIALLY DESIGNED TO
PRODUCE BETTER MORTAR THAN THAT MADE WITH NORMAL PORTLAND CEMENT CLASS C - 1: 3: 6 - CONCRETE PLANT BOXES, ETC.
OR WITH A LIME-CEMENT HAS PARTICULARLY GOOD PLASTICITY AND
WORKABILITY, GOOD ADHESION AND BOND.
CONTROL OF CONCRETE MIXES
 WATERPROOFED PORTLAND CEMENT – NORMALLY PRODUCED BY ADDING A
SMALL AMOUNT OF STEARATE, USUALLY CALCIUM OR ALUMINUM TO THE CEMENT SLUMP TEST- WHEN FRESHLY MIXED CONCRETE IS CHECKED TO ENSURE THAT THE
CLINKER DURING THE FINAL GRINDING. SPECIFIED SLUMP IS BEING ATTAINED CONSISTENTLY. A STANDARD SLUMP CONE IS
12 INCHES HIGH (0.30) AND 8 INCHES (O.20) IN DIAMETER AT THE BOTTOM AND 4
INCHES (O.10) ON TOP WHICH IS OPEN ON BOTH ENDS.
TYPES OF AGGREGATES USED IN CONCRETE

THE CONE IS FILLED IN THREE EQUAL LAYERS, EACH BEING TAMPED OR

CONCRETE CAN BE CONSIDERED TO BE AN ARTIFICIAL STONE MADE BY
BINDING TOGETHER PARTICLES OF SOME INERT MATERIAL WITH A PASTE MADE OF
CEMENT AND WATER. THESE INERT MATERIAL ARE THE AGGREGATE. AGGREGATES
USED ARE SAND, GRAVEL CRUSHED STONE, CINDER. CRUSHED FURNACE SLAG,
BURNED CLAY, EXPANDED VERMICULITE, AND PERLITE.
RODDED 25 TIMES WITH A STANDARD 5/8” BULLET NOSED ROD. WHEN THE CONE HAS
BEEN FILLED AND LEVELED OFF, IT IS LIFTED CAREFULLY AND THE AMOUNT OF SLUMP
IS MEASURED.
ALLOWABLE DEFLECTION ‘X’
BEAMS AND COLUMNS 7.5 cm. (.075) 3”  PACIFIC CEMENT

 FORTUNE CEMENT

SLABS AND TUNNEL INVERTS 5.0 cm. (.50) 2”  REPUBLIC CEMENT

TOPS AND WALL, PIERS, PARAPET & CURBS 5.0 cm. (.50) 2”  NORTHERN CEMENT

SIDE WALLS AND ARCH IN TUNNEL LINING 10.0 cm. (.10) 4” BRANDS OF WHITE CEMENT

CANAL LINING 7.5 cm. (.075)  PRIME WHITE CEMENT

3”

 KEENE
HEAVY MASS CONSTRUCTION 5.0 cm. (.50) 2”

 TRINITY
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST- COMMON QUALITY-CONTROL TEST OF CONCRETE,
BASED ON 7 AND 28 DAYS CURING PERIODS. SPECIMENS ARE USUALLY CYLINDRICAL
WITH A LENGHT EQUAL TO TWICE THE DIAMETER. STANDARD SIZE IS 12 INCH. HIGH  SNOWCRETE
AND 6 INCH. DIAMETER. FILLING IS DONE THE SAME WAY AS THE SLUMP TEST BUT
TAKEN OUT FROM THE MOLD IN 24 HOURS. IT IS THEN SENT TO A COMPRESSION
TESTING LABORATORY, BY MAKING THE CYLINDER WHILE STILL WET. SOME  MORTAR – CEMENT, SAND & WATER.
COMPRESSIVE STRESSES ARE 2,000 psi, 2,500 psi, 3,000 psi.
 GROUT – CEMENT AND WATER MIXTURE.

 CONCRETE – CEMENT, SAND, GRAVEL & WATER.

 TYROLEAN FINISH – ROUGH PLASTER FINISH OBTAINED BY FLINGING PLASTER

SOME OF THE BRANDS OF PORTLAND CEMENT ON A WALL W/ A HAND OPERATED MACHINE.

 ISLAND CEMENT  EFFLORESCENCE – AN ENCRUSTATION OF SOLUBLE SALTS CAUSED BY FREE

ALKALIES LEACHED FROM MORTAR OR ADJACENT CONCRETE AS MOISTURE
MOVE THROUGH IT.
 CONTINENTAL CEMENT

 ADIABATIC CURING - THE CURING OF CONCRETE OR MORTAR W/O THE GAIN OR

 HI- CEMENT LOSS OF HEAT DURING THE CURING PERIOD.

 UNION CEMENT  WHEATHERED – MOST WATERPROOFED TYPE OF MORTAR JOINTS FOR WALLS.

 RIZAL CEMENT  ADOBE BRICK – LARGE ROUGHLY MOULDED SUN DRIED CLAY BRICKS OF
VARYING SIZES.
 FILIPINAS CEMENT
 ASHLAR BRICK – A BRICK WHOSE FACE HAS BEEN HACKED TO RESEMBLE
ROUGHLY HACKED STONE.
 RETARDER – AN ADMIXTURE WHICH DELAY THE SETTING OF CEMENT PASTE OR
MIXTURES/ AN ADDITIVE MIXED WITH PLASTER TO CONTROL THE RATE OF
HARDENING.
 STEAM CURING – THE CURING OF CONCRETE OR MORTAR IN WATER VAPOR AT
AN ELEVATED TEMPERATURE AT EITHER ATMOSPHERIC OR HIGH PRESSURE.
 QUOIN / COIN – IN MASONRY, A HARD STONE OR BRICK USED TO REINFORCE AN
EXTERNAL CORNER OF A WALL.
 ZOCALO – LOW WALL AROUND A CHALET-TYPE HOUSE.
 FORTIFICATION – THA WALL OF INTRAMUROS.
 SCRATCH COAT – INITIAL SCORED LAYER OF PLASTER WORK.
 CINDER BLOCK – A LIGHT WEIGHT MASONRY UNIT MADE OF CINDER CONCRETE.
 MORTAR FOR BLOCK LAYING IS 0.0125 m.
 PLASTERING THICKNESS IS 0.016 m.
 MORTAR FILLER FOR HOLLOW CELL 0.05 X 0.075 X 0.20 = 0.00075 cu.m.
FOR 4 CELL/BLOCK = 0.00075 X 4 = 0.003 cu.m. FOR 4” CHB.
FERROUS AND NONFERROUS METALS
FERROUS- METAL IN WHICH IRON IS THE PRINCIPAL ELEMENT.
NONFERROUS- CONTAINING NO, OR VERY LITTLE IRON.
FERROUS METAL:
STEEL- A MALLEABLE ALLOY OF IRON AND CARBON PRODUCED BY MELTING AND
REFINING PIG IRON AND/ OR SCRAP STEEL, GRADED ACCORDING TO THE CARBON
CONTENT.
PRODUCE BY THREE BASIC RAW MATERIALS, IRON ORE, AND LIMESTONE. FIVE
PARTICLES OF ALL THREE BASIC INGREDIENTS OF STEEL, WHICH OTHERWISE WOULD BE
WASTE, ARE BLENDED AND BURNED ON A MOVING GATE TO CAUSE THE FORMATION OF
CLINKERS. THESE ARE CALLED SINTER, A HIGH- GRADE BLAST-FURNANCE CHARGE
MATERIAL.
FROM THESE, RAW MATERIALS WHICH IS MELTED INTO INGOTS PLACE IN
MOLDS, A GRAT VARIETY OF PRODUCTS USED IN CONSTRUCTION ARE MADE. THEY
INCLUDED:
 COLD-ROLLED SHEETS ARE GALVANIZED (GIVEN A ZINC COATING). PIG IRON IS
USED TO MAKE CAST IRON WHICH IS HIGH IN COMPRESSIVE STRENGHT BUT LOW
IN TENSILE STRENGHT, AND HAS LITTLE USE FOR CONSTRUCTION. HOWEVER
SINCE IT IS CHEAP AND EASY TO CAST, IT IS USED FOR PUMPS, MOTORS,
ENGINES AND BECAUSE OF ITS CORROSION RESISTANCE IT IS USED FOR PIPES
TO SOME EXTENT.
 WROUGHT IRON IS PRODUCED WHEN PIG IRON IS MELTED IN SUCH A WAY AS TO
REMOVE NEARLY ALL OF THE CARBON AND OTHER IMPURITIES. IT IS EASILY
WORKED AND IS TOUGH AND DUCTILE. IT’S MAIN USES ARE FOR WIRE AND
METAL ORNAMENTS.
 STAINLESS STEELS ARE MADE WITH CHROMIUM OR A COMBINATION OF NICKEL
AND CHROMIUM USED IN BUILDINGS OF EXTERIOR WALLS PANELS, FRAMES FOR
DOORS EXPANSION JOINTS, FLASHING, COPINGS, FASCIA AND GRAVEL STOPS.
 COPPER- BEARING STEEL HAS HIGH RESISTANCE TO CORROSION AND IS USED
FOR MAKING SHEET STEEL AND METAL LATH.
STEEL PRODUCTS
 ROLLED STRUCTURAL SHAPES
 SHEET PILING- SECTIONS ARE MADE TO INTERLOCK AND ARE AVAILABLE IN
SEVERAL SHAPE.
 STEEL PIPE- SEAMLESS OR WELDED SMALL DIAMETER PIPE AND ELECTRICALLY
WELDED LARGE DIAMETER PIPE.
 REINFORCING STEEL- MADE FROM NEW STEEL OR FROM DISCARDED
RAILWAY- CAR AXLES OR RAILS.
 REINFORCING STEEL COMES IN PLAIN OR DEFORMED BARS, THAT IS, BARS BULGING UNDER THE PRESSURE OF FRESHLY POURED CONCRETE. A
WHICH HAVE LUGS OR DEFORMATIONS ROLLED ON THE SURFACE TO TIGHTERNER TIGHTENS IT AND THE TWO LAPPED ENDS IS SEALED.
PROVIDE ARCHORAGE IN CONCRETE.
 OPEN WEB STEEL JOISTS – LIGHTWEIGHT WARREN-TYPE TRUSSES MADE
SIZES-START WITH NO.2 OR ¼ in. (DIVIDE A NUMBER OF BAR BY 8 TO GET THE IN SEVERAL DIFFERENT STYLES.
EQUIVALENT IN inch DIAMETER)
 SHEET STEEL – BLACK AND GALVANIZED, CAN BE USED TO MANUFACTURE
CORRUGATED ROOFING AND SIDING AND FORMED STEEL DECKING.

No. 2= ¼“ = 6 mm.  STEEL STUDS – LIGHTWEIGHT, REQUIRING MINIMUM STORAGE SPACE AND
DOES NOT WARP OR SHRINK. FASTENERS DO NOT POP, AND JOINTS STAY
No. 3= 3/8” = 10 mm. CLOSED. MUCH FASTER TO INSTALL THAN WOOD STUD INSTALLATION.
AVAILABLE IN 1 5/8, 2 ½ AND 3 5/8 INCHES. PLUMBING STACKS AND
ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS FIT EASILY INTO A STEEL-FRAMEWALL.
No. 4= ½” = 12mm.

