Fuild Mechanics Unit 3 PDF

SASURIE COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING 1
�------1 L
UNIT
DIMENSIONAL
ANALYSIS AND
MODEL STUDIES
Er.S.Keerthibalan.,PGD(QSV).,ME.(CEM).,MISTE.,AMIE.,CEngg.
Assistant Professor
~-~IL
CHAPTER
• 12.1 INTRODUCTION
Dimensional analysis is a method of dimensions. It is a mathematical technique used in research

work for design and for conducting model tests. It deals with the dimensions of the physical quantities
involved in the phenomenon. All physical quantities are measured by comparison, which is made with
respect to an arbitrarily fixed value. Length L, mass Mand time Tare three fixed dimensions which are
of importance in Fluid Mechanics. If in any problem of fluid mechanics, heat is involved then
temperature is also taken as fixed dimension. These fixed dimensions are called fundamental dimen-
sions or fundamental quantity.
• 12.2 SECONDARY OR DERIVED QUANTITIES
Secondary or derived quantities are those quantities which possess more than one fundamental
dimension. For example, velocity is denoted by distance per unit time (LID, density by mass per unit
volume ( ~) and acceleration by distance per second square (LIT2). Then velocity, density and accel-
eration become as secondary or derived quantities. The expressions (LID, ( ~) and ( J 2) are called
the dimensions of velocity, density and acceleration respectively. The dimensions of mostly used
physical quantities in Fluid Mechanics are given in Table 12.l.
Table 12.1
S. No. Physical Quantity Symbol Dimensions
(a) Fundamental
I. Length L L
2. Mass M M
3. Time T T
Con td ...
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I 560 Fluid Mechanics
S.No. Physical Qualltity Sylllbol Dimellsions
(b) Geometric
4. Area A L2
5. Volume V L3
(c) Kinematic Quantities
6. Velocity V LT - I
7. Angular Velocity {J) T -1
8. Acceleration a LT - 2
9. Angular Acceleration a T -2
10. Discharge Q L 3T - I
11. Acceleration due to Gravity g LT - 2
12. Kinematic Viscosity V L2T - I
(d) Dynamic Quantities
13. Force F MLT - 2
14. Weight w MLT - 2
15. Density p MC 3
16. Specific Weight w MC 2T - 2
17. Dynamic Viscosity µ MC 1T - I
18. Pressure Intensity p MC 1T - 2
19. Modulus of Elasticity {f MC 1T - 2
20. Surface Tension (J MT - 2

21. Sh ear Stress '[ MC 1T - 2
22. Work, Energy WorE ML 2T - 2
23. Power p ML 2T - 3
24. Torque T ML 2T - 2
25. Momentum M MLT - 1
Problem 12.1 Determine the dimensions of the quantities given below : (i) Angular velocity,
(ii) Angular acceleration, (iii) Discharge, (iv) Kinematic viscosity, (v) Force, (vi) Specific weight, and
(vii) Dynamic viscosity.
So Iut .10n. (1•) Angu 1ar ve 1oc1ty
. Angle covered in radians 1 y - l
= -~-------- = - = .
Time T
2 rad 1 2
(ii) Angular acceleration = rad/sec = - - = y- .
y2=y2
L L3
( iii) Discharge = Area x Velocity= L 2 x - = - = L3 T - 1•
T T
(iv) Kinematic viscosity (v) = µ h . . b du
P w ere µ ts given y t = µ dy
t Shear Stress Force

µ=du= L 1 - Area
- - X - - 1-
dy T L
T
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Dimensional and Model Analysis 561 I
Mass x Acceleration
=
AreaxTime
and p= Mass = M = ML _3
Volume L3
1 1
Kinematic viscosity ( ) _ µ _ ML- T- _ L2T-1
V - p - MC3 -
. Length ML -2
(v) Force = Mass x Accelerat10n = M x 2 = - 2 = MLT .
(Time) T
Weight Force MLr-2

