Lecture Notes 1 – Real Numbers and Real Line 1

Engr. Caesar P. Llapitan

I. Sets and Sets Operations

A set is a collection of objects.

In algebra, we generally discuss sets of counting numbers. For example,

we refer to the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, and so on as the set of counting numbers of
natural numbers.

The objects or numbers in a set are called the elements or members of

the set. To describe sets with a convenient notation, we use braces, { }, and
name the sets with capital letter. For example,
A = {1, 2, 3}

means that set A is the set whose members are the natural numbers 1, 2, and
3.

A set that has a fixed number of elements is a finite set, whereas a set
without a fixed number of elements is an infinite set.

Set-builder notation is another method of describing sets. In this notation

we use variable to represent numbers in the set. A variable is a letter that is
used to stand from some numbers. The set is then built from the variable and a
description of the numbers that the variable represents. For example, the set

B = {1, 2, 3,… 49}

is written in set-builder notation as

B = { x | x is a natural number less than 50 }
The set of such that condition for membership
numbers

The symbol  is used to indicate that a specific number is a member of a

set, and indicates that a specific number is not a member of a set.

To indicate that two sets are equal, we use the symbol =. For sets that
are not equal, we use the symbol ≠.

Union of Sets
If A and B are sets, the union of A and B, denoted A  B, is the set of all
elements that are either in A, in B, or in both. In symbols,
A ∪ B = { x |x ∈ A or x ∈ B }
Intersection of Sets
If A and B are sets, the intersection of A and B, denoted A  B, is the set
of all elements that are in both A and B. In symbols,
A ∩ B = { x |x ∈ A and x ∈ B }
A set with no members is called an empty set and is denoted by . Note
that A   = A and A   = .
 Lecture Notes 1 – Real Numbers and Real Line 2
Engr. Caesar P. Llapitan

Example:
Let A = {1, 2, 3, 5} and B = {2, 3, 7, 8}. Place one of the symbols =, ≠,
, or in the blank to make each statement correct.
1. 5 _____ A  B
2. 5 _____ A  B
3. A  B _____ {1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 8}
4. A  B _____ {2}

Subsets
If every member of the set A is also a member of set B, then we write A 
B and we say that A is a subset of B. For instance
{2, 3}  {2, 3, 4}

NOTE: An empty set is a subset of every set!

Example:
Determine whether each statement is true or false.
1. {1, 2, 3} is a subset of natural numbers.
2. The set of natural numbers is not a subset of {1, 2, 3}
3. {1, 2, 3}  {2, 4, 6, 8}
4. {2, 6}  {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
5.   {2, 4, 6}

Complement of a Set
If A is a set, then A’ is the complement of set A if and only if
A  A’ =  and A  A’ = {all elements in A and A’}

Combining Three of More Sets

Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, B = {2, 5, 6, 8} and C = {4, 5, 7} List the elements
of each of these sets.
a. (AB) C
b. A(BC)
c. A’(AB)
d. B’A
e. A’B’C’

Venn Diagram
Venn diagrams (or set diagrams) are illustrations used in the branch of
mathematics known as set theory. Invented in 1881 by John Venn, they show
all of the possible mathematical or logical relationships between sets (groups
of things).

The Venn diagram is a convenient way to illustrate definitions within the

algebra of sets. Consider a Universal set with two subsets A and B. We may
represent this as a rectangle containing the universal set, with circles
containing the elements of A and B.

Examples:
1. We will define two sets taken from this group of numbers:
 Lecture Notes 1 – Real Numbers and Real Line 3
Engr. Caesar P. Llapitan

Set A = the odd numbers in the group = { 1 , 3 , 5 , 7 , 9 }

Set B = the numbers which are 6 or more in the group = { 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 ,
10 }

We can represent these facts using a Venn diagram.

 The two large circles represent the two sets.