 PANS AND DONES – MANUFACTURED FOR USE IN FORMING ONE-WAY AND

No. 5= 5/8” = 16mm. TWO-WAY RIBBED CONCRETE FLOOR SYSTEMS.

No. 6= ¾” = 20mm.

No. 7= 7/8” = 22mm. NONFERROUS METALS:

No. 8= 1” = 25mm. ALUMINUM – ITS ORE, BAUXITE, REQUIRES 10 KILOWATT HOURS FOR EACH POUND OF
METAL ALUMINUM EXTRACTED. THE REDDISH BROWN ORE IS WASHED AND TREATED
No. 9= 1 1/8 = 30mm. IN A SODA SOLUTION TO YIELD A CHALKY-WHITE POWDER CALLED ALUMNA,
CONTAINING A HIGH CONCENTRATION OF ALUMINUM.

ALUMINUM FOIL – USED AS A VAPOR BARRIER ON WALLS AND

 WELDED WIRE FABRIC- ANOTHER TYPE OF REINFORCING MATERIAL. IT
CONSISTS OF PARALLEL, LONGITUDINAL WIRES WELDED TO TRANSVERSE
WIRES AT REGULAR INTERVALS.
 STEEL WIRE – OVER 150,000 USES FOR WIRE INCLUDING PINS, NEEDLES,
NAILS, BOLTS, CABLES, PIANO WIRE, FENCES.
 BOLTS AND NUTS – (EITHER HOT FORGED OR COLD-FORMED FROM WIRE
OF THE APPROPRIATE DIAMETER). FOR BOLTS, WIRE IS FED INTO AN
AUTOMATIC BOLT-MAKING MACHINE WHICH CUTS TO LENGTH HEADS, TRIMS,
POINTS, AND IN MANY ROLLS THE THREAD.
CEILINGS AND AS REFLECTIVE INSULATION.
COPPER – A LUSTROUS REDDISH METAL, HIGHLY DUCTILE AND MALLEABLE;
HAS HIGH TENSILE STRENGTH, IS AN EXCELLENT ELECTRICAL AND THERMAL
CONDUCTOR, IS AVAILABLE IN A WIDE VARIETY OF SHAPES; WIDELY USED FOR
DOWNSPOUTS, ELECTRICAL CONDUCTORS, FLASHINGS GUTTERS, ROOFING, ETC.
COPPER ALLOYS ARE BRASSES, AND BRONZES WHICH CONTAIN
PRIMARILY ZINC AND TIN, RESPECTIVELY, AND THE ALLOYS CONTAINING NICKEL.
BRASSES ARE USED IN ARCHITECTURAL AND HARDWARE
APPLICTIONS. BRONZES ARE USED IN THE PRODUCTION OF SPRINGS.

 STEEL STRAPPING – MADE FROM HIGH-TENSILE FLAT WIRE IN A NUMBER LEAD – A SOFT, MALLEABLE, HEAVY METAL; HAS LOW MELTING POINT AND A
OF SIZES. USED FOR BANDING COLUMN FORMS TO KEEP THEM FROM HIGH COEFFICIENT OF THERMAL EXPANSION. VERY EASY TO CUT AND WORK,
ENABLING IT TO BE FITTED OVER UNEVEN SURFACES. USED FOR ROOFING, COMPARATIVELY, WIDE FLANGE SECTIONS ARE MORE EFFICIENT THAN STANDARD I
FLASHING AND SPANDREL WALL PANELS. BEAM WITH RESPECT TO BENDING RESISTANCE.

TIN – A LUSTROUS WHITE, SOFT AND MALLEABLE METAL HAVING A LOW
MELTING POINT; RELATIVELY UNAFFECTED BY EXPOSURE TO AIR; USED FOR MAKING
ALLOYS AND SOLDER AND IN COATING SHEET METAL.
STRUCTURAL SHAPES
STANDARD I-BEAM
THE USE OF I-BEAM AS A COLUMN IS UNECONOMICAL, BECAUSE THE WHIRL
OR REVOLVING ACTION OF THE STRUCTURE ABOUT AN AXIS THROUGH THE CENTROID
PARALLEL TO THE WAB OF THE I-BEAM IS COMPARATIVELY SMALL.

THE MOST COMMON SHAPES OF STRUCTURAL STEEL USED IN BUILDING H-BEARING PILES
CONSTRUCTION ARE THE AMERICAN STANDARD FORMS SUCH AS:
H-BEARING PILES ALTHOUGH SUITABLE FOR PILE DRIVING ON DEEP
1. SQUARE BARS 6. I- EXCAVATIONS IS MUCH MORE SUITABLE THAN THE I-BEAM FOR COLUMNS.
BEAM
ZEE SECTIONS
2. ROUND BARS 7. TEE
BEAM
THE ZEE SECTION IS ANOTHER STRUCTURAL FORM IN A LETTER Z WHICH IS
NOT FREQUENTLY USED IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION EXEPT ON THE FABRICATION OF
3. PLATE BARS 8. H- STEEL WINDOWS AND OTHER FRAMES.
COLUMN
 WROUGHT IRON – A COMMERCIALLY PURE IRON OF FIBROUS NATURE, VALUED
4. ANGLE BARS 9. FOR ITS CORROSION RESISTANCE AND DUCTILITY.
WIDE FLANGES
 CAST IRON – AN IRON ALLOY USUALLY INCLUDING CARBON AND SILICON WHICH
5. CHANNELS 10. ZEE HAS HIGH COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH BUT LOW TENSILE STRENGTH.

STANDARD CHANNEL
THE STANDARD CHANNEL HAS THE SHAPE OF UNSYMMETRICAL BALANCE
CONSISTING OF TWO FLANGES ON ONE SIDE. IT THEREFORE REQUIRES LATERAL
SUPPORT TO PREVENT ITS TENDENCY TO BUCKLE. THE STANDARD CHANNELS ARE
GENERALLY USED AS ELEMENTS OF BUILT-UP SECTIONS FOR COLUMNS AND ARE
ALSO SUITABLE FOR FRAMING AROUND FLOOR OPENINGS, SPANDRELS, AND LINTELS
ATTRIBUTED TO THE ABSENCE OF FLANGE ON THE OTHER SIDE. THE CHANNEL
SECTION IS IDENTIFIRD AS C 15 x 20 WHICH MEANS THAT THE CHANNEL HAS A DEPTH
OF 20 cm. AND WEIGHTS 15 kg. PER METER LENGTH.
WIDE FLANGE
 WELDING – IS THE PROCESS BY WHICH TWO METALS ARE SO JOINT THAT THERE
IS AN ACTUAL UNION OF THE INTERATOMIC BONDS.
 EXTRUSION – THE PROCESS OF PRODUCING METAL SHAPES OF A CONSTANT
CROSS SECTION BY FORCING THE HOT METAL THROUGH AN ORFICE IN A DIE BY
MEANS OF A PRESSURE RAM.
 RED OXIDE – PROTECTIVE COAT FOR IRON.
 LAP SEAM – A JOINT FORMED BY OVERLAPPING THE EDGES OF METAL SHEET OR
PLATES AND JOINING THEM BY RIVETING OR SOLDERING OR BRACING.

WIDE FLANGE SECTIONS ARE DESIGNATED AS W 12 x 24 WHICH MEANS THAT JOINING STEEL MEMBERS
THE FLANGE HAS A DEPTH OF 24 cm. AND IT WEIGHS 12 kg. PER METER LENGTH. ALL
WIDE FLANGE SECTIONS ARE GENERALLY WITH PARALLEL FACE FLANGE EXCEPT STEEL SHAPES CAN BE JOINED INTO A BUILDING FRAME WITH ANY OF THREE
THOSE WITH 5% SLOPE INSIDE FACE PRODUCED BY BETLEHEM STEEL COMPANY. FASTENING TECHNIQUES.
  RIVETS  LOAD INDICATOR WASHER

A RIVETS IS A FASTENER CONSISTING OF A CYLINDRICAL BODY AND A  TENSION CONTROL BOLTS

FORMED HEAD WHICH IS BROUGHT TO A WHITE HEAT, INSERTED THROUGH HOLES IN
THE MEMBERS TO BE JOINED, AND HOT-WORKED WITH A PNEUMATIC HAMMER TO
PRODUCED A SECOND HEAD OPPOSITE THE FIRSTHEAD. PROCESS OF TIGHTENING A TENSION CONTROL BOLT:

PROCESS OF RIVETING: A) THE WRENCH HOLDS BOTH THE NUT AND THE SPLINED BODY OF THE BOLT,
AND TURNS THEM AGAINST ONE ANOTHER TO TIGHTEN THE BOLT,

A) A HOT STEEL RIVET IS INSERTED IN HOLES THROUGH THE TWO

MEMBERS TO BE JOINED, B) WHEN THE REQUIRED TORQUE IS ACHIEVED, THE SPLINED END TWISTS OFF
IN THE WRENCH,

B) ITS HEAD IS THEN HELD WITH HAND HAMMER WITH A CUP-SHAPED

DEPRESSION, C) A PLUNGER INSIDE THE WRENCH DISCHARGES THE SPLINED END INTO A
CONTAINER.

C) WHILE A PNEUMATIC HAMMER DRIVES A RIVET SET REPEATEDLY

AGAINST THE BODY OF THE RIVET TO FORM THE SECOND HEAD,  WELDING

D) THE RIVET SHRINKS AS IT COOLS, DRAWING MEMBERS TIGHTLY WELDING CAN JOIN THE MEMBERS OF A STEEL FRAME AS IF THEY WERE A
TOGETHER. MONOLITHIC WHOLE. WELDED ARE STRONGER THAN THE MEMBERS THEY JOIN IN
RESISTING BOTH SHEAR AND MOMENT FORCES.

 BOLTS
TYPICAL WELDS USED IN STEEL FRAME CONSTRUCTION:

THE BOLTS COMMONLY USED IN STEEL FRAME CONSTRUCTION FALL INTO

TWO GENERAL CATEGORIES:  FILLET WELD

1) CARBON STEEL BOLTS – OR COMMON BOLTS ARE SIMILAR TO THE  DOUBLE FILLET WELD
ORDINARY MACHINE BOLTS THAT CAN BE PURCHASED IN
HARDWARE STORES.  DOUBLE-BEVEL GROOVE WELD

2) HIGH-STRENGTH BOLTS – ARE HEAT TREATED DURING  SINGLE-BEVEL GROOVE WELD WITH BACKUP BAR
MANUFACTURE TO DEVELOP THE NECESSARY STRENGTH. IT IS
USUALLY TIGHTENED USING PNEUMATIC OR ELECTRIC IMPACT
WRENCH.  V-GROOVE WELD

A MAJOR PROBLEM IN HIGH-STRENGTH BOLTING OR FRICTION-TYPE  V-GROOVE WELD WITH BACKUP BAR
CONNECTIONS IS HOW TO VERIFY THE NECESSARY TENSION HAS BEEN ACHIEVED IN
ALL THE BOLTS IN A CONNECTION.
 PUDDLE WELD

SEVERAL WAY TO ACHIEVED PROPER TIGHTENING:

 PARTIAL-PENETRATION SINGLE-BEVEL GROOVE WELD

 TURN-OF-NUT METHOD
THE BASIC SYBOLS ARE:
BACK FILLET PLUG OR
SLOT

GROOVE OR BUTT
SYMBOLS ON THE BOTTOM OF THE REFERENCE
LINE
SQUARE V BEVEL U J FLARE V FLARE BEVEL

REFER TO WELDS ON THE SAME SIDE OF THE

JOINT AS
THE ARROW

THE REFERENCE LINE CARRIES AS THE ARROW

THE DESCRIPTIVE SYMBOLS

THE ARROW POINTS TO

SUPPLEMENTARY SYMBOLS
THE WELD

FIELD WELD – THIS WELD BE DONE IN THE FIELD DURING ERECTION. OTHER WELDS
THE BASIC SYMBOLS
ARE DONE EARLIER IN THE FABRICATOR’S SHOP.

