REPORT ON GEOLOGICAL FIELD TRIP IN AND AROUND NAGPUR

AVANI DESAI
SYBSC GEOLOGY
ACADEMIC YEAR 2019-2020
UID -182546
ROLL NO -84.

DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY
ST. XAVIERS COLLEGE, MUMBAI.
ORIGINALITY= %

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
With an immense please, I Ms Avani Prashant Desai, presenting geological field report on Nagpur as a part of a curriculum of second year of
Bsc .I would like to thank all the people who gave me an unending support ,specially my professors ​Dr Gautam Bandopadhyay, Dr Bobby
Mathew and Dr Shweta Patil. I also express my profound thanks to all the authorized people from Geological Survey of India specially ​Dr
Ashutosh Mondal who have been there with us throughout the field and his immense guidance and encouragement was worthy and fruitful, and
also the people from MOIL. Special thanks to ex student ​Vandit ,by whom it it was possible for us to visit WCL Bhanegaon Mine .The
assistance given by the authorities would be unforgettable.

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TABLE OF FIGURES

Figure 2-0-1 Central Indian Tectonic one 10

Figure 2-0-2 Stratigraphic succession of Mahurzari Area 13
Figure 3-0-1 Contact between marl and claystone 16
Figure 3-0-2 Green claystone 16
Figure 3-0-3 Nucleation in Agate 17
Figure 0-4 Calcite with Quartz 18
Figure 0-5 18
Figure 4-0-1 Syncline at Koradi 30
Figure 4-0-2 Diagrammatic Represenation 30
Figure 4-0-3 Antiform fold 31
Figure 6-0-1 Physa 39
Figure 7-0-1 Vertical Shaft 41
Figure 7-0-2 Gondite 44
Figure 7-0-3 Rhodonite 44
Figure 8-1 Well in PAC 49

Note- The 10 Rs coin present as a scale in some of the figures has the height of 3 cm approximate

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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 Sausar Group 11
Table 2 Lower Gondwana group 14

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Contents
ABSTRACT 5
1. INTRODUCTION 6
2 .STRATIGRAPHY 7
3. MINERALOGY AND LITHOLOGY 13
4. STRUCTURES 28
6. PALAENTOLOGY 36
7. ECONOMIC GEOLOGY AND ECONOMIC MINERAL DEPOSITS 38
A)MUNSAR UNDERGROUND MINE 38
7.A.1. PARTS OF UNDERGROUND MINE- 40
7.A.2 . OCCURRENCE/ORIGIN AND OTHER PROCESSES- 41
B) WCL BHANEGAON OPEN CAST MINE 43
7.B.1. OPEN PIT TERMINOLOGY 43
7.B.2) COALIFICATION AND EXTRACTION- 45
8. HYDROGEOLOGY AND WATER RELATED PROBLEMS IN MINES 47
8.1.HOW ARE WELLS DUG? 47
8.2. WATER RELATED PROBLEMS IN MINES- 48
9. CONCLUSION 49

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APPENDIX 1 51
APPENDIX 2- GSI MUESEUM AND CORE DRILL REPOSITORY 52

ABSTRACT
​An academic field trip to Nagpur was a 3 day scheduled trip where on the very first day, at Geological Survey of India headquarters, various
rock forms were observed and studied by taking into consideration their properties, geological evidences through which they are known to be
formed, their age of formation along with depositional environment ,also the rocks were classified as igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic and
kept at different sections. At the very cornered paleontological section, various vertebrates as well as invertebrate fossils and the preserved body
parts and bones were observed knowing the age when they existed along with stratigraphic relationship. Then a visit to GSI ‘s drill core
repository became worth as the mechanism of how the core samples are actually drilled and collected with respect to lithology was studied .Then
at next location of Mahurzari, a distinct stratigraphic succession of green bole with shale and lava flows has been observed and studied along
with collection of samples and thickness of the beds were measured and noted down. Then at the distance of 2 kms ahead, the intertrappean
Physa fossils were collected and various other rock samples along with geodes were too collected. At Koradi, a huge metamorphic deformed
outcrop with Pegmatitic intrusion has been observed and reconnaised and samples were collected respectively .On the second day ,at MOIL
Munsar Mine ,the different methods and measures taken during underground mining was been instructed and anatomy of underground mine was
explained precisely with the help of mine map and the manganese ore deposit samples were collected duely .Then at Ramtek, a huge fold
outcrop has been observed which extends over a large distance with presence of different rock forms .On 3​rd day, at Suradevi, the megafold and
microfold structures were observed and the outcrop attitude was taken respectively. Then at some distance, near Kolar river section, the outcrops

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consisting amphibolites as well as tourmaline was observed and samples were collected and at the last location of WCL Bhanegaon coal mine
,the various evidences or conditions required for coal mining has been explained and the stratigraphic relation existing in alliance with coal
mining process was studied.

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1. INTRODUCTION
The field work was done so as to study and enroute towards the evidences that could make up or result into existence of various exposures or
outcrops seen in areas in and around Nagpur and to gain more knowledge regarding geology in all aspects as the area fulfilled all the possible
geology that was been expected to survey for and for study purpose​. ​Nagpur is situated 21​ 09'39"N and 79​ 04' 21" E of Maharashtra and is a
o o

part of Central India Tectonic province surrounded by Chinddwara to the north which is in the state of Madhya Pradesh .​The areas surrounding
Nagpur where the field work was actually engaged are Koradi, Mahurzari, Suradevi, Ramtek, Munsar and Bhanegaon. The field work included
the reconnaissance of various structures and outcrops along with the measurement of strike and dip of the beds and also the measurement of
thickness of strata or the entire stratigraphic succession .From this, the result of how the beds actually dip or what is the nature of dipping beds
with respect to geological conditions has been achieved . Also, the different rock forms and fossil estimated are dependent on different
stratigraphic formations of Sausar Group with respect to their interval of origin or their existence marks the remarkable impact as to when and
how and where could they have been formed according to geological time scale, as areas surrounding Nagpur had the best impact on stratigraphy
in geology of Central India.