 The numbers which appear in both sets are 7 and 9. These will go
in the central section, because this is part of both circles.
 The numbers 1, 3 and 5 still need to be put in Set A, but not in Set
B, so these go in the left section of the diagram.
 Similarly, the numbers 6, 8 and 10 are in Set B, but not in Set A, so
will go in the right section of the diagram.
 The numbers 2 and 4 are not in either set, so will go outside the
two circles.
The final Venn diagram looks like this:

We can see that all ten original numbers appear in the diagram.
The numbers in the left circle are Set A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}
The numbers in the right circle are Set B = {6, 7, 8, 9, 10}

2. The whole numbers from 1 to 12 are included in the Venn diagram below
 Lecture Notes 1 – Real Numbers and Real Line 4
Engr. Caesar P. Llapitan

(a) List set B.

(b)List set A.
(c) Which set contains all the even numbers?
(d)Which set contains only the multiples of 4?

3. The whole numbers from 1 to 20 are included in the Venn diagram below.

(a) List set E.

(b)List set S.
(c) Describe set S.
(d)Describe set E.
(e) What is the intersection of E and S?

4. Construct a Venn diagram to illustrate the possible intersections and

unions for the following sets relative to the universal set S consisting of
all students at CSU-College of Engineering.
J: a student is a junior
M: a student is a chemical engineering major
W: a student is a woman

5. By comparing appropriate regions of the Venn diagram, verify that

(a) (A  B)  (A  B’) = A
(b)A’  (B’  C) = (A  B’)  (A’  C)

6. Prior to the last IBP elections, a survey was conducted in a certain

Barangay in Metro Manila to find out which of the here political parties
they liked best. Results indicated that 320 liked the KBL, 250 liked the
Laban, and 120 liked the Independents, and 70 liked both the KBL and
the Independents. Only 30 said they liked all three parties and none
 Lecture Notes 1 – Real Numbers and Real Line 5
Engr. Caesar P. Llapitan

admitted that they did not like any party. How many voters where there
in the Barangay?

7. Suppose that a family is leaving on a summer vacation in their camper

and that M is the event that they will experience mechanical problems, T
is the event that they will receive a ticket for committing a traffic
violation, and V is the event that they will arrive at a campsite with no
vacancies. Referring to the Venn diagram, list the number of the regions
that represent the following events:
(a) The family will experience no mechanical problems and commit no
traffic violation but will find a campsite with no vacancies.
(b)The family will experience both mechanical problems and trouble
in locating a campsite with a vacancy, but will not receive a ticket
for a traffic violation.
(c) The family will either have mechanical trouble or find a campsite
with no vacancies but will not receive a ticket for committing a
traffic violation.
(d)The family will not arrive at a campsite with no vacancies.

U
M T

4 7
5

1
2 3

8
6
V

8. In a survey concerning the smoking habits of consumers, it was found

that 55% smoke cigarette A, 50% smoke cigarette B, 40% smoke
cigarette C, 30% smoke cigarettes A and B, 20% smoke cigarettes A and
C, 12% smoke cigarettes B and C, only 10% smoke all the three
cigarettes.
(a) What % of the population did not smoke?
(b)What % smokes exactly two brands of cigarettes?

Exercises 1
I. Using the sets A, B, C, and N, determine whether each statement is
true or false. Explain.
 Lecture Notes 1 – Real Numbers and Real Line 6
Engr. Caesar P. Llapitan

A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} C = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
B = {2, 4, 6, 8} N = {1, 2, 3, …}
1. 6A 6. 8A
2. A≠B 7. 4B
3. 3C 8. B≠C
4. 0N 9. 2.5  N
5. C=N 10. N = A

II. Using the sets A, B, C and N, list the elements in each set. If the set is
empty, write .
A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} C = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
B = {2, 4, 6, 8} N = {1, 2, 3, …}
1. A  C
2. B  
3. A  N
4. B  
5. B  C

III. Use one of the symbols , , =, ≠,  or  in each blank to make a true

statement.
A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} C = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
B = {2, 4, 6, 8} N = {1, 2, 3, …}
1. A  B ___  6. B ___ C = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8}
2. A  C ___  7. 3 ___ A  B
3. A ___ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} 8. 4 ___ B  C
4. A ___ B =  9. 3 ___ A  C
5. B ___ C = {2, 4} 10. 8 ___ B  C