(vi) Specific weight = = - - - = - ~ - = MC 2T- 2 •
Volume Volume L3
(vii) Dynamic viscosity,µ is derived in (iv) asµ= MC 1 r- 1 •
• 12.3 DIMENSIONAL HOMOGENEITY
Dimensional homogeneity means the dimensions of each terms in an equation on both sides are
equal. Thus if the dimensions of each term on both sides of an equation are the same the equation is
known as dimensionally homogeneous equation. The powers of fundamental dimensions (i.e., L, M, n
on both sides of the equation will be identical for a dimensionally homogeneous equation. Such
equations are independent of the system of units.
Let us consider the equation, V = .J2gH
L -1
Dimension of L.H.S. = V= -= LT
T
~ {If L
Dimension of R.H.S. = .J2gH = vr2"' = vr2 =
L = T Lr-1
Dimension of L.H.S. = Dimension of R.H.S. = LT- 1

Equation V = .J2gH is dimensionally homogeneous. So it can be used in any system of units.
• 12.4 METHODS OF DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
If the number of variable involved in a physical phenomenon are known, then the relation among
the variables can be determined by the following two methods :
1. Rayleigh's method, and
2. Buckingham's n-theorem.
12.4. I Rayleigh's Method. This method is used for determining the expression for a variable
which depends upon maximum three or four variables only. If the number of independent variables
becomes more than four, then it is very difficult to find the expression for the dependent variable.
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Let Xis a variable, which depends on X1, X2 and X3 variables. Then according to Rayleigh's
method, Xis function of X1, X2 and X3 and mathematically it is written as X = f [X1, X2, X3].
This can also be written as X = KXt. x/.
X/
where K is constant and a, b and c are arbitrary powers.
The values of a, b and c are obtained by comparing the powers of the fundamental dimension on
both sides. Thus the expression is obtained for dependent variable.
Problem 12.2 The time period (t) of a pendulum depends upon the length (L) of the pendulum and
acceleration due to gravity (g). Derive an expression for the time period.
Solution. Time period tis a function of (i) Land (ii) g
t = KL a. l,
where K is a constant ... (i)
Substituting the dimensions on both sides T 1 = KL a • (Lr-2/
Equating the powers of M, L and Ton both sides, we have
Power of T, 1 =- 2b b =- _!_
2
Power of L, O=a+b a=-b=-(-½) =½

Substituting the values of a and bin equation (i),
t=KLl/2 .g-l/2=K f-f-

The value of K is determined from experiments which is given as
K=21t
t=21t i.Ans.
Problem 12.3 Find an expression for the drag force on smooth sphere of diameter D, moving with
a uniform velocity Vin a fluid of density p and dynamic viscosityµ.
Solution. Drag force F is a function of
(i) Diameter, D (ii) Velocity, V (iii) Density, p
(iv) Viscocity, µ
F = KDa . V' . pc . µd ... (i)
where K is non-dimensional factor.
Substituting the dimensions on both sides,
ML12 = KLa. (L1 1/ . (MC3/ . (MC 11 1/
Equating the powers of M, L and Ton both sides,
Power of M, 1= c +d
Power of L, 1 = a + b - 3c - d
Power of T, - 2 = - b - d.
There are four unknowns (a, b, c, d) but equations are three. Hence it is not possible to find the
values of a, b, c and d. But three of them can be expressed in terms of fourth variable which is most
important. Here viscosity is having a vital role and hence a, b, care expressed in terms of d which is the
power to viscosity.
c=l-d
b=2-d
a =1 - b + 3c + d = 1 - 2 + d + 3 (1 - d) + d
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=1-2+d+3-3d+d=2-d
Substituting these values of a, band c in (i), we get
µd
F = KD2 - d. v2 - d. P1 - d.
=KD2V2p (D--d. y-d. p-d. µd) = KpD2V2 (~)d

pVD
= KpD 2V 2cl>(__t___) . Ans.