THE BASIC WELD SYMBOL IS LOCATED ON EITHER SIDE OF THE REFERENCE LINE AS
FOLLOWS:

WELD ALL AROUND – THIS INDICATES THAT THE WELD SHOULD BE CARRIED FULLY
AROUND THE PERIMETER OF THE JOINING PIECES.

SYMBOLS ON THE TOP OF THE REFERENCE LINE REFER TO WELDS ON THE SIDE OF THE
JOINT OPPOSITE THE

BACKUP BAR – AS INDICATED IN THIS EXAMPLE, A BACKUP BAR TO SUPPORT THE

FIRST PASS OF THE WELD MUST BE PLACED ON THE SIDE OF THE JOINT OPPOSITE
THE ARROW.
ARROW

SPACER – SMALL METAL SPACERS ARE USED TO MAINTAIN A GAP BETWEEN THE PIECS
TO BE JOINED, PRIOR TO WELDING.
A SHARP BEND NEAR THE END OF THE ARROW INDICATES THAT THE ARROWHEAD IS
POINTING TOWARD THE GROOVED SIDE OF THE BEVEL OR J-GROOVED JOINT
GLASS
THE MAJOR INGREDIENT OF GLASS IS SAND (SILICON DIOXIDE). A HARD
BRITTLE INORGANIC SUBSTANCE, ORDINARILY TRANSPARENT OR TRANSLUCENT;
PRODUCED BY MELTING A MIXTURE OF SILICA, A FLUX AND A STABILIZER; WHILE
MOLTEN MAYBE BLOWN, DRAWN, ROLLED, PRESSED OR CAST TO A VARIETY OF
SHAPES.
DURING ITS MANUFACTURED, ORDINARY WINDOW GLASS IS ANNEALED,
COOLED SLOWLY UNDER CONTROLLED CONDITION, TO AVOID LOCKED-IN THERMAL
STRESSES THAT MIGHT CAUSE IT TO BEHAVE UNPREDICTABLY IN USE.
THICKNESSES OF GLASS
GLASS IS TYPICALLY MANUFACTURED IN A SERIES OF THICKNESSES
RANGING FROM APPROXIMATELY 2.5mm, THROUGH 3mm, IS CALLED SINGLE-
STRENGTH, OR 6mm TO 22mm, IS CALLED DOUBLE-STRENGTH, AND ON SPECIAL
ORDER, 25mm IS AVAILABLE.
TYPES OF CLEAR GLASS
1. TEMPERED GLASS
TEMPERED GLASS IS PRODUCED BY CUTTING ANNEALED GLASS TO
THE REQUIRED SIZES FOR USE, REHEATING IT TO APPROXIMATELY 1200
DEGREES FAHRENHEIT, COOLING BOTH ITS SURFACES RAPIDLY WITH A
BLAST OF AIR WHILE ITS CORE COOLS MUCH MORE SLOWLY. ITS FOUR TIMES
AS STRONG IN BENDING AND MORE RESISTANT TO THERMAL STRESS AND
IMPACT.
2. HEAT-STRENGTHENED GLASS
THE HEAT STRENGTHENED PROCESS IS SIMILAR TO TEMPERING,
BUT ITS, ABOUT ONE-THIRD AS HIGH AS TEMPERED GLASS IN TERMS OF
BENDING AND STRENGTH.
3. LAMINATED GLASS
ITS MADE BY SANDWICHING A TRANSPARENT VINYL INTERLAER BETWEEN
SHEETS OF GLASS AND BONDING THE THREE LAYERS TOGETHER UNDER
HEAT AND PRESSURE. WHEN ITS BREAKS, THE SOFT VINYL HOLDS THE
SHARDS OF GLASS IN PLACE RATHER THAN ALLOWING THEM TO FALL OUT
OF THE FRAME.
4. PATTERNED OR ROLLED AND ROUGH CAST GLASS
HOT GLASS CAN BE ROLLED INTO SHEETS WITH MANY DIFFERENT SURFACE
PATTERNS FOR USE WHERE LIGHT TRANSMISSION IS DESIRED BUT VISION MUST BE
OBSCURED FOR PRIVACY.
5. SPANDREL GLASS
SPECIAL OPAQUE GLASSES ARE PRODUCED FOR COVERING THE SPANDREL
AREA (THE BANDS OF WALL AROUND THE EDGES OF FLOORS) IN GLASS
CURTAIN. IT IS USUALLY TEMPERED OR HEAT-STRENGTHENED TO RESIST
THE THERMAL STRESSES THAT CAN CAUSED BY ACCUMULATIONS OF SOLAR
HEAT BEHIND THE SPANDREL.
6. WIRED GLASS
SIMPLY A ROLLED GLASS INTO WHICH WIRE MESH IS INSERTED DURING THE
PROCESS OF MANUFACTURE. THE WIRE GREATLY INCREASES THE
RESISTANCE TO SHATTERING THROUGH IMPACT. ITS USE FOR SAFETY
GLAZING, WHEN ITS BREAKS FROM THERMAL STRESS, THE WIRES HOLD THE
SHEET OF GLASS TOGETHER.
TINTED AND REFLECTIVE COATED GLASS
SOLAR HEAT BUILDUP CAN BE PROBLEMATIC IN THE INHABITED SPACES OF
BUILDINGS WITH LARGE AREAS OF GLASS, ESPECIALLY DURING THE WARM PART OF
THE YEAR. THIS IS USE TO REDUCE GLARE AND CUT DOWN ON SOLAR HEAT GAIN.
1) TINTED GLASS
TINTED GLASS IS MADE BY ADDING SMALL AMOUNTS OF SELECTED
CHEMICAL ELEMENTS TO THE MOLTEN GLASS MIXTURE TO PRODUCE THE
DESIRED HUE AND INTENSITY OF COLOR IN GRAYS, BRONZES, BLUES,
GREEN, AND GOLDS.
2) REFLECTIVE COATED GLASS
REFLECTIVE COATED GLASS APPEAR AS MIRROR FROM THE OUTSIDE ON A
BRIGHT DAY AND AT NIGHT, WITH LIGHTS ON INSIDE THE BUILDING, THEY APPEAR AS
DARK BUT TRANSPARENT GLASS.
3) INSULATING GLASS
A SECOND SHEET OF GLASS APPLIED TO A WINDOW WITH AN AIRSPACE
BETWEEN THE SHEETS CUTS THIS RATE OF HEAT LOSS IN HALF. TWO KINDS
OF EDGES SEALS ARE FUSED GLASS EDGES AND A METAL SPLINE AND
ORGANIC SEALANT.
GLASS PRODUCTS
I. GLASS BLOCKS
COMPARABLE IN MANY WAYS TO UNIT MASONRY BUT HAVE THE ADDED
FEATURE OF TRANSMITTING LIGHT. THEY ARE MADE INTO TWO SEPARATE
HALVES, WHICH ARE HEAT-SEALED TOGETHER TO FORM A HOLLOW UNIT
WITH REASONBLY HIGH THERMAL EFFICIENCY AND SOUND INSULATION. THE
EDGE SURFACES OF THE BLOCK ARE COATED WITH A GRITTY MORTAR
BOND.
TWO TYPES:
1. FUNCTIONAL BLOCKS – DIRECT OR DIFFUSE THE DAYLIGHT WHICH PASSES
THEOUGH THEM TO IMPROVE THE ILLUMINATION OF THE BUILDING INTERIOR.
THREE STYLES OF FUNCTIONAL BLOCKS:
A. A LIGHT DIRECTING BLOCK – DIRECTS INCOMING LIGHT UPWARD TOWARD
THE CEILING. USED ALWAYS ABOVE EYE LEVEL.
B. A LIGHT DIFFUSING BLOCK – DIFFUSES INCOMING LIGHT EVENLY
THROUGHOUT THE INTERIOR OF THE ROOM.
C. GENERAL PURPOSES BLOCK
2. DECORATIVELY OR ARCHITECTURAL GLASS – AVAILABLE IN A WIDE RANGE OF
STYLES AND PATTERNS. THESE GLASS MASONRY UNITS PROVIDE ALMOST
UNLIMITED DESIGN VERSATILITY WHEN USED IN WINDOW, OPENINGS AND
FACADES, AS INTERIOR WALLS AND DIVIDER PANELING.
PAINT FINISHES
THE PURPOSE OF A FINISH IS TO PROTECT, PRESERVE OR VISUALLY
ENHANCE THE SURFACE TO WHICH IT IS APPLIED. FINISHES INCLUD PLASTIC
LAMINATED SURFACE COVERINGS SUCH AS PLASTIC LAMINATED AND VINYL OF
FABRIC WALL COVERING.
PAINT GENERALLY REFERS TO OPAQUE OR CLEAR FILM-FORMING MATERIAL
THAT ACTS AS A SHIELD OR BARRIER BETWEEN THE BUILDING MATERIAL AND THOSE
ELEMENTS OR CONDITIONS THAT MAY ADVERSELY AFFECTS OR DETERIORATE. THE
PAINT FILM MUST RESIST DETERIORATION DUE TO SUNLIGHT HEAT, TEMPERATURE
VARIATIONS, WATER OR MOISTURE VAPOR, MILDEW AND DECAY CHEMICALS AND
PHYSICAL ABRASION. PAINT MAY ALSO SERVE TO MAKE SURFACES MORE SANITARY,
IMPROVE HEATING AND LIGHTING EFFECTS, AND PROMOTE HUMAN COMFORT AND
SAFETY.
WHEN USING PAINT, THE PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF COLOR AND
SURFACE TEXTURE MUST BE CONSIDERED. CERTAIN COLORS MAY BE STIMULATING
WHILE OTHERS ARE RELAXING. WHITE AND LIGHT COLORS REFLECT SIZE OF FORM
AND SPACE. DARK COLOR CAN INHIBIT THE PERCEPTION OF FORM AND MAY BE USED
FOR CONTRAST. FLAT PAINT FINISHES SOFTEN AND DISTRIBUTE, ILLUMINATION
EVENLY. GLOSSY FINISHES REFLECT LIGHT AND CAN CAUSE GLARE, BUT THEY ALSO
PROVIDE SMOOTH, EASILY CLEANED, NON-ABSORPTIVE SURFACES.
MOST PAINTS ARE CAREFULLY FORMULATED TO MEET SPECIFIC
APPLICATION THAT USE REQUIREMENTS AND ARE READY-MIXED FOR APPLICATION
EXCEPT FOR THINNING, STIRRING, OR THE ADDITION OF AN ACTIVATOR OR CATALYST.
IT IS ALWAYS ADVISABLE THEREFORE TO FOLLOW THE PAINT MANUFACTURERS
RECOMMENDATIONS IN THE APPLICATION AND USE OF A PAINT OR OTHER
PROTECTIVE COATING.
PAINTS MAY BE CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO:
MATERIAL TO WHICH IT IS APPLIED
 WOOD, METAL MASONRY, CONCRETE, PLASTIC, ETC.,
SURFACE FINISH TEXTURE
 GLOSS, SEMI-GLOSS, EGG SHELL, SATIN, FLAT,& VARNISH.
CONSIDERATIONS IN THE SELECTION AND USE OF A PAINT INCLUDE:
SURFACE PREPARATION
- THE FOUNDATION OF ANY PAINT SYSTEM MUST BE PROPERLY PREPARED TO
ENSURE PROPER ADHESION OF THE PAINT FILM TO ITS SURFACE.
TYPE OF PAINT
- PAINT MUST BE COMPATIBLE WITH THE MATERIAL TO WHICH IT IS APPLIED.
- SPECIFICATIONS INCLUDE THE PAINT VEHICLE, FINISH COLOR, EXPOSURE, AND -PAINT WITH 50% VOLUME SOLIDS
MANUFACTURER AND/OR TRADE NAME.
(50% THINNER)
METHOD
1 GAL COVERS
- DEPENDING ON THE TYPE OF PAINT AND THE MATERIAL TO WHICH IT IS BEING
APPLIED. COATINGS MAY BE BRUSHED, ROLLED OR SPRAYED ON.
800 SF (74 m2) @ 1 MIL DFT