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2 .STRATIGRAPHY
Nagpur and its surrounding areas has a huge array of stratigraphy building up over a large period of time and on a large scale of which there
were early formed Precambrian followed by Gondwana land over which there are Deccan traps /intertrappeans . Rocks belonging to Sausar
group of belts are of Precambrian. ​Nagpur and some of the surrounding localities are situated on the Bastor Craton which is been divided into –

Sakoli, Sausar and Dongargarh​. ​Central India Tectonic Zone is comprised of 215 km long and 30 km wide Recumbant fold which has been
aligned E-W .The districts of Chindwara and Balaghat are confined to this type of folding. Along Chindwara, it axis plunges towards S-E and
along Balaghat it is towards N-E ENE. The driving force due to which it has plunged is due to the formation of thrust sheets .Along the N-W of
the fold is the existence of Lohangi and Bichua formations which is rich in calcareous sediments and and the fold which is isocline in nature
leans and its axis plunges at 50- 80 degrees to the south. Along S-E, there are well developed Mansar and Chorbaoli formations which consists
of rocks of Arenaceous and Argelleceous type. Apparently, this E-W trending fold resembles or is similar to Nappe form which is usually
Archeanoic Synclinorium.

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 Figure 2-0-1 Central Indian Tectonic one

(​Bandhopadhyay et.al ,Fig -1 Central Indian Tectonic Zone, ​Field Studies in the Sakoli and Sausar Belts of the Central Indian Tectonic Zone.
1999-2000).

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 ​The Proterozoic Sausar Belt is located along the southern margin of CITZ of the Nagpur area trending in the E-W to ENE -WSW direction
with about 20-40 km wide and 300-350 km long and is a part of Satpura Mobile Belt which formed due to severe collision of the boundaries or
mobile zones . This supracrustal belt is mainly composed of 6 formations –

Table 1 Sausar Group

FORMATION LITHOLOGY
BICHUA dolomitic marble, calc silicate gneiss-schist
JUNEWANI metapelite (mica schist), quartzite, granulite, biotite gneiss
CHORBAOLI quartzite, feldspathic schists, gneisses, autoclastic quartz conglomerate
MANSAR metapelite (mica schist and gneisses), graphitic schist, phyllite,
quartzite, major manganese deposits and gondite.
LOHANGI calc-silicate schists and gneisses, marble, manganese deposits
SITASONGI quartz mica schist, feldspathic schist, mica gneiss, quartzite

BASEMENT GNEISS (TIRODI GNEISS) biotite gneiss, amphibolite, calc-silicate gneiss, granulites, feldspatic
mica schist

= ​UNCOMFORMITY

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 Tirodi ​gneiss which is the oldest rock in Sausar group and is the oldest formation and is overlaned by uncomformity first and then
Sitasongi where there exists lateral facies orientation. This is again overlaned by ​Lohangi which is also obeys lateral facies orientation. Lohangi
is overlaned by ​Mansar formation which is overlaned by ​Chorbaoli formation .This formation is again overlaned by ​Junewani formation,
followed by this is ​Bichua .Out of this 6 major formations, only two formations were visited which are ​Chorbaoli and ​Mansar. Chorbaoli
formation is extended 15 km north and 32 km south of Nagpur and Mansar formation is 48 km NE of Nagpur.

At Mahurzari, which is located at 21​ 11’04”N and 79​ 0’41”E ,demarcates the stratigraphic /lithological contact between Green Bole and
o​ o​

Shale which mark their formation during Cretaceous in the interstices of Deccan Intertrappeans and are denoted as marker horizon as the litho
units formed at the same age but differ in their composition or other properties .Green Bole is of Mg -origin which gives it a distinct green
appearance.Along with it lies shale of sedimentary origin. The question is that, as this is the igneous terrain due to deccan intertrappeans and
basaltic flows, how can the presence of shale be possible? Not exactly, but we can roughly estimate that before the basaltic flows, there was an
evidence of the presence of lake which extended at large distances near Mahurzari, but as soon as the basaltic flows arrived they waned. So the
presence of shale can be guessed due to sedimentary environment and deposition.

So, on the field the deep stratigraphic succession was observed and studied. The chronological history is like, there came 1​st basaltic lava
flow which is the oldest bed with presence of highly weathered amygdales or secondary minerals and was overlaned by formation of green bole
.Green Bole is again overlaned by Intertrappeans followed by 2 nd basaltic lava flow where the layers are compact and this is overlaned by beds
with huge amount of spheroidal weathering. So, taking this into consideration, the thickness of this strata was measured and noted down. The
thickness was found to be 180 cm of the entire exposure out of which 47 cm is of only green bole layer.

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 The locations Koradi ,Suradevi and Kolar river section comes under Chorbaoli formation which are Quarternary terrains whereas Ramtek
and Munsar Manganese Mine comes under Mansar formation due to its abundance of manganese deposits.