pVD
Problem 12.4 Find the expression for the power P, developed by a pump when P depends upon the
head H, the discharge Q and specific weight w of the fluid.
Solution. Power P is a function of
(i) Head, H (ii) Discharge, Q
(iii) Specific weight, w
... (i)
where K = Non-dimensional constant.
Substituting the dimensions on both sides of equation (z)
ML2r-3 = KL a. (L3r-1/. (MC2r-2t
Equating the powers of M, L and Ton both sides,
Power of M, 1 = c, c=l
Power of L, 2 = a +3b - 2c, a = 2 - 3b + 2c = 2 - 3 + 2 = 1
Power of T, - 3 = - b - 2c b = 3 - 2c = 3 - 2 = 1
Substituting the values of a, band c in (i)
P =KH 1 . Q 1 . w 1 = KHQw. Ans.
Problem 12.5 The efficiency 17 of a fan depends on the density p, the dynamic viscosity µ of the
fluid, the angular velocity ~ diameter D of the rotor and the discharge Q. Express 17 in terms of
dimensionless parameters.
Solution. The efficiency 11 depends on
(i) density, p (ii) viscosity,µ
(iii) angular velocity, co (iv) diameter, D
(v) discharge, Q
11 = Kpa. µb. roe. Dd. Qe ... (i)
Substituting the dimensions on both sides of equation (z)
M°LOfJ = K (MC3t. (MClr-1/. (r-lt. (L/. (L3r-lt
Equating powers of M, L, Ton both sides,
Power of M, 0=a+b
Power of L, 0 = - 3a - b + d + 3e
Power of T, 0 =-b-c-e.
There are five unknowns but equations are three. Express the three unknowns in terms of the other
two unknowns which are more important. Viscosity and discharge are more important in this problem.
Hence expressing a, c and d in terms of b and e, we get
a=-b
c = - (b + e)
d = + 3a + b - 3e = - 3b + b - 3e = - 2b - 3e.
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I s64 Fluid Mechanics
Substituting these values in equation (i), we get
11 = Kp-b. µb. co-(b+e). n-2b-3e. Qe
= K p-b .µ b .co-b .co--e . D-2b . D-3e . Qe
Problem 12.6 The resisting force R of a supersonic plane during flight can be considered as
dependent upon the length of the aircraft l, velocity V, air viscosityµ, air density p and bulk modulus
of air K. Express the functional relationship between these variables and the resisting force.
Solution. The resisting force R depends upon
(i) density, l, (ii) velocity, V,
(iii) viscosity, µ, (iv) density, p,
(v) Bulk modulus, K.
R = Ala . ~ . µc . pd . Ke ... (i)
where A is the non-dimensional constant.
Substituting the dimensions on both sides of the equation (i),
MLr2 = ALa • (Lr 1/ • (MC 1r 1/ . (MC3/ . (MC 1r 2/
Equating the powers of M, L, Ton both sides,
Power of M, 1= c +d+e
Power of L, 1 = a + b - c - 3d - e
Power of T, - 2 = - b - c - 2e.
There are five unknowns but equations are only three. Expressing the three unknowns in terms of
two unknowns(µ and K).
Express the values of a, b and d in terms of c and e.
Solving, d = 1- c - e
b = 2- c- 2e
a= 1 - b + c + 3d + e = 1 - (2 - c - 2e) + c + 3 (1 - c - e) + e
= 1 - 2 + c + 2e + c + 3 - 3c - 3e + e =2 - c.
Substituting these values in (i), we get
R = A p-c. v2--c-2e. µc. pl--c-e. K
= A p . V2 . p(rc v-c µc p-c) . (V-2e . p-e . Ke)
=A t2V2 p (p~LJ {p~2 J

Problem 12. 7 A partially sub-merged body is towed in water. The resistance R to its motion
depends on the density p, the viscosity µ of water, length l of the body, velocity v of the body and the
acceleration due to gravity g. Show that the resistance to the motion can be expressed in the form
R = pL2V2 ¢ [(p~L} (t )].