DRYING
400 SF (37 m2) @ 2 MIL DFT

- THE TIME AND CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR A PAINT TO DRY MUST BE CHECKED.
PAINT GENERALLY CONSIST OF:

FILM THICKNESS
PIGMENT – FINELY GROUND SOLIDS THAT PROVIDE THE PAINTS COVERINGS
OR HIDING POWER OR ITS COLOR.
- THE DRY FILM THICKNESS (DFT) IS MORE IMPORTANT THAN THE NUMBER OF
COATS.
VEHICLE – LIQUID MEDIUM TO CARRY THE PIGMENT IN SUSPENSION
DURING APPLICATION. AND CONSISTS OF BINDERS AND SOLVENTS.
- MULTIPLE THIN COATS ARE GENERALLY MORE EFFECTIVE THAN A SINGLE THICK
COAT.
 BINDER SERVE TO FORM THE PAINT FILM AND CAUSE IT TO ADHERE THE
SURFACE BEING PAINTED.
- A MINIMUM OF 2 COATS IS REQUIRED TO PRODUCE 5 MIL DFT.
 BINDERS ARE LARGELY RESPONSIBLE FOR THE PROTECTIVE QUALITY AND
COVERAGE DURABILITY OF THE PAINT FIL OR PROTECTIVE COATING.

- A PAINT’S COVERAGE CAN BE ESTIMATED BY ITS PERCENTAGE OF VOLUME  SOLVENTS OR THINNERS ACTS DRYING AGENTS.
SOLIDS:

 DEPENDING ON THE TYPE OF SOLVENT USED, A PAINT MAY DRY OR HARDEN BY

- ie. PAINT WITH 100% VOLUME SOLIDS: OXIDATION, EVAPORATION, CHEMICAL ACTION, OR BY THERMOSETTING ACTION
AT ELEVATED TEMPERATURES.
(NO THINNER)
COLOR
1 GAL COVERS
 DEPENDS ON THE TYPE OF PAINT AND THE MANUFACTURER.
1600 SF (149 m2) @ 1 MIL DFT
EXPOSURE
800 SF ( 74 m2) @ 2 MIL DFT
 EXTERIOR OR INTERIOR
400 SF ( 37 m2) @ 4 MIL DFT
CHARACTERISTICS:

PIGMENTED COATING
 LACQUER AND ENAMEL PAINTS
CLEAR COATINGS
 VARNISHES, LACQUERS, SHEELAC, SEALERS
RUST INHIBITIVE COATINGS
 ZINC-PIGMENTED COATINGS
 ZINC, SILICONS, ALKYD, OR ASPHALT OR BASE COATINGS
 ASPHALT OR TAR COATINGS THAT FORM NON-PEMEABLE BARRIERS AGAINST
WATER AND OXYGEN TO PROTECT SUBMERGED FERROUS METAL AND TO
WATERPROOF MASONRY SURFACES.
CEMENT MORTAR COATINGS
 MIXTURE OF PORTLAND CEMENT, LIME AND WATER USED TO DAMPPROOF
MASONRY MATERIALS AND PROTECT EXPOSED STEEL
PLASTIC AND SYNTHETIC RUBBER COATINGS
 COATING RESISTANT TO MILDEW, MOLD, FUMES, MARINE ENVIRONMENTS ETC.,
PAINTS MAY BE CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO ITS VEHICLE OR BINDER:
ALKYDS – USED FOR EXTERIOR PAINTS.
 OIL MODIFIED RESINS THAT HARDEN BY OXIDATION AND EVAPORATION.
 THE MOST COMMON PAINT VEHICLE
 FAST DRYING A HARDER THAN ORDINARY TIME, LOWERS THE GLOSS, AND
IMPROVES THE PAINTS WETTING PROPERTIES, DURABILITY AND ELASTICITY TO
RESIST BLISTERING.
 HAVE GOOD DRYING PROPERTIES, DURABILITY AND WATER RESISTANCE FOR
EXTERIOR EXPOSURES, AND GOOD COLOR RETENTION.
ASPHALT – USED FOR WATERPROOFING AT FIREWALL AND ROOF DECKING.
 COATINGS WITH A VEHICLE OF BOTH PETROLEUM AND NATURAL ASPHALTS ARE
USED TO PROTECT WOOD, MASONRY, CONCRETE AND AS ROOF COATING.
 HAVE GOOD WATER RESISTANCES BUT THERMOPLASTIC IN NATURE.
 ADDITION OF ALUMINUM GLAKES HELPS TO REFLECT THE SUN’S RAYS.
 ADDITION OF EPOXY RESINS MINIMIZES THE COLD FLOW AND MAXIMIZES THE
CHEMICAL-RESISTANCE OF ASPHALT.
CHLORINATED RUBBER – USED FOR INDUSTRIAL FLOORING.
 USED IN COATINGS HIGHLY RESISTANT TO ALKALIES, ACIDS, CHEMICALS, AND
WATER
 MAY BE REMOVED BY COAL TAR SOLVENTS
 HAS LIMITED RESISTANCE TO PROLONGED HEAT EXPOSURE
 USED IN SWIMMING POOLS, WATER TREATMENT PLANTS
EPOXY CATALYZED – USED FOR DUCO FINISH.
 TWO COMPONENT COATINGS CONSISTING OF A PIGMENTED PRIMER OR ENAMEL
AND AN ACTIVATOR OR CATALYST.
 MIXED JUST PRIOR TO USE – HAS LIMITED “POT LIFE”
 PRODUCES BY CHEMICAL ACTION A DENSE, HARD FILM SIMILAR TO BAKED
ENAMEL.
 HAS EXCELLENT RESISTANT TO SOLVENTS, CHEMICALS, PHYSICAL ABRASION,
TRAFFIC WEAR, A CLEANING MATERIALS
 HAS GOOD ADHESION PROPERTIES, COLOR RETENTION AND STAIN RESISTANCE.
 HAS GOOD DURABILITY FOR EXTERIOR EXPOSURE BUT MAY CHALK.
HARDWARE

HARDWARE - METAL PRODUCTS USED IN CONSTRUCTION, SUCH AS BOLTS, HINGES, KINDS OF DOORS:
LOCKS, TOOLS, ETC. THEY ARE CLASSIFIED AS:
 SWINGING DOOR
FINISHING HARDWARE – HARDWARE, SUCH AS HINGES LOCKS, CATCHES,
ETC. THAT HAS A FINISHED APPEARANCE AS WELL AS FUNCTION, ESP. THAT USED
WITH DOORS, WINDOWS, AND CABINETS, MAYBE CONSIDERED PART OF THE  OVERHEAD SWING-UP GARAGE DOOR – A RIGID OVERHEAD DOOR WHICH OPENS
DECORATIVE TREATMENT OF A ROOM OR BUILDING. AS AN ENTIRE UNIT.

ROUGH HARDWARE – IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION, HARDWARE MEANT TO  OVERHEAD ROLL-UP GARAGE DOOR – A DOOR WHICH, WHEN OPEN, ASSUMES A
BE CONCEALED, SUCH AS BOLTS, NAILS, SCREWS, SPIKES, RODS, AND OTHER METAL HORIZONTAL POSITION ABOVE THE DOOR OPENING, MADE OF SEVERAL LEAVES.
FITTINGS.
 ROLL-UP DOOR (SOLID OR SEE-THROUGH ALUMINUM SHUTTERS) A DOOR MADE
SOME FINISHING HARDWARE BRANDS: UP OF SMALL HORIZONTAL INTERLOCKING METAL SLATS WHICH ARE GUIDED IN A
TRACK: THE CONFIGURATION COILS ABOUT AN OVERHEAD DRUM WHICH IS
HOUSED AT THE HEAD OF THE OPENING, EITHER MANUAL OR MOTOR - DRIVEN.
1. SARGENT 7. RABBIT

 ACCORDION DOOR – A HINGED DOOR CONSISTING OF A SYSTEM OF PANELS

2. STANLEY 8. UNIVERSAL WHICH ARE HUNG FROM AN OVERHEAD TRACK. WHEN THE DOOR IS OPEN, THE
FACES OF THE PANELS CLOSE FLAT AGAINST EACH OTHER. WHEN THE DOOR IS
3. YALE 9. CLOSED, THE EDGES OF ADJACENT PANELS BUTT AGAINST (OR INTERLOCK)
EAGLE EACH OTHER TO FORM A SOLID BARRIER.

4. CORBIN 10. MASTER  BI-FOLDING DOOR - ONE OF TWO OR MORE DOORS WHICH ARE HINGED
TOGETHER SO THAT THEY CAN OPEN AND FOLD IN A CONFINED SPACE.
5. SCHLAGE 11. ALPHA
 REVOLVING DOOR - AN EXTERIOR DOOR CONSISTING OF FOUR LEAVES (AT 900
TO EACH OTHER) WHICH PIVOT ABOUT A COMMON VERTICAL AXIS WITHIN A
6. KWIKSET 12. YETI CYLINDRICALLY SHAPED VESTIBULE, PREVENTS THE DIRECT PASSAGE OF AIR
THROUGH THE VESTIBULE, THEREBY ELIMINATING DRAFTS FROM OUTSIDE.
DOORS – AN ENTRANCE WAY
 SLIDING DOOR - A DOOR MOUNTED ON TRACK WHICH SLIDES IN A HORIZONTAL
TYPES OF DOOR: DIRECTION USUALLY PARALLEL TO ONE WALL.