IV. Determine whether each statement is true or false. Explain your

answer.
A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} C = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
B = {2, 4, 6, 8} N = {1, 2, 3, …}
1. A  N 7. B  N
2. {2, 3}  C 8. C  A
3. B  C 9. C  A
4.   B 10.   C
5. A   11. B  
6. A  B  C 12. B  C  {2, 4, 6, 8}

V. Write each set using set-builder notation. Answers may vary.

1. {3, 4, 5, 6}
2. {1, 3, 5, 7}
3. {5, 7, 9, 11, …}
4. {4, 8, 10, 12, …, 82}
5. {9, 11, 13, 15, …, 51}

II. Sets of Real Numbers and Their Properties

 Lecture Notes 1 – Real Numbers and Real Line 7
Engr. Caesar P. Llapitan

Algebra is the branch of mathematics that uses numbers and symbols to

express and analyze relationships between known and unknown quantities. In
its most elementary form, algebra is an extension of arithmetic.

Numbers are the central theme of algebra. Consequently, you must be familiar
with the terminology of numbers. Although there are many different systems of
numbers, our interest is in the real number systems.

Definitions:
1. Natural Numbers It is the most basic set of numbers. These are used
for counting.
N = {1, 2, 3, …}

Prime numbers  These are natural numbers, greater than 1, which are
divisble, without remainder, only by 1 and the number itself.
P = { 2, 5, 7, …}

Composite numbers  Natural numbers, greater than 1, and can be divided,

without remainder, by some numbers other than itself.
C = {4, 6, 8, 9, …}

Whole numbers  Natural numbers including 0.

W = {0, 1, 2, 3, …}

2. Integers  Sets of positive and negative numbers joined by 0.

Geometrically, sets of numbers represented on the number line.
J = { …, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, …}

Even integers  Integers that are divisible by 2.

E = { …, -4, -2, 0, 2, 4, …}
Odd integers  Integers that are not divisible by 2.
O = {…, -3, -1, 0, 1, 3, …}

Rational number Number that can be written as a fraction with an integer

for its numerator and a non-zero integer for its denominator.

Example:
a. ¾, -1/3, 5/1, 0/5
b. 3, 0, -0.25, 0.333…

Real Numbers
 Lecture Notes 1 – Real Numbers and Real Line 8
Engr. Caesar P. Llapitan

Rational Numbers Irrational Numbers

Natural Numbers Integers

Prime Numbers Even Numbers
Composite Numbers Odd Numbers
Whole Numbers Rational Numbers
Problem:
Express each decimal as the quotient of integers:
a. 0.4545…
b. 0.234234…
c. 0.373737…

Characteristics of rational numbers:

1. It is possible to graph on a number line.
2. It can be changed to a decimal form.
3. It can be shown that the decimal forms of all rational numbers are
either terminating or repeating decimals.
4. It is also true that any decimal fraction that are terminating or
repeating can be changed to fractional form.

3. Irrational numbers  Numbers whose decimal representation neither

terminate nor repeat.

Properties of Real Numbers

1. Properties of Negatives
a. –(-x) = x
b. (-x) + (-y) = -( x + y)
c. x – y = x + (-y)
d. (-1)x = -x (-x)y = x(-y) = -xy(-x)(-y) = xy
e. –x/y = x/-y = - (x/y) -x/-y = x/y
provided y is not equal to 0.

2. Trichotomy Property
For any two real numbers a and b, exactly one of the following
relationships must hold
a. a and b are equal
a=b
b. a is less than b
a<b
c. a is greater that b
a>b
3. Properties of Equality
If a, b, and c are real numbers, then
a. a = a : Reflexive Property
b. If a = b, then b = a : Symmetric Property
c. If a = b and b = c, then a = c : Transitive Property

4. The Closure Properties of real Numbers

 Lecture Notes 1 – Real Numbers and Real Line 9
Engr. Caesar P. Llapitan

a + b ia a real number
a – b is a real number
ab is a real number
a/b is a real number, provided b  0