Figure 2-0-2 Stratigraphic succession of Mahurzari Area

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 Gondwana supergroup comprises of rocks of ​Lower Gondwana formation​, ​Kamptee ​,​Motur​, ​Barakhar ​and ​Talchir ​formations.
They dip commonly at 15​o ​and 20​o due SW to SSW. The oldest Lower Gondwana formation consisting of 3 to 5 m thick slot of black cotton
soil. This is overlaned by Kamptee formation which ranges 5 to 40 m thick with presence of loose sand due to placer deposits .Followed by this
is 10 to 20 m thick sand bed consisting of reddish white buff coloured shale or sandstone. This sand bed is overlaned by Motur formation
comprising of red clay, feldspathic sandstone and grey shale with thin coal lamellae and is situated at the base of Barakhar .Above this, formed
Barakhar formation which consist of Barakhar sandstone that lie beneath the alluvium of Kanhan river. This formation is overlained by Talchir
formation enriched in different types of conglomerate facies with respect to depositional environment. This facies are classified as- 1)Matrix rich
conglomerate- gravely sandstone association 2) Matrix rich graded conglomerate- sandstone association 3)Intraclastic conglomerate- granular
sandstone association 4) Massive silty sandstone –shale-conglomerate association.

Table 2 Lower Gondwana group

FORMATION THICKNESS

TALCHIR 240 m

BARAKHAR 350 m

MOTUR 250 – 270 m

KAMPTEE 5 – 400 m

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 (10 – 20 m sand bed)

LOWER GONDWANA 2000 m

3. MINERALOGY AND LITHOLOGY

Sausar series has a wide range of association of different rock forms and minerals and each formation comprises of abundance of those rocks
in an altered or metamorphosed form. (Refer table -1).

At day 1 in Mahurzari , which is located at 21​o​11’04”N and 79​o​0’41”E, the contact between marl and green claystone was observed along with
intertrappeans. ​Green Claystone is formed as marker horizon and is rich in magnesium .It mostly occurs in clayey conditions intercalated
between basalt flows and are believed to be paleosols. These rocks occur at the flow contacts of Deccan basalts are often marked by
prominent green color which is composed of an admixture of clay, silt and sand sized grains. These rocks undergo chemical weathering in
situ .Most of these greened zones have been labelled as baked zones but number of them show distinctive evidence of pedogenesis occuring

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between the time of basalt emplacement. In most of the cases, baking has resulted in significant physical changes in the quality, material and
minerology which have been left unaffected. The overlying basalt flows invariably show sharp contacts with these green bole. Most of the
bole beds occur or vresemble as in lenticular shape and are traced for few metres. Mainly, green boles are never associated with red boles
and hence occur as separate beds with some soil content where some 5- 10 % or more than 10% of pedogenesis carbonates can be found by
geochemical analysis which can result into pH change of moist soils​.

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Height of the scale is 30 cm.

Marl ​is a type of sedimentary rock that has the presence in some clays, silts and sand too. Marl belongs to the family of pelitic rocks .It
has calcium carbonate in huge amount and hence formed due to erosion and weathering which breaks the initial rocks into small fragments and
thus pile up on top of each other. These fragmented particles combine to form a new rock .The new rock that is formed depends on the nature,
composition and the nature of erosion of previous rock. Hence, it is usually reported as a lacustrine sediment and is a member of lake bed
sediments and found in underlying pit. At few kilometres ahead , the perfectly layered and banded sample of ​Agate was collected and observed .
The layers reported are somewhat darkish or purplish in colour .Agates are usually formed when an empty voids inside a host rock fills in with
respect to each and every molecule and layer by layer which adjust themselves to form concentric bands. Variation in colour along the bands can
be due to change in pressure and temperature.

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Height of the scale is 3cm approx..

The perfect banding is due to disturbance of nucleation centres that are disturbed along the wall of cavity. Depending on the density of initial
nucleation points on the wall, the bands would look more concentric and undulated or will follow the outline of the cavity. The cavities
formed are mostly due to escape of gases where after some period of time, the cavities get filled by silica solutions and other impurities and
as silica concentration becomes supersaturated , it gives rise to gelatin like consistency or greasy texture .Thus, there is an alternate filling up
of silica solution and other impurities which segregate themselves with respect to density and forms alternate colourful bands. Then at few
distance some good outcrops of quartz had been reported and observed. This quartz ,on the field is in the form of ​geodes ​or accompanying
with calcite which acts as a secondary mineral as it forms due some replacement factor or hydrothermal process. Mostly, geodes form in the
igneous and sedimentary terrains . As the location visited is an igneous terrain ,the geodes are associated with basalts or any basaltic flows,

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 the open hollow space is usually due to gas bubble getting trapped inside the cooling magma. So, after a long period of time, other mineral
solutions get deposited towards the wall of the hollow structure of geodes and start filling up the spaces which further leads to crystallization
of those accumulated solutions.So, in other way, these minerals which are present in hydrothermal fluids or groundwater flows through the
host rock. Different parameters like temperature ,pressure or some chemical changes causes them to precipitate thus resulting into hardening
on the interstices of the cavity .Thus, repeatitive process will cause in formation of more and more crystals in the cavity.

​Also, it was able to recognise and observe the calcite crystal which I in association of quartz as it constitutes perfect cleavage planes at right
angles and has a greasy feel and texture.

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 A huge dump of amygdaloidic basalts were observed and reported with secondary minerals of ​Chlorophaeite and Palagonite which gives a
distinct green coloured appearance.