 FLUSH – A SMOOTH-SURFACED DOOR HAVING FACES WHICH ARE PLANE WHICH
CONCEAL ITS RAILS AND STILES OR OTHER STRUCTURE WHEN USED INSIDE, IT IS
OF HOLLOW CORE, WHEN USED FOR EXTERIOR IT IS OF SOLID CORE.
 PANEL DOOR – A DOOR HAVING STILES, RAILS AND SOMETIMES MUNTINS, WHICH
FORM ONE OR MORE FRAMES AROUND RECESSED THINNER PANELS.
 BY-PASSING SLIDING DOOR - A SLIDING DOOR WHICH SLIDES TO COVER A FIXED
DOOR OF THE SAME WIDTH OR ANOTHER SLIDING DOOR.
 SLIDING POCKET DOOR - A DOOR WHICH SLIDES INSIDE A HOLLOW OF THE WALL.
 DUTCH DOOR - A HINGED DOOR WHICH IS DIVIDED TO TWO. THE UPPER PART
CAN BE OPENED WHILE THE LOWER PORTION IS CLOSED.

 FRENCH DOOR
FINISHING HARDWARES: 3. PIVOT HINGE - THE AXLE OR PIN ABOUT WHICH A WINDOW OR DOOR ROTATES.

A. TO HUNG A DOOR  VERTICAL SPRING PIVOT HINGE- A SPRING HINGE FOR A DOOR WHICH
IS MORTISTED INTO THE HEEL OF THE DOOR, THE DOOR IS FASTENED
TO THE FLOOR AND DOOR HEAD WITH PIVOTS.
HINGE- A MOVABLE JOINT USED TO ATTACH SUPPORT AND TURN A DOOR
ABOUT A PIVOT, CONSISTS OF TWO PLATES JOINED TOGETHER BY A PIN WHICH
SUPPORT THE DOOR AND CONNECT IT TO ITS FRAME, ENABLING IT TO SWING OPEN B. TO FIX ONE SASH
OR CLOSED.
TYPES OF BOLT AND FASTENER:
TYPES OF HINGES:
 CHAIN HEAD AND FOOT BOLT
1. BUTT HINGE - CONSISTS OF TWO RECTANGULAR METAL PLATES WHICH ARE JOINED
WITH A PIN, IN LARGE HINGE, THE PIN IS REMOVABLE, IN SMALL HINGES, IT IS FIXED.
 DOOR OR BARREL BOLT

 FAST PIN HINGE - A HINGE IN WHICH THE PIN IS FASTENED PERMANENTLY IN

PLACE.  FLUSH BOLT

 FULL SURFACE HINGE - A HINGED DESIGNED FOR ATTACHMENT ON THE  CHAIN DOOR FASTENER
SURFACE OF THE DOOR AND JAMB WITHOUT MORTISING.
C. TO LOCK THE DOOR
 LOOSE JOINT HINGE - A DOOR HINGED HAVING TWO KNUCKLES, ONE OF
WHICH HAS VERTICAL PIN THAT FITS IN A CORRESPONDING HOLE IN THE LOCKSET – A COMPLETE LOCK SYSTEM INCLUDING THE BASIC LOCKING MECHANISMS
OTHER, BY LIFTING THE DOOR UP, OFF THE VERTICAL PIN, THE DOOR MAY BE AND ALL THE ACCESSORIES, SUCH AS KNOBS ESCUTCHEONS, PLATES, ETC.
REMOVED WITH UNSCREWING THE HINGED.

 BUTTON – A SMALL REJECTING MEMBER USED TO FASTEN THE FRAME OF A

 LOOSE PIN HINGE - A HINGE HAVING A REMOVABLE PIN WHICH PERMITS ITS DOOR OR WINDOW.
TWO PARTS TO BE SEPARATED.

 KNOB – A HANDLE, MORE OR LESS SPHERICAL USUALLY FOR OPERATING A

 PAUMELLE HINGED - A TYPE OF DOOR HINGE HAVING A SINGLE JOINT OF LOCK.
THE PIVOT TYPE, USUALLY OF MODERN DESIGN.

 ESCUTCHEON – A PROTECTIVE PLATE SURROUNDING THE KEYHOLE OF A

 OLIVE KNUCKLE HINGE - A PAUMELLE HINGE WITH KNUCKLES FORMING AN DOOR.
OVAL SHAPE.

 PLATES – A THIN FLAT SHEET OF MATERIAL.

2. SPRING HINGES - A HINGE CONTAINING ONE OR MORE SPRINGS, WHEN A DOOR IS
OPENED, THE HINGE RETURNS IT TO OPEN POSITION AUTOMATICALLY, MAY ACT IN
ONE DIRECTION ONLY, OR IN BOTH DIRECTIONS.  STRIKES – A METAL PLATE OR BOX WHICH IS SET IN A DOORJAMB AND IS
EITHER PLACED OR RECESSED TO RECEIVE THE BOLT OR LATCH OF A LOCK,
FIXED ON DOOR.
 DOUBLE ACTION - EXCELLENT FOR USE IN RESTAURANTS, HOSPITALS,
KITCHENS, THE DOOR OPENS BY JUST PUSHING IT WITH THE SHOULDER OR
FEET.  LIP STRIKE – THE PROJECTION FROM THE SIDE OF A TRIKE PLATE WHICH
THE BOLT OF A LOCK STRIKES FIRST, WHEN A DOOR IS CLOSED; PROJECTS
OUT FROM THE SIDE OF THE STRIKE PLATE TO PROTECT THE FRAME.
 SINGLE ACTION
USE A DIFFERENT LOCKSET FOR EACH ROOM: KEY-PADLOCK – A DEVICE WHICH FASTENS IN POSITION MAYBE OPERATED BY A KEY.

 ENTRANCE LOCKSET – WITH A KEY AND UNIVERSAL BUTTON WHICH MAGNETIC PADLOCK – A KIND OF LOCK WHICH OPENS BY USING THE
WHEN PUSHED STAYS PUT AND LOCKS THE DOOR. CORRESPONDING MAGNET WHICH GOES WITH IT.

 BEDROOM LOCKSET – SAME AS THE ENTRANCE LOCKSET BUT SIMPLER HASPLOCK – A KIND OF HASP THAT HAS A BUILT-IN LOCKING DEVICE WHICH CAN BE
IN DESIGN. OPENED ONLY WITH A KEY.

 TOILET LOCKSET – WITHOUT A KEY HAS A BUTTON THAT IS PUSHED TO
LOCK INSIDE.
KIND OF LOCKSET:
 INTEGRAL LOCK – A TYPE OF MORTISE LOCK HAVING ITS CYLINDER IN
THE KNOB.
 CYLINDER LOCK – A BORED LOCK WHICH HAS A CYLINDRICAL CASE
INTO WHICH A SEPARATE LATCH CASE FITS.
BORED LOCK – A LOCK INTENDED FOR INSTALLATION IN A CIRCULAR HOLE IN A DOOR.
CREMONE BOLT – USED TO FASTEN UPPER AND LOWER DOOR.
DEAD BOLT – A TYPE OF DOOR LOCK, THE BOLT, WHICH IS SQUARE IN SECTION IS
OPERATED BY THE DOOR KEY OR A TURN PIECE.
TYPES OF AUTOMATIC DOOR CLOSER:
 PNEUMATIC TYPE

LATCH – A SIMPLE FASTENING DEVISE HAVING A LATCH BOLT, BUT NOT A DEAD BOLT  SEMI-CONCEALED OVERHEAD TYPE
CONTAINS NO PROVISIONS FOR LOCKING WITH A KEY.

 CONCEALED TYPE
NIGHT LATCH – KEY OPERATED LATCH WITH SAFETY PIN.

 OVERHEAD LIQUID TYPE

LIFT LATCH – A TYPE OF DOOR LATCH WHICH FASTENS A DOOR BY MEANS OF A
PIVOTED BAR THAT ENGAGES A HOOK ON THE DOOR JAMB, A LEVER WHICH LIFTS THE
PIVOTED BAR USED TO UNFASTEN THE DOOR. TYPES OF CABINET HINGED DOOR:

RABBETED LOCK – A LOCK OR LATCH IN WHICH THE FACE IS FLUSH WITH THE  FLUSH
RABBET ON A RABBETED DOOR JAMB.
 OVERLAPPING
ROLLER LATCH – A TYPE OF DOOR LATCH HAS A ROLLER UNDER SPRING TENSION
INSTEAD OF A BEVELED SPRING BOLT, THE ROLLER ENGAGES A STRIKE PLATE,
HAVING A RECESS FORMED TO RECEIVE.  OFFSET

TYPES OF CABINET HINGES:

SCREEN DOOR LATCH – A SMALL LOCKING OR LATCHING DEVICE USED ON SCREEN  BUTT HINGES
DOORS AND GENERATED BY A KNOB OR LEVER HANDLE, SOMETIMES EQUIPPED WITH
A DEAD BOLT.  COMMON BUTT

HASP – A FASTENING DEVICE CONSISTING OF A LOOP OR STAPLE AND A SLOTTED  LOOSE PIN
HINGE PLATE NORMALLY SECURED WITH A PADLOCK.
  T-HINGE  SCREW-IN KNOB

 PIANO HINGE  BOLT-ON KNOB

 DECORATIVE HINGE  FLUSH KNOB

 OFFSET HINGES – USED FOR HANGING LIPPED OR OVERLAPPING  FLUSH RING

DOORS, AVAILABLE IN SEMI-CONCEALED AND SURFACE-MOUNTED
STYLES.
 PULL

 PIVOT HINGES – MADE FOR BOTH FLUSH AND OVERLAPPING DOORS.

OTHER FINISHING ACCESSORIES:

 INVISIBLE HINGES – DON’T SHOW FROM THE FRONT AND IS EXPENSIVE.

 GRAB BAR – A HAND GRIP USUALLY INSTALLED IN SHOWER, WHICH MAY
THEY CAN BE USED FOR BOTH FLUSH AND OVERLAPPING DOOR.
BE USED FOR STEADYING ARE SELF.

 FLUSH COUNTER HINGE – FOR A DROP DOWN DOOR THAT CAN BE

 SELF BRACKET – ANY OVER HANGING MEMBER PROJECTING FROM A
LOWERED TO SERVE AS WORK SURFACES REQUIRE HINGES THAT LAY
WALL OR OTHER BODY TO SUPPORT A WEIGHT.
FLUSH IN THE SURFACE, MORTISE THEM INTO BOTH SURFACES, THEY
DON’T SHOW WHEN THE DOOR IS CLOSED. A DROPDOWN DOOR ALSO
REQUIRES A CHAIN OR STAY SUPPORT TO HOLD THE DOOR’S WEIGHT  METAL BRACKET – USED TO SUPPORT ANY CABINET OR SHELF.
WHEN IT’S OPEN.
 SPRING DOOR CLOSER – ATTACHED ABOVE A SCREEN DOOR TO
AUTOMATICALLY CLOSE IT.