5. Associative Properties of Addition and Multiplication

(a + b) + c = a + (b + c)
(ab)c = a(bc)

6. The Commutative Properties of Addition and Multiplication

a+b=b+a
ab = ba

7. Distributive Property
a(b+c) = ab + ac

8. The Identity Elements

a. a + 0 = 0 + a = a
where 0 is called additive identity element
b. a(1) = 1(a) = a
where 1 is called multiplicative identity element

9. The Inverse Element

a. a + (-a) = -a + a = 0
where –a is called additive inverse
b. a(1/a) = (1/a)a = 1
where 1/a is called multiplicative inverse

Exercises 2
Give a basic property that justifies each of the numbered steps:
a. (5  6)(-3) = -[(5  6)3] (i)
= -[(5  1/6)3] (ii)
= -[5(1/6  3)] (iii)
= -[5(1/2)] (iv)
= -5/2 (v)

b. d[(a + b) + c] = d(a + b) + dc (i)

= (da + db) + dc (ii)
= da + (db + dc) (iii)
= da + (bd + cd) (iv)
= (bd + cd) + da (v)
 Lecture Notes 1 – Real Numbers and Real Line 10
Engr. Caesar P. Llapitan

= (b + c)d + da (vi)
= da + (b + c)d (vii)

III. Operations with Numbers

Parentheses, brackets and braces are used to group numbers and to indicate
the precise order in which arithmetic operations are to be performed.

Confusion can arise if grouping symbols are omitted or if multiple grouping

symbols are used. To avoid confusion, we adopt the following conventions for
sequences of arithmetic operations. These same conventions are used in most
computers.
1. Perform all operations within any grouping symbol before performing
other operations. If grouping symbols contained within other grouping
symbols, begin with innermost pair.
2. In a sequence of multiplications and divisions, perform the operations
in order from left to right.
3. In a sequence of additions, subtractions, multiplications and divisions,
perform multiplications and divisions first then additions and
subtractions.

IV. Inequalities and Absolute Values

Properties of Order
 Ordering of the real numbers on the number line
Rule 1: If a < b, and b < c, then a < c. (Transitive property of
order)
Rule 2: If a < b, then a+c < b+c for any real number c
Rule 3: If a < b and c > 0, then ac < bc
Rule 4: If a < b and c < 0, then ac > bc
Rule 5: If a < b and c < d, then a + c < b + d
Rule 6: If 0 < a < b and 0 < c < d, then ac < bd
Rule 7: If a < b and ab >0, then 1/a > 1/b

 An inequality is used to define bounded intervals on the number line.

Sample Problems:
I. Show each of the following intervals as graph on a number line.
1. (-4,1] 2. [0,3) 3. [-1,2) 4. (-2,)

II. Express each inequality in interval notation.

1. –1  x  2 2. –3  x
3. 0 < x < 3 4. x  0
5. –5 < x < -2 6. 1  x < 4

Conditional Inequalities
 Lecture Notes 1 – Real Numbers and Real Line 11
Engr. Caesar P. Llapitan

 Inequalities that is not true for all allowable values of the variable.
Solving such an inequality means finding the set of all x for which it is
true.

A. Linear Inequalities
An inequality is linear if each term is constant or a multiple of the
variables.

Examples:
1. 3x < 9x + 4
2. 4  3x – 2 < 13
3. 2(7x – 3)  12x + 16
4. 2/3  (2x-3)/12 > 1/6

B. Nonlinear Inequalities
Guidelines for Solving Nonlinear Inequalities
1. Move All Terms to One Side. If necessary, rewrite the inequality so
that all nonzero terms appear on one side of the inequality sign. If the
nonzero side of the inequality involves quotient, bring them to a
common denominator.
2. Factor. Factor the non-zero side of he inequality.
3. Find the Intervals. Determine the values for which each factor is
zero. These numbers will divide the real line into intervals. List the
intervals determined by these numbers.
4. Make a Table of Diagram. Use test values to make a table of
diagram of the signs of each factor on each interval. In the last row of
the table determine the sign of the product or quotients of these
factors.
5. Solve. Determine the solution of the inequality from the last row of
the sign table. Be sure to check whether the inequality is satisfied by
some or all of the endpoints of the intervals (this may happen if the
inequality involves  or ).