Chlorophaeite[ (Fe, Al)​2​O​3​. 2 (Mg,Fe,Ca)O.4SiO​2​+10H​2​O] occurs in the form of cavity fillings or impregnation as it penetrates the rock
body .It is mostly in orange color inside the cavity due to some physical or chemical elements or parameter but vigorous oxidation of Mg and
water hydrolysis gives it a green colour. Within this, the minute cracks are developed due to incipient crystallization of the slime like material .In
the hand specimen , the basalt with chloropaeite occurs greyish to greenish with thin phenocrysts of olivine in a groundmass of twinned, basic
plagioclase, small crystals of pyroxene with altered interstial glass. Later on the rock is altered to mineral which is of chlorite type and gives

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green distinct colour. Chloropaeite developed from olivine is partially oxidised to yellow to red colour due to precipitation of iron .Thus ,
chloropaeite is not oxidised. Basically, some of the basalts are the end product of weathering and leaching but olivine is less altered in the form
of chloropaeite or the altered groundmass. In the case of chloropaeite basalt, non oxidizing conditions prevailed during its alteration and gases
and steams escape followed by this .Thus it is partially oxidized showing more or less alteration.

​Palagonite forms as an alteration product by interaction of water with volcanic rinds which are glassy in nature which has chemical
compostion similar to basalt .It forms by the hydration of this rinds which is known as ​sideromelane ​.It occurs in volcanic structures like tuffs,
pillow lavas, which results particularly from the quenching of basaltic magma from the water. Volcanoclastic rocks rich in palagonite are known
as palagonite tuffs. Hence, near the basaltic flows it was possible to see palagonite grains in basalt as secondary minerals.

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 Then at next location which is ​Koradi located at 21​o​12’41”N and 79​o​05’56”E a huge outcrop formed due to regional metamorphism as
well as shearing deformation was observed. This outcrop has a pegmatitic intrusion on a large scale which can be either wall or pipe intrusion as
it extends at larger distances. This pegmatite is of Quarternery origin .The location falls under Chorbaoli formation where various rocks like
graphic granite, mica schist and pegmatite were observed and samples of each was collected. ​Pegmatites are formed when some late residual
liquids are made up principally of low melting silicates and some amount of water along with other low melting compounds and volatiles.Some
compounds in volatiles aid crystallization by decreasing the viscosity of the magma and by lowering the freezing point of minerals. So, the
process undergoes aquo- igneous stage i.e. stage between igneous and hydrothermal reisdues leading more to the igneous which is also known as
pegmatitic stage. Therefore, first withdrawals of early formed liquids are the pegmatite dykes. Pegmatitic liquid when cools and crystallizes the
earlier formed crystals will be those of latest formation in granite or as potash, feldspar, quartz and mica.

Graphic Granite is usually found in granitic pegmatite and appears as a leucocratic granitic rock consisting of an intergrowth of
K-feldspar and quartz with a distinct orientations . These textues have been produced due to change in phase equilibria ,nucleation or growth
features of granitic pegmatites .The graphic texture is mostly due to devitrification and exsolved processes in igneous rocks and also due to
immiscibility because the exsolved minerals forms lamellae or shapes which resembles a graphic texture. Also the analysis of temperature

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,pressure and composition proves that the texture is developed or the crystals are developed in a kinemtically driven , non equilibrium situation.
There are 2 basic models which concern about the origin of graphic textures followed by granitization – 1) the replacement of portions of a pre
existing feldspar crystal by quartz and 2) simultaneous crystallization of quartz and feldspar as per Bowen’s series .The development of the
graphic texture commences with growth of feldspar crystal under conditions that stabilize temperature and composition that yield a low
undercooling relative to the upper stability limit of feldspar.

Height of the scale is 4 cm approx. for Fig3.9

On day 2 ,at ​Ramtek located at 21​o​23’23”N and 79​o​20’46”E , the huge outcrops of various forms of quartzite was observed and reported .
According to Table- 1, this location falls under Mansar formation which is rich in quartzites. First outcrop reported was of ​Micaceous Quartzite

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which formed due to extreme metamorphism and deformation or foliation where quartz rich sandstone was a parent rock which altered into a
quartzite. The original sedimentary rock composed of clay beds with simultaneous quartz beds . When pressure was exerted on those bedding
planes ,due to relative shear stress and strain , the sedimentary layers got thinned and flowed away by the pressure .Thus this layers got flattened
and turned flaky resulting in formation of mica. In due course of alteration, at initial stage, severe pressure and stress led the edges of quartz-
sandstone to turn into micaceous layers which escaped from the sides of the centred sandstone giving rise to eye like representation which is
known as ​swerving and this occurs at certain intervals giving rise to metamorphosed exposures on a large scale. As a result of this, the porosity
was lost and quartz appeared in a mosaic form.

Next specimen found was ​Arkose which is a sedimentary rock enriched in quartz and feldspar with some amounts of mica which has well
sorted grains and cemented with some iron oxides and silica. Arkose is usually feldspathic as it contains bulk amount of feldspar . Arkose forms
in such environments which does not support weathering because those environments are either too dry or too cold .On the other hand, it forms
where there is a presence of granites in bulk as ,granites are rich in feldspar .Just like other sedimentary rocks ,arkose is also formed by the
various actions such as weathering, transportation, deposition ,lithification, cementation. Sometimes the transportation of thesediments become
difficult due to high feldspar content and irregularity in size and shape of the fragments. In many cases, the arkose may be the product of in situ
weathering of granite and forms loose material which is known as Grus . Grus is composed of angular feldspar and the feldspar content is much
higher than the arkose which is been transported.

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 At few distance ahead, the huge shiny outcrop of meta quartzite was also observed and the samples of those were collected respectively .
Metaquartzite is formed by conversion of sandstone to quartzite by certain metamorphism and foliations and thus can be accomplished by
precipitation of silica from interstitial waters below the surface of the earth ; these rocks are specially called as quartz arenites, whereas those
formed by recrystallization at high temperatures and pressures are called as meta quartzites.

Also, at one point there was an exposure of huge quartzite beds above which is rubbly type of rock which when intermixed can be
characterized as ​Sub arkose rock which a sandstone characterized by the presence of less than 15% matrix composed of mud with 5 – 25 % of
feldspar content and more feldspar than rock fragments are present.