 DOOR STOPPER – TO PREVENT THE DOOR WITH ITS LOCKSET FROM

HARMING THE WALL OR TILES.
CATCHES FOR CLOSING OF CABINET DOORS IN PLACE
ROUGH HARDWARES:
KINDS OF CATCHES:
NAILS
 FRICTION CATCH – ANY CATCH WHICH WHEN IT ENGAGES A STRIKE, IS
HELD IN THE ENGAGED POSITION BY FRICTION.  COMMON WIRE NAIL WITH HEAD AND FOR STRENGTH.

 MAGNETIC CATCH – A DOOR CATCH FLAT THAT USES A MAGNET TO  FINISHING NAIL WITHOUT HEAD AND FOR BETTER APPEARANCE
HOLD THE DOOR IN A CLOSED POSITION.

 MASONRY OR CONCRETE NAIL USED FOR CONCRETE, MORTAR AND BRICK

 BULLET CATCH – A FASTENER WHICH HOLDS A DOOR IN PLACE BY SURFACE
MEANS OF A PROJECTING SPRING ARCTUATED STEEL HALL WHICH IS
DEPRESSED WHEN THE DOOR IS CLOSED.
SIZES, 1”, 1 ½”, 2 “, 2 ½”, 3”, 3 ½”, 4”, 6”

TYPES OF KNOBS:
OTHER COMMON HAMMER DRIVEN FASTENER
SCOTCH NAILS BRADS  FLAT SQUARE NUT

STAPLES TACKS  HEX NUT

SCREWS  SQUARE NUT

CLASSIFIED BY GAUGE (DIAMETER), LENGTH, HEAD TYPE, AND METALLIC  ACORN NUT
MAKE-UP.

 T – NUT
TYPES OF SCREW HEAD

 KNURLED NUT
 FLAT HEAD SCREW

 WING NUT
 OVAL HEAD SCREW

HUNGER BOLTS – FOR HANGING FIXTURES FROM WALLS.

 PHILIPPS HEAD

U-BOLTS – TO ATTACH FLAT SURFACE TO ROUND POLES AND PIPES.

 SHEET-METAL SCREW
JOINERY BRACKETS
 ROUND HEAD SCREW
 MENDING PLATE
 LAG SCREW
 T-PLATE
WASHERS

 FLAT CORNER PLATE

 FLAT

 L-BRACKET
 COUNTER SUNK

 AWNING – AN ARCHITECTURAL PROJECTED WINDOW.

 FLUSH

 BAY WINDOW – A WINDOW WHICH PROJECTS OUTSIDE THE MAIN LINE OF A

BOLTS BUILDING.

BOLTS HAVE THREADED SHAFTS THAT RECEIVE NUTS. TO USE THEM, A HOLE  HOPPER WINDOW – A WINDOW SASH WHICH OPENS INWARD AND ITS HINGED AT
IS DRILLED, PUSHING A BOLT THROUGH AND ADDING A NUT. THE BOTTOM.

BOLTS TIGHTENED WITH SCREW WHILE HOLDING THE NUT WITH A WRENCH.  ORIEL WINDOW – A PROJECTED WINDOW BEYOND BUILDING WALL CARRIED BY A
CORBEL.
NUTS
 BATTEN DOOR - A DOOR W/OUT STILES WHICH IS COSTRUCTED OF VERTICAL
BOARDS HELD TOGETHER BY HORIZONTAL BATTENS.
 STILE – VERTICAL FRAMES OF PANELLED DOOR.
 TRANSOM – WINDOW OVER A DOOR.
 DOOR JAMB – FINISHED FRAME SURROUNDING A DOOR.
 ANCHOR BOLT – A STEEL BOLT USUALLY FIXED IN ABUILDING STRUCTURE WITH
ITS THREADED PORTION PROJECTING.
 PLATE BOLT – A BOLT IN A BUILDING FOUNDATION WHICH SECURES THEPLATE OR
SILL.
 MACHINE BOLT – A THREADED BOLT HAVING A STRAIGHT SHANK AND A
CONVENTIONAL HEAD SUCH AS A SQUARE, HEXAGONAL, BUTTON OR
COUNTERSANK.
 CARRIAGE BOLT – A BOLT WITH NECK FOR NON-RATATING MOUNTING.
 LAG SCREW – COMMON HARDWARE FASTENER FOR TRUSS BRACES.
 KNOB BOLT – A DOOR LOCK WITH A SPRING BOLT CONTROLLED BY ONE OR BOTH
KNOBS AND DEAD BOLT CONTROLLED BY AKEY.
 BACKSET – THE HORIZONTAL DISTANCE FROM THE FACE OF A LOCK OF LATCH TO
THE CENTER OF THE KNOB OR LOCK CYLINDER.
 GUSSET – A PLATE ATTACHED TO SIDE OF A JOINT FOR INCREASE HOLDING
POWER.
 BRAD – A THIN NAIL WITH SMALL HEAD.
 KERF – IN A SUSPENDED ACOUSTICAL CEILING, AGROOVE CUT INTO THE EDGES
OF AN ACOUSTICAL TILES TO RECEIVE SPLINES OR SUPPORTING MEMBERS OF
THE CEILING SUSPENSION SYSTEM.
 PERFORATED TAPE – A TYPE OF TAPE USED IN FINISHING JOINTS BETWEEN
GYPSUM BOARD.
 SAHARA – USED FOR WATERPROOFING.
 PARQUET – INLAID WOOD FLOORING USUALLY SET IN SIMPLE GEOMETRIC
PATTERN.
 VINYL TILE – A FLOOR TILE COMPOSED PRINCIPALLY OF POLYVINYL CHLORIDE.
 BEVEL – THE ANGLE WITH ONE SURFACE OF A BODY MAKES WITH ANOTHER
SURFACE WHEN THEY ARE NOT AT RIGHT ANGLE.
 CHASE – A CONTINOUS RECESS BUILT INTO A WALL TO RECEIVE PIPES, DUCTS,
ETC.
 GYPSUM BOARD – MATERIAL USED IN DRYWALL CONSTRUCTION.
 PLOUGH – A GROOVE EXTENDED ALONG THE EDGE OR FACE OF THE WOOD
MEMBER BEING CUT PARALLEL TO GRAIN.
BUILDING PROTECTION
PREVENTIONS
 WATERPROOFING – A METHOD OF PROTECTING SURFACES AGAINST THE
DESTRUCTIVE EFFECTS OF WATER.
 DAMP-PROOFING – PROTECTION FROM THE OUTSIDE IS PROVIDED BY WATER
REPELLENT MATERIALS WHICH TURN WATER ASIDE AND FORCE IT TO RETURN TO
THE EARTH. THE DAMPNESS THAT SOMETIMES OCCURS INSIDE THE BUILDING
CAN BE CAUSED BY PENETRATION OF MOISTURE FROM THE OUTSIDE OR BY
CONSIDERATION OF WATER VAPOR GENERATED ON THE INSIDE.
 CLEAR PROTECTIVE TREATMENTS FOR MASONRY, CONCRETE – THIS IS A CLEAR,
INVISIBLE SILICONE WATER REPELLENT SPECIALLY FORMULATED FOR
APPLICATION ON MASONRY AND BRICKS (STANDARD SILICONE REPELLENT) AND
FOR LIMESTONE AND CONCRETE THAT SEEPS MUCH RAINWATER (SPECIAL
FORMULATED SILICONE REPELLENT). THE SILICONE LIQUID IS APPLIED BY
BRUSH OR LOW PRESSURE SPRAY AND DOES NOT AFFECT THE COLOR OR
NATURALNESS OF THE MATERIAL.
 ANAY (TERMITE) PROOFING BY SOIL POISONING – IT IS IMPORTANT TO POISON
THE SOIL AGAINST ANAY (WHITE ANTS) IN ORDER TO STOP THE ANAY FROM
INFESTING THE MAINPOSTS, WALLS AND FLOORING.
 WOOD PRESERVATIVE (POWDER POST TERMITES) A CHEMICAL LIQUID PAINTED
AND APPLIED TO LUMBER TO PRESERVE IT FOR YEARS. IT PROTECTS WOOD
 AGAINST POWDER POST BEATLES (BUKBOK) POWDER POET TERMITE (UNOS),  CONCRETE ROOF GUTTERS
DECAY CAUSING FUNGI, SUCH AS SAP STAIN AND SRYROT.
 PLANT BOXES INSIDE
 FIREPROOFING – A CLEAR LIQUID APPLIED EASILY ON WOOD, PLYWOOD, LUMBER
AND OTHER BOARD THAT RETAINS THE NATURAL BEAUTY, GIVES ADDED
STRENGTH AND PROTECTS MATERIALS AGAINST FIRE, WEATHER, DECAY,  KITCHEN FLOOR
INSECTS AND WARPING. SINCE THE LIQUID PENETRATED INTO THE WOOD, WHEN
THERE IS FIRE. IT REACTS BY DISPERSING THE FLAME, PREVENTING  TOILETS
PROGRESSIVE BURNING.

 CANOPIES
 RATPROOFING – A METHOD OF PROTECTING ROOMS AGAINST THE INTRUSION
OF RATS AND OTHER SMALL DESTRUCTIVE ANIMALS FROM GNAWING THE
WOODEN PARTS OF THE HOUSE, HABITATING ON CEILINGS AND FLOORS OF  BASEMENT FLOOR AND WALLS
HOUSES AND BUILDINGS.
 ELEVATOR PITS
 RUSTPROOFING – A METHOD OF PROTECTING THE FERROUS MATERIALS LIKE
STEEL, IRON FROM RUSTING OR CORROSION.  SWIMMING POOL

 FLOOR PROTECTION – WHEN FLOORS ARE SUBJECTED TO WEAR AND TEAR, OR  MACHINE ROOMS, AIR CON & PUMP ROOMS
FROM CHEMICAL ABRASIONS AND HEAVY USE, A SPECIAL KIND OF MATERIAL
SHOULD BE USED TO PROTECT THE FLOORING.
 REFRIGERATION & COLD STORAGE ROOMS
 DESCALERS, PAINT AND CHEMICAL STRIPPERS – WHEN AN OLD HOUSE HAVING
OLE PAINT IS IN NEED OF REPAINTING, PAINT REMOVER IS APPLIED TO THE THREE TYPES OF WATERPROOFING:
SURFACE WHICH SOFTENS AND LIFTS THE PAINT. FOR CLEANING OF BUILDINGS
FROM STAINS, RUST, ALGAE OR EVEN CEMENT BUILD UP FROM FORMS OR
 INTEGRAL TYPE – MEDIUM IN POWDER FORM IS ADDED
EQUIPMENT, ETC. A CHEMICAL STRIPPER OR DESCALER IS USED.
AND MIXED WITH THE AGGREGATES OF CONCRETE. IN THIS CASE, ONE
PACK OF USUALLY .908 KILOS IS ADDED TO ONE BAG OF KILOS CEMENT.
 CONTROL, PROTECT AND MANAGE – FOR BUILDINGS THAT NEED TOTAL SOME OF THE KNOWN BRANDS ARE SAHARA AND SAKURA.
CONTROL OF THE INCOMING AND OUTGOING INDIVIDUALS FOR THE PROTECTION
OF THE BUILDING AS A WHOLE FROM ROBBERS, STEALERS, ETC. THERE ARE SO
 MEMBRANE TYPE – RECOMMENDED FOR USE WHERE
MANY EQUIPMENTS WHICH CAN BE INSTALLED.
DIRECT RAIN, OR STANDING WATER ARE EMINENT, THERE ARE ABOUT 14
USES. THE MATERIALS USED DEPENDING ON THE MANUFACTURER IS
THIS IS APPLIED ON THE FOLLOWING LOCATIONS: EITHER ASPHALT PAPER LAID WITH HOT ASPHALT, IMPREGNATED
ASBESTOS FELT, SOMETIMES THICK POLYETHYLENE SHEETS IS ALSO
USED. OTHER MATERIALS ARE PERFORMED SELF SEALING ASPHALT.
 ROOF DECKS

 FLUID APPLIED – A FLUID APPLIED ELASTOMERIC COATING

 CONCRETE TERRACES AND BALCONIES BASED ON HAVY SOLIDS ELASTOMER COMPOUND FORMULATED TO
WATERPROOF AND PRESERVE THE SUBSTRATE, LIKE CONCRETE,
 SHEATHING FOR WOOD SHINGLE AND TILE ROOFING WOOD, BRICKS AND STEEL. THE WATERPROOFING IS MONOLOTHIC,
SEAMLESS, FLEXIBLE AND ELASTIC OVER A WIDE TEMPERATURE
RANGE, WITHSTANDS EXTREME THERMAL MOVEMENT, SETTLING AND
 WATER TANKS CRACKING. IT RESISTS PUNCTURE AND TEARING ABRASIVE
OVERLAYMENTS. THIS ELASTOMERIC FLUID CAN BE APPLIED BY
ROLLER, BRUSH, SPRAY OR SQUEEGEE.