Examples:
Solve the nonlinear inequality. Express solution using interval notation.
1. (x + 2)(x – 3) < 0 2. 5x2 + 3x  3x2 + 2 3 (x + 2)(x – 1)(x – 3)
. 0

4. x+1 5. x 5 6 x +2 x−1
−2 < ≥ +4 .
<
x−3 2 x +1 x +3 x−2

7. 6 6 8. 2 2
− ≥1 1+ ≤
x−1 x x+1 x

C. Applications
 Lecture Notes 1 – Real Numbers and Real Line 12
Engr. Caesar P. Llapitan

Modeling real-life problems frequently leads to inequalities because we

are often interested in determining when one quantity is more (or less) than
another.

Example 1:
A carnival has two plans for tickets:
Plan A: $5 entrance fee and 25 ¢ each ride
Plan B: $2 entrance fee and 50 ¢ each ride
How many rides would you have to take for plan A to be less expensive
than plan B?

Example 2:
The instructions on a box of film indicate that the box should be
stored at a temperature between 50C and 300C. What range of
temperature does this correspond to on the Fahrenheit scale?

Example 3:
A group of students decide to attend a concert. The cost of chartering a
bus to take them to the concert is $450, which is to be shared equally
among the students. The concert promoters offer discounts to groups
arriving by bus. Tickets normally cost $50 each but are reduced by 10 ¢
per ticket for each person in the group (up to the maximum capacity of
the bus). How many students must be in the group for the total cost per
student to be less than $54?

Absolute Value
Definition:
If a is a real number, the absolute value of a, denoted by |a| , is a if a is
nonnegative and is –a if a is negative. With symbols we write

|a|= ¿ {a if a≥0¿¿¿
For instance, let a = 6, 0, and -6. Then,
|6|= 6 |0|=0 |−6|= −(−6) = 6
The absolute value of a number can be considered as its distance
(without regard to direction, left or right) from the origin. In particular, the
points 6 and -6 are each six units from the origin.

From the definition of absolute value,

|a −b|=¿ {a −b if a≥b¿¿¿
On the real number line, |a −b| units can be interpreted as the distance
between a and b without regard to direction.
a1 < b a2 > b

a1 b a2
 Lecture Notes 1 – Real Numbers and Real Line 13
Engr. Caesar P. Llapitan

Equations Involving Absolute Value

To solve equations that involve absolute values, we must consider the
different forms of the absolute value expressions. The equation itself will take
on different forms because of the absolute value expressions.

Examples:
1. |x−1|+|2x+5|= 6 5. |x−1|+ 2|x+4|= x

2. |x−1|+ x =|x| 6. |x−1|+ 2|x+4|=|x|

3. |x+4|=|x−5| 7. |x−4| +|x+1|=|2x+5|

4. |x+3| +|x−1|= 2 8. |3 x+4|+|2 x−1|=|x+6|+|x|

Absolute Value Inequalities
We need the following properties to solve inequalities that involve
absolute value.
Inequality Equivalent form Solution set
1. |x| < c
-c < x < c (-c, c)

2. |x|≤ c
-c  x  c [-c, c]

3. |x| > c
x < -c or c < x (-, -c)  (c, )

4. |x|≥ c
x  -c or c  x (-, -c]  [c, )

Examples:
1. x  < 4 4. 2x + 3  > 9

2. x  > 4 5. 2x + 3
| |≥ 5
2
3. 5 – 3x   6 6. 1
>2
|x+7|

Consider √a be the “the principal square root of a”. If a  0, then √a

defines a unique nonnegative number x such that x2 = a. Thus, √4 = 2. But
√4 ≠ -2 even though (-2)2 = 4; because √4 denotes only the positive square
root of 4!