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 Then again at 0.5 km ahead ,​Garnetiferous mica schist was observed and sample was collected respectively, where huge grains of
garnet was observed and reported which is pisolitic in nature and embedded in schist which contain mica too. Garnet is usually formed in
sedimentary environment with variety of garnets depending upon the composition with respect to relative rocks with which it constitutes. So,
initially it might have formed in a sedimentary bed which was then metamorphosed to mica schist with garnet grains.

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 On day 3 , at Kolar river section located at 21​o​16’21.1”N and 79​o​05’32.4”E , an outcrop of full of amphibolite was reported and observed .
Amphibolite is intercalated with gneiss ,but amphibolite itself is a non foliated metamorphic rock . They are medium to coarse grained
composed of hornblende and plagioclase. All these rocks comes under amphibolite facies forming at high temperature as well as high pressure

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and can exhibit regional metamorphism as they formed on a large scale. It can also be produced by metamorphism of mafic igneous rocks at high
temperature conditions or from sedimentary rocks.

Height of the scale is 4 cm approx.

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 At the same place, an outcrop of ​Serpentinized Marble was also observed . Serpentine is associated with dunite , peridotite and other
rock forming minerals. It is usually formed due to hydrothermal metamorphism ,whether it be in marine or fluvial environment where there is
huge presence of sedimentary rocks which are metamorphosed due to subsurface solutions which altered limestone to marble and also olivine
and some pyroxenes are altered into serpentine minerals

Height of the scale is 25 cm approx..

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 At few distance ahead, the huge massive outcrop of ​Tourmaline crystals was observed . This tourmaline radiates between the granite and
quartzite and appears like an intrusion or veinlet and is evenly scattered . This scattered tourmaline might have formed by some hydrothermal
activity as a replacement factor .These crystals usually form when hot water carry the solutions or elements needed to form tourmaline into
cavities or fissures which can occupy the space for crystallization.

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31
4. STRUCTURES
On day 1 , at Koradi , a huge ​syncline ​was observed with alternate bedding planes of schist and quartzite where young layers are closer to the
centre .Synclines usually represent as a trough folds ie. pointing downwards. Referring to the fact , the synclines are those where the two limbs
or the sides of the fold dip toward each other and are aligned at a few angle to the axial plane .This phenomena occurs due to compression and
tectonic disturbance. Thus, anticlines and synclines go hand in hand.

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On day 2, at Ramtek , an ​antiform fold was observed and the attitude of the beds was reported by taking measurements of strike and dip of the
beds by means of brunton compass . So, the antiform folds are those whose form is convex upward and has oldest beds at the core or towards the
hinge . If an antiform plunges , the surface strata with respect to the plunging direction will show the representation of ‘Vs’.Thus, the antiform
has a crest which is at the highest point on a given strata. In a symmetrical anticline , the axial plane coincides with the crest thus connecting the
hinges of maximum curvature in different layers on a 3D plane. The attitude of the beds measured is as follows- 1) Strike- N 20​o E 2) Dip
Amount= 71​o​ 3) Dip Direction – N 110​o​ W.

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Adjacent to it , the huge extent of ​Isoclinal fold was observed . This a type of fold monitored in sedimentary rocks which are further altered to
metamorphic rocks by metamorphism . Here, the axial plane and limbs slope in same direction and at same angle. They are formed under
conditions of intense compression and stress or with slipping brought by the force of gravity. The structure observed at this location was Vertical
Isoclinal Fold whose axial plane is vertical and these are the folds of F​1 generation . Strike of the beds measured is N 120​o E; dip amount= 73​o​;
dip direction = N 210​o​ W.

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In fig.4.5, the height of the person is 180 cm approx..

The next feature observed was the S- type folds of Sub Arkose beds. These beds are folded and inclined within the strata or one bed itself and
are aligned at an angle to the axial plane and appear unsymmetrical due to its inclined nature .The limbs aren’t equal to the axial plane .The name
S –type depends on the shape of the fold as well as depends on how an observer observes it and at what angle is he observing.

35
 ​In fig 4.7, the height of the scale is 30 cm approx..

For example in the above figure 4.6 , if we observe the beds from the front view the trend of the folding or the axial plane of the fold on the left
side is directed upwards and so the folds appear like Z type. Similarly, on the top the compression is symmetrical thus resembles the shape of
alternate M and W ,thus known as MW type of folds. Again on the right side, The folds inclined or the axial plane is pointing downwards , thus
appear like S shaped folds. So ,on the field only S type of folding was observed and reported.

On day 3, at Suradevi , a micro folded outcrop was observed which constituted massive bedded quartzite above which is pebbly quartzite.
Adjacent to those bedded folds, another outcrop was observed which is the combination of mini folds with small displacement of beds at the
bottom which is also known as fault. The above portion resembles M-W type of folding where the hinge portion is the most highlighted one .
Measurements were taken for the amount of displacement that took place. The following were the results- 1) Entire length of the beds displaced=
27cm 2) Length of the hanging wall= 18 cm 3) Length of the footwall= 9 cm.

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At another location, the huge exposure of mega folds was observed . The folds are aligned at different angles depending upon the directions
where it got deformed. So, initially the beds were linear and uniform during F​o generation ,then after first episode of deformation and
compression ,they compressed from the two extreme ends giving rise to anticline folds which are of F​1 generation whose axial plane is along the
angle to the bedding planes . Then again after the second episode of foliation /compression, the beds were folded more compact ,resulting into
hinge part giving a distinct angular relationship ;thus axial plane is parallel to the bedding plane and the limbs are perpendicular to the axial
plane.