ROOFING FELTS – THE BASE FELTS USED IN BUILT-UP ROOFING ARE AVAILABLE IN
TWO BASIC TYPE – ASBESTOS FELTS AND ORGANIC OR RAG FELTS. THEY LOOK
ALIKE, SUPERFICIALLY, BUT THEY DIFFER WIDELY IN SERVICE.
ASBESTOS:
 ASBESTOS FELTS – COMPOSED PRIMARILY OF ASBESTOS FIBER, A
NON-ROTTING, NON-WICKING INORGANIC MINERAL FIBER.
 IDENTICAL EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION PROPERTIES TO
FINISHING FELTS.
 MINIMUM STRETCH AND SHRINKAGE OR WETTING OR DRYING
WHICH MEANS MINIMUM DISTORTION.
 LOSES STRENGTH SLOWLY WHILE AGING.
 EXCELLENT RESISTANCE TO “BURNOUT” IN HOT CLIMATE.
 RAT RESISTANT.
ORGANIC:
 ORGANIC FELTS – COMPOSED OF FIBROUS ORGANIC MATERIALS.
SUBJECT TO DETERIORATION BY OXIDATION AND TO WICKING.
 DIFFERENT EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION PROPERTIES FROM
FINISHING PLIES.
 MAXIMUM STRETCH AND SHRINKAGE ON WETTING AND DRYING WHICH
MEANS MAXIMUM DISTORTION.
 LOSES STRENGTH RAPIDLY WHILE AGING.
 POOR RESISTANCE TO “BURNOUT” IN HOT CLIMATE.
 POOR RESISTANCE TO ROT.
VAPOR INSULATION (DAMPROOFING)
THE DAMPNESS THAT SOMETIMES OCCURS INSIDE BUILDINGS CAN BE CAUSED BY
PENETRATION OF MOISTURE FROM THE OUTSIDE OR BY CONDENSATION OF WATER
VAPOR GENERATED ON THE INSIDE. PROTECTION FROM THE OUTSIDE IS PROVIDED
BY WATER REPELLENT MATERIALS WHICH TURN ASIDE AND FORCE IT TO RETURN TO
THE EARTH DONE THE OUTSIDE OF THE BUILDING. MOISTURE VAPOR ON THE OTHER
HAND CAN PERMEATE MOST ORDINARY BUILDING MATERIALS SUCH AS WOOD, PAPER,
LATH PLASTER, UNTREATED BRICK, ETC. THE MOISTURE VAPOR WILL CONDENSE
WATER WHEN ITS TEMPERATURE IS REDUCED BY CONTACT WITH A COOL SURFACE
OR COOL AIR. HENCE, HIGH HUMIDITY IN A BUILDING MAY RESULT IN CONDENSATION
OF WATER NOT ONLY ON THE INSIDE OF WALLS AND WINDOWS BUT ALSO ON THE
OUTSIDE OR WITHIN THE EXTERIOR WALLS, CEILING OR ROOF. MOISTURE VAPOR IS
PRODUCED BY COOKING OCCUPANTS, LAUNDERING, EARTH CRAWL SPACES,
BASEMENT FLOORS, HUMIDIFIES, ETC.
VAPOR BARRIERS (DAMPROOFING MATERIALS)
THESE ARE MATERIALS WHICH EFFECTIVELY RETARD OR STOP THE FLOW OF WATER
VAPOR AND NORMALLY ARE PRODUCED IN SHEETS OR THIN LAYERS. VAPOR
BARRIERS SHOULD BE INSTALLED ON THE WARM SIDE OF THE INSULATION. THEY
SHOULD BE CONTINUOUS SURFACES OF ASPHALT OR WAX COATED PAPER,
ALUMINUM, OR OTHER METAL FOIL SHEETS OR POLYETHYLENE FILM. THEY CAN BE
ATTACHED TO THE INSULATION AS PART OF THE MANUFACTURED PRODUCT OR
INSTALLED SEPARATELY IN OR ON THE WARM SIDE OF THE WALL, FLOOR, OR
CEILING. THEY MUST BE CONTINUOUS AND ALLOW NO OPENINGS THROUGH WHICH
VAPOR MAY PASS. ALTHOUGH ASPHALT PAPER IS A GOOD MOISTURE BARRIER, IT IS
NOT A VAPOR BARRIER, AND SHOULD BE USED ON THE OUTSIDE OF A BUILDING FOR
THAT PURPOSE.
MATERIALS USED AS VAPOR BARRIERS:
 POLYETHYLENE FILM – THIS IS CHEMICALLY INERT PLASTIC,
UNAFFECTED BY ACIDS, ALKALIS AND CAUSTICS, PRODUCED IN ROLLS
OF 3 TO 20 FT. WIDE. COMMON THICKNESSES ARE 2,3,4 AND 6 MIL (1MIL
= .001 IN.) THIS FILM IS USEFUL NOT ONLY AS VAPOR BARRIER FOR
WALLS, CEILINGS AND FLOORS BUT ALSO AS A BARRIER TO PREVENT
THE PASSAGE OF MOISTURE FROM THE EARTH UPWARD THROUGH A
CONCRETE SLAB LAIN ON THE GROUND. POLYETHYLENE FILM CAN BE
APPLIED VERTICALLY IN 36 IN. WIDE STRIPS TO STUDDING ON 16 IN.
CENTERS WITH A FULL OVERLAP ON ALTERNATE STUDS. FILMS ARE
STAPLED TO STUDS. OVERLAPS AND EXTENSIONS TO FLOORS AND
WALLINGS SHALL BE 6 IN.
 ALUMINUM FOIL – USED AS VAPOR BARRIER AS A SINGLE SHEET, OR
AS A THIN LAYER OF FOIL LAMINATED TO A HEAVY BACKING OF ASPHALT-
IMPREGNATED KRAFT PAPER. THIS IS ALSO DONE WITH TWO LAYERS OF
FOIL LAMINATED WITH ASPHALT CEMENT.
  KRAFT PAPER COATED WITH ASPHALT OR WAX. SOMETIMES TWO
LAYERS OF PAPER ARE CEMENTED WITH A CONTINOUS LAYER OF
ASPHALT. ANOTHER MATERIALS USED FOR DAMP-PROOFING OF
CONCRETE WALLS IS “WEATHERKOTE” BITUMINOUS EMULSION, BY
SHELL.
 BLOCK OR RIGID SLAB INSULATION – THIS TYPE OF INSULATION IS SO CALLED
BLOCK OR RIGID BECAUSE THE UNITS ARE RELATIVELY STIFF AND INELASTIC.
 FOAMED PLASTIC INSULATION

THERMAL INSULATION  CELLULAR GLASS INSULATION

IN COLD WEATHER, WE ARE INTERESTED IN TRANSFERRING HEAT FROM FURNACES,  FOAMED CONCRETE
RADIATORS, HEATING PANELS, INTO VARIOUS ROOMS OF OUR BUILDINGS. AT THE
SAME TIME WE ARE INTERESTED IN PREVENTING THAT HEAT FROM BEING  CELLULAR HARD RUBBER
TRANSFERRED FROM THE INTERIOR OF THE BUILDING TO THE OUTSIDE.

 SHREDDED WOOD OR WOOD FIBER

DURING THE SUMMER, IT IS IMPORTANT THAT WE PREVENT THE TRANSFER OF HOT
OUTSIDE TEMPERATURES TO THE WORKING AND LIVING SPACE WITHIN OUR
BUILDINGS.  RIGID SLAB INSULATION

ALL OF THESE ARE DONE BY THE JUDICIOUS USE OF MATERIALS WHICH IS BEST
PREVENT THE TRANSFER OF HEAT, THIS WE CALL THERMAL INSULATION.
KINDS OF THERMAL INSULATION
 RIGID INSULATION- WHICH ARE IMPERVOUS TO MOISTURE
PENETRATION RESULTING FROM CONTINUOUS CONTACT WITH
THE EARTH AND MOISTURE ARE PARTICULARLY USEFUL AS
PERIMETER INSULATION.

 REFLECTIVE INSULATION
 LOOSE FILL – THIS BULKY AND DIVIDED INTO:

 ALUMINUM FOIL
 FIBROUS TYPE

 COPPER- FOIL INSULATIONS

 GRANULAR INSULATION

 REFLECTIVE INSULATION
 FIBROUS LOOSE FILL

 SHEET FOIL
 GRANULE

 FOAMED-IN PLACE INSULATION – THIS IS POLYURETHANE PRODUCT MADE BY

 BLANKET INSULATION- IS MADE FROM SOME FIBROUS MATERIAL SUCH AS
MINERAL WOOL, WOOD FIBER, COTTON FIBER, OR ANIMAL HAIR.
 BATTS
COMBINING A POLYISOCYANATE AND A POLYESTER RESIN. THIS TYPE OF
INSULATION CAN BE APPLIED EITHER BY POURING OR BY SPRAYING. THE BASIC
INGREDIENTS FOR BOTH ARE DRAWN FROM THEIR CONTAINERS, MEASURED,
AND MIXED BY MACHINE.