Example:
√ 52 =|5| = 5 √ (−3)2 = |−3| = 3
 Lecture Notes 1 – Real Numbers and Real Line 14
Engr. Caesar P. Llapitan

Theorem 1:
Given a, b  R
a) |ab|=|a||b|
a |a|
| |=
b) b |b|

Example:
1
|( 3 x+2) − 8|< 1 |x − 2| <
Show that the inequality is equivalent to 3 .

Theorem 2: The Triangle Inequality

Given a, b  R
|a + b| ≤|a| + |b|
Illustration 1:

If a = 3 and b = 7, then
|a+b|=|3+4| |a| + |b| = |3| +|4|
=|7| = 3 +4
=7 =7
If a = -3 and b = 4, then
|a+b|= |−3+4| |a| + |b| = |−3| +|4|
=|1| = 3 +4
=1 =7
If a = 3 and b = -4, then
|a+b|= |3+(−4)| |a| + |b| = |3| +|−4|
=|−1| = 3 +4
=1 =7
If a = -3 and b = -4, then
|a+b|= |−3+(−4)| |a| + |b| = |−3|+|−4|
=|−7| = 3 +4
=7 =7
In each case, |a + b| ≤ |a| + |b| .
Illustration 2:

Use the triangle inequality to prove the statement:

1 1 7
If
|x−1|< 3 and
|y+1| < 4 , then
|x+ y| 12 .

Theorem 3:
Given a, b  R
 Lecture Notes 1 – Real Numbers and Real Line 15
Engr. Caesar P. Llapitan

a) |a − b| ≤ |a| + |b|
b) |a|−|b|≤|a − b|
Applications:
Solve each problem by using absolute value equations or inequality.
1. In the Hundred Year’s War, Henry V defeated a French army in the
battle of Agincourt and Joan of Arc defeated an English army in the battle
of Orleans (The Doubleday Almanac). Suppose you know only that these
two famous battles were 14 years apart and that the battle of Agincourt
occurred in 1415. Use and absolute value equation to find the
possibilities for the years in which the battle of Orleans occurred.
2. In July 1985 Steve Cram of Great Britain set a world record of 3
minutes 29.67 seconds for the 1500-meter race and a world record of 3
minutes 46.31 seconds for the 1-mile race (The Doubleday Almanac).
Suppose you know only that the two events occurred 11 days apart and
that the 1500-meter record was set on July 16. Use an absolute value
equation to find the possible dates for the 1-mile record run.
3. The specifications for a car engine indicate that the pistons have
diameter 3.8745 in. with a tolerance of 0.0015 i. This means that the
diameters can vary from the indicated specification by as much as 0.0015
in and still be acceptable.
a. Find an inequality involving absolute values that describes the range
of possible diameters for the pistons.
b. Solve the inequality.
4. A company manufactures industrial laminates (thin nylon-based
sheets) of thickness 0.020 in, with a tolerance of 0.003 in.
a. Find an inequality involving absolute values that describes the range
of possible thickness for the laminate.
b. Solve the inequality.
5. Research at a major university has shown that identical twins
generally differ by less than 6 pounds in body weight. If Kim weighs 127
pounds, then in what range is the weight of her identical twin sister
Kathy?
6. Jude’s IQ score is more than 15 points away from Sherry’s. If
Sherry scored 110, then in what range is Jude’s score?
2
7. The formula S = −16t + v 0 t + s 0 gives height in feet above the earth at
time t seconds for an object projected into the air with an initial velocity
of v0 feet per second (ft/s) from an initial height of s 0 feet. Two balls are
tossed into the air simultaneously, one from the ground at 50 ft/s and one
from a height of 10 ft at 40 ft/s.
a. Estimate the time at which the balls are at the same height.
b. For what values of t will their height above the ground differ by less
than 5 feet.

8. Discovery/Discussion problem
Recall that a - b is the distance between a and b on the number line. For
any number x, what do x - 1 and x - 3 represent? Use this interpretation
to solve the inequality |x − 1|<|x − 3| geometrically. In general, if a < b,
what is the solution of the inequality |x − a|<|x −b| ?
Lecture Notes 1 – Real Numbers and Real Line 16
Engr. Caesar P. Llapitan