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In some cases, the beds resemble inclined isoclinal fold where the bedding planes are not parallel to the axial plane and the apparent dip is lesser
than the true dip because axial plane of first generation will form fold of second generation. This may vary due to low pressure and high
temperature. The attitude of the first generation beds is – 1) Strike = N 301​o W 2) Dip amount= 80​o 3) Dip direction= N 31​o SE.; whereas the
attitude of the second generation bedding plane is – 1) Strike= N 193​o​ E 2) Dip amount= 50​o​ 3) Dip direction= N 283​o​ W.

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 5. GEOLOGICAL HISTORY

​At Mahurzari, which is located at 21o11’04”N and 79o0’41”E ,demarcates the stratigraphic /lithological contact between Green Bole and
Shale which mark their formation during Cretaceous in the interstices of Deccan Intertrappeans and are denoted as marker horizon as the litho
units formed at the same age but differ in their composition or other properties .Green Bole is of Mg -origin which gives it a distinct green
appearance.Along with it lies shale of sedimentary origin. The question is that, as this is the igneous terrain due to deccan intertrappeans and
basaltic flows, how can the presence of shale be possible? Not exactly, but we can roughly estimate that before the basaltic flows, there was an
evidence of the presence of lake which extended at large distances near Mahurzari, but as soon as the basaltic flows arrived they waned. So the
presence of shale can be guessed due to sedimentary environment and deposition.

So, on the field the deep stratigraphic succession was observed and studied. The chronological history is like, there came 1st basaltic lava
flow which is the oldest bed with presence of highly weathered amygdales or secondary minerals and was overlaned by formation of green bole
.Green Bole is again overlaned by Intertrappeans followed by 2 nd basaltic lava flow where the layers are compact and this is overlaned by beds
with huge amount of spheroidal weathering. So, taking this into consideration, the thickness of this strata was measured and noted down. The
thickness was found to be 180 cm of the entire exposure out of which 47 cm is of only green bole layer.

At the location of Suradevi, the huge exposure of mega folds was observed . The folds are aligned at different angles depending upon the
directions where it got deformed. So, initially the beds were linear and uniform during Fo generation ,then after first episode of deformation and
compression ,they compressed from the two extreme ends giving rise to anticline folds which are of F1 generation whose axial plane is along the
angle to the bedding planes . Then again after the second episode of foliation /compression, the beds were folded more compact ,resulting into
hinge part giving a distinct angular relationship ;thus axial plane is parallel to the bedding plane and the limbs are perpendicular to the axial
plane.

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6. PALAENTOLOGY

Intertrappeans are well known for their wide assemblage of severe lacustrine as well as marine invertebrates and plant fossils. Apparently,
deccan volcanics were erupted by pauses and these pauses are recognized by the sedimentary rocks separating the volcanic flow episodes. These
sedimentary rocks are generally known as intertrappean sediments.These sedimentary rocks are characterized by presence of fresh water fossils
and some dinosaur coprolites. At Mahurzari , only 3 Physa specimens can be observed – Physidae, Lymnea and Paloedina. So, near the
intertrappeans the Physa fossils were observed in abundant and a specimen with complete spire was collected.

. Physa belongs to class gastropoda . This class is further classified into subclass ​Pulmonata ​ and superorder ​Basommatophora ​.In subclass
Pulmonata , the mantle cavity is altered into a pulmonary sac .There is an absence of gills or operculum. Only 1 part of auricle of heart anterior
to ventricle and it is hermaphroditic . Shell ornamentation is spiral to limpetlike and sometimes patelliform and it is often reduced to a fragment
hidden by mantle.These species mostly occurs as terrestrial or fresh water.

In superorder Basommatophora, mantle cavity is present, their eyes are at the base of one pair of tentacles , male and female gonophore is
usually separated that too on right side of the body. Commonly, the shell is conical or patelliform.This superorder is further again classified into
a superfamily ​Lymnaecea ​of which Lymnea is a member. They have small to large spiral shells . The coiling axis is stubborn but the direction or
the way it spires towards the aperture is completely of sinistral nature or orientation.

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 Also some fossil of dicotyledenous wood of family ​Ochnacea, Ochnaceoxylon tertiera​ is expected to be found in Mahurzari but it wasn’t
collected and examined. ​(Ramteke.et.al 2015).

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7. ECONOMIC GEOLOGY AND ECONOMIC MINERAL DEPOSITS
A)MUNSAR UNDERGROUND MINE
​On day 2 , MOIL mine was visited which is located in Munsar area in Nagpur at 21​o​23’41”N and 79​o​17’18”E . This mine is rich in
massive manganese ore deposits which is been extracted from the underground .This mine totally covers an area of 140 hectar. Previously, there
was the main entry through inclined shaft and now the entry has been accessed through vertical shaft. The strike length of 2.7 km was measured
to drill the open tunnel towards the body which is known as ​adit. ​The entire ore zone is in lensoid shape and the adit is 178 ft.level. The mine
exceeds -30 ft.level deep and the stope level is between 70 ft and -30 ft. Thus, metre reduced level is measured from mean sea level.

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​Similarly, 1 vertical shaft= 25 chainage

2 vertical shafts= 50 chain age; whereas development level is at -130 ,230 and 330 ft​ .

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Along 5​th level i.e at 161 m deep the miners have not been reached till the ore body and the process carried out is incomplete. Ore body depth is
65 to 80m considering hang wall and footwall and is stretched east to west.

7.A.1. PARTS OF UNDERGROUND MINE​-

​Face in rocks is called as ​drifting face​. ​Face in a mineral is called ​stoping face.​ ​So, depending upon a deep angle there are horizontal, vertical
and inclined openings.