 STRUCTURAL INSULATION BOARD  APPLICATION BY POURING

 STRAWBOARD  APPLICATION BY SPRAYING

 CORKBOARD
 SPRAYED-ON-INSULATIONS – MATERIALS USED ARE POLYURETHANE FOAM  FINE GRAINED SOIL – IF THE PARTICLES ARE TOO SMALL TO BE SEEN.
ASBESTOS FIBER MIXED WITH INORGANIC BINDERS, VERMICULITE AGGREGATE
WITH A BINDER SUCH AS PORTLAND CEMENT OR GYPSUM AND PERLITE
AGGREGATE USING GYPSUM AS A BINDER. MACHINES ARE USED FOR BLOWING  SILT
THESE INSULATIONS INTO PLACE; AS A RESULT THE SHAPE OR IRREGULARITY OF
THE SURFACE BEING INSULATED IS OF LITTLE CONSEQUENCE.  CLAY

 ASBESTOS FIBER INSULATION PILE DRIVING

 CORRUGATED INSULATION MATERIAL USED IN PILE FOUNDATION ARE:

SOIL TESTING 1. TIMBER

LARGER THAN A SINGLE FAMILY HOUSE, IT IS NECESSARY TO DETERMINE THE SOIL AND 2. CONCRETE
WATER CONDITION BENEATH THE SITE.
3. STEEL
METHOD OF SOIL TESTING:
TIMBER – CANNOT RESIST HIGH STRESSES DUE TO HARD DRIVING THAT IS REQUIRED TO
1. DIGGING TEST PITS – ARE USEFUL WHEN FOUNDATION IS NOT EXPECTED TO PENETRATE HIHLY RESISTANT LAYER OF SOIL. THE TIP OF THE TIMBER PILE WHICH
EXTEND DEEPER THAT ABOUT 8 FEET WHICH IS THE MAXIMUM PRACTICAL COULD BE EASILY DAMAGED IS PROTECTED BY THE USE OF STEEL SHOES, ON THE
REACH OF SMALL EXCAVATION MACHINE. OTHERHAND THE BUTT IS ALSO PROVIDED WITH AN AMPLE PROTECTION BY THE USE OF
CUSHION BLOCK.
2. TEST BORING – BORING WITH STANDARD PENETRATION TESTS CAN GIVE AN
INDICATION OF THE BEARING CAPACITY OF THE SOIL BY THE NUMBER OF
BLOWS OF A STANDARD DRIVING HAMMER REQUIRED TO ADVANCE A
SAMPLING TUBE INTO THE SOIL BY A FIXED AMOUNT.
CONCRETE PILES ARE CLASSIFIED INTO TWO TYPES:

TYPES OF SOILS:
1. CAST-IN-PLACE

 ROCK – IS A CONTINUOUS MASS OF SOLID MINERAL MATERIALS, SUCH AS GRANITE

 CASED – IS CAST INSIDE A METAL SHELL FORM WHICH ARE LEFT IN THE
OR LIMESTONE, THAT CAN ONLY BE REMOVED BY DRILLING AND BLASTING.
GROUND.

 SOIL – IS A GENERAL TERM REFERRING TO EARTH MATERIAL.

 UNCASED – ELIMINATE THE METAL CASING.

 BOULDER – IF THE PARTICLE OF SOIL IS TOO LARGE TO LIFT BY HAND.

 COBBLE – IF THE PARTICLE OF SOIL TAKES THE WHOLE HAND TO LIFT.
 GRAVEL – IF THE PARTICLE CAN BE LIFTED EASILY WITH THUMB AND
FOREFINGER.
2. PRECAST PILES – ARE REINFORCED TO RESIST HIGH STRESS CAUSED BY THE
HAMMER IN DRIVING.
METAL PILE – IS AN EXCELLENT AMTERIAL FOR PILE BECAUSE OF ITS STRENGTH
CHARACTERISTICS TO WITHSTAND HARD DRIVING AND RAPID PENETRATION INTO THE
GROUND, RELATIVELY WITH SMALL MATERIAL DISPLACEMENTS.

 SAND – IF THE PARTICLE SEEN BUT ARE TOO SMALL TO BE PICKED UP. DIFFERENT METAL PILES:
  H-BEARING PILES Banisters ---------------------------- Barandil Filler -----------------------
Tapal, Dagdag
 BOS PILES
Barrel Bolt -------------------------- Trankilya Floor Joist -----------------
Soleras
 RAIL PILES

Baseboard -------------------------- Rodapis Fillet -----------------------

Batidura

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION TERMS Bath tub ---------------------------- Baniera Flooring -------------------

Sahig, Suelo

Bolt --------------------------------- Pierno Floor sill

ENGLISH VERNACULAR ------------------ Guililan
ENGLISH VERNACULAR
Bottom Chord --------------------- Tirante, Estunyo Flush ----------------------
Adobe Anchor --------------------- Liyabe Earth Alahado
Fill------------------- Escombro
Brace ------------------------------- Pie de Gallo Foundation or Footings-
Aligned ----------------------------- Kaliniya Eave ------------------------ Pundasyon
Alero,Barakilan,
Brick ------------------------------- Landrillo Foreman ------------------
Alignment -------------------------- Asintada Electrician ----------------- Kapatas,
Elektrista
M
Alternate or staggered ------------ Uno Sinotra Engineer ------------------- aestr
Inhenyero oDe
Obra

Anchor ------------------------------ Liyabe Exterior Siding

----------- Tabike Canopy ---------------------------- Media Agua Framework ---------------
Balangkas

Architect ---------------------------- Arkitekto Faucet ---------------------- Gripo

Cabinet Hinge -------------------- Espolon Gable Roof -------------- Dos
Aguas
Astragal ----------------------------- Batidura Fascia Board --------------
Senepa
Carpenter ------------------------- Karpintero Girder ---------------------
Guililan
Balusters ---------------------------- Balustre,Barandilla Feet ------------------------
Piye
Carpentry ------------------------- Karpinteria Girts or Girder -----------
Sepo
Beam -------------------------------- Biga Fill
------------------------- Tambak
Cast Iron -------------------------- Pundido Gravel ---------------------
Graba
Ceiling ---------------------------- Kisame Good Grain --------------- Corr. G.I. sheets ----------------- Yiero Canalado Lavatory -----------------
Haspe Lababo

Ceiling Board -------------------- Groobe Galbanisado

-------------------- Canal
Closed Stringer ------------------ Escalera Laying of CHB orAdobe Stone
Ceiling Joist ---------------------- Kostil Yahe Gutter --------------------- ------------
Alulod, canal Asinta

Cement --------------------------- Semento Hand rail ----------------- Crushed Stone ------------------- Eskombro Lean to roof ------------- Sibe
Gabay
Diagonal Brace ------------------ Sinturon Level ---------------------
Cement Brick -------------------- Ladrilyo Head ---------------------- Lebel
Sombrero
Door ------------------------------- Pinto Machine Bolt
Cement Tiles --------------------- Baldosa Hinge --------------------- ----------- Peirno Pasante
Bisagra
Door Fillet ------------------------ Batidora Mason -------------------
Chain bolt ------------------------ Baral de Kadena Hip roof ------------------ Kantero
Kuatro Aguas
Door Head ------------------------ Sombrero (Pintuan) Masonry -----------------
Collar ----------------------------- Sinturon Horizontal Stud -------- Kanteria
Trabe-Anzo
Door Jamb ------------------------ Hamba Pintuan Masonry Fill ------------
Column --------------------------- Kolumna,Haligue Inch ----------------------- Lastilyas
Pulgada
Drawbore Pin or Drawpin ------ Punsol Meter ---------------------
Concrete -------------------------- Konkreto Jamb ---------------------- Metro
Hamba
Mitre or Miter -------------------- Canto Mesa Septic Tank ------------- Poso
Concrete Slab -------------------- Larga Masa Joist ----------------------- Negro
Suleras
Mixture of Sand & Gravel ------ Lastilyas Shape -------------------- Korte
Concrete Beam ------------------ Biga Kingpost
----------------- Pendolum
Mortar ----------------------------- Paupo Sheet
--------------------- Plantsa
Conductor ------------------------ Alulod Laborer
------------------- Piyon
Mortar Joists ---------------------- Kostura Shower -------------------
Dutsha
Contractor ------------------------ Kontratista Landing ------------------
Mesa Pahingahan
Moulding -------------------------- Moldura Sidings -------------------
Tabika
Nailers ----------------------------- Pamakuan Sink ----------------------- Pendulum (King Post) ------------ Pendulon Stud (horizontal) ---------
Prigadero Pabalagbag

Nail -------------------------------- Pako Sketch Plan Pickwork --------------------------- Piketa Temper (metal
-------------- Krokis work)----- Suban, Subuhan

Nail Setter ------------------------ Punsol Slab (rough) -------------- Piglead ------------------------------ Tingga, Estopa Thread ---------------------
Larga Masa Roskas

Newel Post ----------------------- Tukod Slope Plain G.I. sheet -------------------- Yiero Liso Galbanisado Tinsmith -------------------
---------------------- Bahada Latero

Nut --------------------------------- Tuerka Solder --------------------- Plain G.I. Strap -------------------- Lingueta Tinsmithing ---------------
Hinang Lateria

Nicolite Bar ----------------------- Estanyo Solder Bar ---------------- Plank Board ------------------------ Senepa Top Chord ---------------- Kilo,
Estaniyo Tahilan

Oakum ----------------------------- Estopa Spacing ------------------- Plaster ------------------------------- Palitada Transom ------------------
Biento Espeho

Open Stringer --------------------- Hardinera Split Knob ---------------- Plastered Course ------------------- Kusturada Tread
Poleya ---------------------- Baytang, Perdano

Over Hand or Projector ---------- Bolada Stairs ---------------------- Plug ---------------------------------- Tapon Trellise
Hagdanan -------------------- Pergola

Painter ------------------------------ Pintor Stake Plumb Bob -------------------------- Hulog Truss

----------------------- Staka ----------------------- Truss, Kilo

Panel -------------------------------- Bandeha Stringer (open) ----------- Plumber ----------------------------- Tubero Varnished -----------------
Hardinera Varnisado

Panellee Door ---------------------- De Bandeha Stringer -------------------- Plumb Line ------------------------- Hulog Vertical Stud
Madre, Madrina -------------- Pilarete

Pattern ------------------------------ Plantilya Stucco --------------------- Post ---------------------------------- Poste, Haligue Wainscoating Tiles -------
Palitada Asolehos

Pea Gravel ------------------------- Grabita Stud (vertical)------------- Projection --------------------------- Bolada Washer ---------------------
Pilarete Pitsa, Tsapa
Purlins ------------------------------- Reostra Water Closet --------------
Inidoro

Putty --------------------------------- Masilya Window -------------------

Bintana

Quarter Round ---------------------- Mediacana Window Grille -----------

Rehas

Rabbet ------------------------------- Vaciada Window Head ------------

Sombrero

Bintana

Rafters ------------------------------- Kilo Window Jamb

------------ Hamba Bintana

Reinforcing Bar -------------------- Cabilla, Bakal Window Sill -------------- Pasamano

Ridgeroll ---------------------------- Caballete W.I. Strap -----------------

Planchuela

Riser --------------------------------- Senepa, Takip Wiring Knob -------------

Poleya

Silipan

Rivets ------------------------------- Rimatse Wood Grain --------------

Haspe

Roof -------------------------------- Atip, Bubong Wood Plank --------------

Tabla

Sand -------------------------------- Buhangin Wrought Iron Strap ------

Plantsuela

Scaffolding ------------------------ Andamiyo, Plancha

Scratch Coat ----------------------- Rebokada

Screw ------------------------------- Turnilyo