1) HORIZONTAL OPENINGS-

a) Adit- ​horizontal opening which exits to the surface and designed for the extraction of minerals.

b) Drift​- underground mine working which does not have direct exit to the surface and useful for ventilation and transportation.

c) Cross cut​- permanent working that is driven along a host rock to the ore body.

2) VERTICAL OPENINGS-

a) Shaft – the main working that has direct exit on the surface and is used for hoisting up the minerals, rocks and for other underground mining
operations

b) Winze​- underground working that does not have direct exit to the surface and connects different levels in a mine .

3) INCLINED OPENINGS-

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1) Inclined​ – it is used for lifting of the loads from lower to upper level .

2) Inclined winze – a mine working which serves for lowering the ores in mine trolleys from overlying to underlying levels. If the gravity
incline is driven along the rock body it is called rock incline.

3) Raise​- an opening that does not have exit to the surface and driven bottom upwards at any angle and orientation.

4) Chute​- a mine working that is designed for the transportation of ore minerals by its own weight.

7.A.2 . OCCURRENCE/ORIGIN AND OTHER PROCESSES-

Manganese deposits are wide spread in Indian Precambrain Shield depending upon environmental settings and different geological
processes.. This particular mine comes under Mansar formation of the Sausar group where the manganese deposits and other associated rocks
show high grade metamorphism i.e upto amphibolite facies . The deposits of of this particular group and formation are formed by metamorphic
rejuvenation of manganese of Precambrian age. Hence ,they are known as syngenetic sedimentary bedded deposits. These metamorphosed
syngenetic manganiferous formations comprises of oxides and silicates of manganese and are free from sulphides and carbonates .The
sedimentation have taken place under strong oxidizing conditions and resulted in precipitation of manganese oxides. Maharashtra is endowed
with 34.15 million tonnes of total resources of manganese ore out of which Nagpur has 18.52 million tonnes of total resources.

Basically, here the ore is extracted or mining is done with the help of cut and fill method or ​cut and fill stoping where there has to be a
widely competent rock mass and normally in this method an overhand mining method is followed. Horizontal slices of ore are extracted in the
stope and voids and are generally filled with waste rock obtained during development work in the mine. If the waste rock is not available or
unsuitable , tailing or sand from the surface is hydraulically slurried and piped in underground for filling up of voids in the stope. The other

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method by which the mining works is by ​sand stowing where water with sand in the ratio of 2.5:1 to 3:1 is mixed in chamber of ​sand stowing
plant and is sent to the empty spaces created by extracting ore on stoping by force . The water drains out and sand settles down and provides
support to adjoining strata . Previously, the filling material was dropped in the main fill passes from the surface and distributed to different
levels. As this method is time consuming , the two sand stowing plants are used as such.Also, there are various other prime methods such as
smelting, electro oxidizing method,etc.

So during mine visit, the samples of ​Gondite and Rhodonite within manganese oxide ores were observed and collected. Gondite comes
under the metamorphosed deposits which is formed by recrystallization of pre existing ore deposits by means of temperature and pressure and is
associated with braunite, psilomelane and pyrolusite . Thus, regional metamorphism has played very important rolein metamorphism of politic or
calcareous sediments which are considered as prominent Mn comprising rocks of the study area and metamorphoised to recent rock types such
as phyllite , schist ,etc. Rhodonite is usually present in metamorphic rocks that are associated with manganese minerals .It is also found in rocks
that have altered by contact metamorphism, hydrothermal and metasomatic processess at varying conditions.

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 {​Fig.7.A.3 Photo Credits- Shrutik Boricha}

B) WCL BHANEGAON OPEN CAST MINE

On 3​rd day , Western Coal Fields Bhanegoan open cast mine was visited which is located at 21​o​16’22”N and 79​o​09’19”E. This mine is
located along the banks of Kanhan river which meanders all the way along the sides of whole mining area which is of 610 hectars.

7.B.1. OPEN PIT TERMINOLOGY​-

The pit section through an idealised open pit can be hugely classified into various terms that occur in open pit mine.

​A bench ​acts as a ledge that forms unilevelled operation above which coal or waste are mined in a bench face. Thus coal or waste can be
removed in successive layers where each operation is carried out at different parts of a mine. The ​bench height of this mine is 3-5m which is a
vertical distance between highest point of the bench and the bottom of the bench . The gradient of the bench slope is 1:16 inch and the angle is
measured between the horizontal and an imaginary line joining the bench toe and crest. There are ​pit limits which are at lateral extent where the
open pit mining can be economically conducted. The stability of the slope is enhanced by ​berms for the safety purpose which acts like a
horizontal shelf within the ultimate pit wall slope . Haulage or Haul road is constructed which can be arranged spirally along the walls of the pit
so that the gradient is uniform .

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 (V.Bondarenko.et.al; Fig.7.4-Coalification; ​Basic Concepts of Mining Technology;​ 2014)

Taking all this into consideration, the stripping process is carried out obeying the amount of waste material which is known as overburden which
is moved in order to extract a given amount of ore. The process is monitored with the help of stripping ratio –

STRIPPING RATIO= Coal Deposit = h​1

Overburden h​2

Stripping ratios take into account the types of material that must be removed to reach the ore , whereas ore quality is another factor in it .This is
because if a deposit contains low quality ore , more of it is mined to achieve a return on investment.

7.B.2) COALIFICATION AND EXTRACTION-

The degree of change of coal from peat to anthracite is called coalification which has different physical and chemical properties and has a certain
rank .Low rank coals like lignite and sub bituminous coal are typically softer and are characterised by high moisture levels and low carbon

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content and hence low energy .High rank coals are generally hard and have black colour as they contain more carbon and low moisture content
and produces more energy, amongst which anthracite is the highest ranking coal.

(V.Bondarenko.et.al; Fig.7.4-Coalification; ​Basic Concepts of Mining Technology;​ 2014)

Coal extraction is done by removing the earth-overburden layer which is above the 1​st coal seam. This is done by drilling or blasting and when
the hole is large enough ,the miners dig down to the next level and the coal is thus extracted using huge excavator machines which can hold up

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300 metric tons of rock. The water of Kanhan river seeps through the holes made during mining and leaches the soil and sand in the ground or
along the wall rock and vitrifies it and whatever the waste water is generated is provided to the thermal energy plants for renewable purposes.

At some distance ahead , there was a huge pile of unwanted coal dumped ,from which the samples were collected. It was reported that some of
the coal samples had a vitreneous lustre which is an alteration of organic matter decomposed during coal formation and small amount of pyrite
was also observed in those samples which forms in reducing environment which is rich in sulphides because whole of the oxygen is consumed

by animals and plants or some other organic waste during coal formation and the coal has lack of oxygen content ,so becomes reduced and froms
pyrite in it.

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8. HYDROGEOLOGY AND WATER RELATED PROBLEMS IN MINES
8.1.HOW ARE WELLS DUG?
A huge well was observed in Pallotine Animation Centre . This well must have dug depending upon the ground water level and the height till
where the acquifer is present and according to that the height of the well to be constructed is decided. So, if the rock bed beneath is softer it is
easy to dredge upon the way to dig a well .So ,for betterment some electrical or seismic techniques are applicable to determine the strength of
the rock bed with respect to its porosity and permeability and different detectors are used which signals the depth of the acquifer where the water
is present and taking into considerations the total length and depth of an acquifer the diameter of the well to be dug is decided by some
geometrical relationships. Thus, wells with large diameter and depth expose a greater area for infiltration and therefore provide fast recharge.

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 ​ hoto Credits:Vaibhav Singh​}​{​Photo Credits:Vaibhav Singh}​
{P

8.2. WATER RELATED PROBLEMS IN MINES-

Mining affects fresh water through heavy use of water in processing ore and causes water pollution when the water seeps through tailings and
rock body and generates huge amount of waste discharge and mine effluents along with many dissolved acids and solutions . Negative
impacts can vary from the sedimentation caused by poorly built roads during exploration through the sediment and disturbance of water
during mine construction. Mineral development disturbs soil and rock during the construction and maintenance of roads, open pits and
waste impoundments . Apparently, the erosion of the mined area may carry substantial amounts of sediments into rivers .Excessive
sedimentation can clog riverbeds and other vegetation.

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9. CONCLUSION
Thus as a conclusion of the 3 day geological trip to Nagpur ,we realized that the subject of geology has a wide scope and is very much important
in both theoretical as well as practical point of view .Since, Nagpur has various geological features whether it be with respect to
structures, various rock forms and minerals , underground as well as open cast mines, it has proved that it is one of the best sites for the
geological studies and we were able to explore it to the fullest.

Now ,we have shear knowledge about the gem of Nagpur i.e Sausar group and its lithology and the segregation of igneous, sedimentary as well
as metamorphic rocks with respect to it. First visit to mine is worth memorable ,as it was like ​a journey to the centre of the earth.​ In
short, this visit gave us lots of ideas regarding geology and it was fruitful.

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REFERENCES

.P.Mohanty, S. (2003). ​Structural- Stratigraphic Relations in Precambrian rocks of Sausar Belt.​ IIT, Department of Applied Geology. Dhanbad: Research Gate.

A.k, S. (2014, June). Market Survey on Manganese Ore. ​Indian Bureau of Mines​.

Bateman, A. (1889). ​Economic Mineral Deposits.

Billings, M. (2002). ​Structural Geology.​ Ohio.

Fischer, M. L. (1883). ​Invertebrate fossils.​ Berlin.

Martin.A.Peacock, & Richard.E.Fuller. (1994). Chlorophaeite, sideromelane and Palagonite from the Columbia River Plateau. ​The American Minerologist​.

Mohanty, S. .. (1998). ​Structural Evolution of the Southern part of Sausar belt near Ramtek.​ IIT, Department of Earth Sciences. Dhanbad: Research Gate.

R.Bandopadhay. (2004). Field Observations of Sausar and Sakoli Groups. ​mindscience​.

V.Bondareko, I.Kovalevska, & Ganushevych, K. (2010). ​Basic Concepts of Mining Technology.​ Moscow, Russia.

Vaidyanathan, R. (2004). ​Geology of India​ (Vol. 1). Nagpur, Maharashtra, India.

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56
APPENDIX 1

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APPENDIX 2- GSI MUESEUM AND CORE DRILL REPOSITORY
At Geological Survey of India headquarters, various rock forms were observed and studied by taking into consideration their properties,
geological evidences through which they are known to be formed, their age of formation along with depositional environment ,also the rocks
were classified as igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic and kept at different sections.It was a great pleasure to see different forms of zeolites
and ample of different varieties of minerals. At the very cornered paleontological section, various vertebrates as well as invertebrate fossils and
the preserved body parts and bones were observed knowing the age when they existed along with stratigraphic relationship. The first ever Homo
Sapien Human skull which is known as Narmada Man was also observed.

Then a visit to GSI ‘s drill core repository became worth as the mechanism of how the core samples are actually drilled and collected with
respect to lithology was studied . Various core samples of graphite, gold and kimberlites were displayed with precise measurements with respect
to its size ,height ,thickness,etc.

In short, we were the luckiest batch to visit GSI for the first time and the experience would be unforgettable.

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