Solution. The resistance R depends on
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(i) density, p, (ii) viscosity, µ,
(iii) length, I, (iv) velocity, V,
( v) acceleration, g.
R = Kpa. µb. ZC. yd. ge ... (i)
Substituting the dimensions on both sides of the equation (i),
MLr 2 = K(Mc 3 t.(Mc1r 1/ . Le . (Lr 1/ . (Lr2/
Equating the powers of M, L, Ton both sides
Power of M, 1= a + b
Power of L, 1 = - 3a - b + c + d + e
Power of T, - 2 = - b - d - 2e.
There are five unknowns and equations are only three. Expressing the three unknowns in terms of
two unknowns (µ and g). Hence express a, c and din terms of b and e. Solving, we get
a=l-b
d= 2- b- 2e
c = 1 + 3a + b - d - e = 1 + 3 ( 1 - b) + b - (2 - b - 2e) - e
= 1 + 3 - 3b + b - 2 + b + 2e - e =2 - b + e.
Substituting these values in equation (i), we get
R = KpI-b . µb . [2-b+e . v2-b-2e . ge
= Kpz2. V2. (p-b µbz-b V-b) . (f. v-2e . ge)
= Kpfv' . (:VJ' -( ~ )' = Kpl'V'$ [(:vi}(:,)l An,.
12.4.2 Buckingham's 1t-Theorem. The Rayleigh's method of dimensional analysis becomes

more laborious if the variables are more than the number of fundamental dimensions (M, L, n. This
difficulty is overcame by using Buckingham's 1t-theorem, which states, "If there are n variables (inde-
pendent and dependent variables) in a physical phenomenon and if these variables contain m funda-
mental dimensions (M, L, n, then the variables are arranged into (n - m) dimensionless terms. Each
term is called 1t-term".
Let X1, X2, X3, ... , Xn are the variables involved in a physical problem. Let X1 be the dependent
variable and X2, X3, ... , Xn are the independent variables on which X1 depends. Then X1 is a function of
X2, X3 , ••• , Xn and mathematically it is expressed as
X1 = f(X2, X3, ... , Xn) ... (12.1)
Equation (12.1) can also be written as
/ 1(X1, X2, X3, ... , Xn) = 0. ... (12.2)
Equation (12.2) is a dimensionally homogeneous equation. It contains n variables. If there are m
fundamental dimensions then according to Buckingham's 1t-theorem, equation (12.2) can be written in
terms of number of dimensionless groups or 1t-terms in which number of n-terms is equal to
(n - m). Hence equation (12.2) becomes as
/(1t1, 1t2, ···• 1tn-m) = 0. ... (12.3)
Each of n-terms is dimensionless and is independent of the system. Division or multiplication by a
constant does not change the character of the n-term. Each n-term contains m + 1 variables, where m is
the number of fundamental dimensions and is also called repeating variables. Let in the above case X2,
X3 and X4 are repeating variables if the fundamental dimension m (M, L, T) = 3. Then each n-term is
written as
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n 1 = X/1 . x/1 . X/1 . X1 }

n2 = X/2. x/2. X/2. X 5 ... (12.4)
n,, _,,,: -- X2an-m • X3bn-m • X4cn-m • X,,
Each equation is solved by the principle of dimensional homogeneity and values of a 1, b 1, c 1 etc.,
are obtained. These values are substituted in equation (12.4) and values of1t 1, 1t2, ... , 1t11 _ 111 are obtained.
These values of n's are substituted in equation (12.3). The final equation for the phenomenon is
obtained by expressing any one of the 1t-terms as a function of others as
1t1 = 1 [1t1, 1t3, ... ,1t,,_,,,] ... (12.5)
12.4.3 Method of Selecting Repeating Variables. The number of repeating variables are
equal to the number of fundamental dimensions of the problem. The choice of repeating variables is
governed by the following considerations :
1. As far as possible, the dependent variable should not be selected as repeating variable.
2. The repeating variables should be choosen in such a way that one variable contains geometric
property, other variable contains flow property and third variable contains fluid property.
Variables with Geometric Property are
(i) Length, l (ii) d (iii) Height, H etc.
Variables with flow property are
(i) Velocity, V (ii) Acceleration etc.
Variables with fluid property: (i) µ, (ii) p, (iii) co etc.
3. The repeating variables selected should not form a dimensionless group.
4. The repeating variables together must have the same number of fundamental dimensions.
5. No two repeating variables should have the same dimensions.
In most of fluid mechanics problems, the choice of repeating variables may be (i) d, v, p (ii) Z, v, p
or (iii) l, v, µ or (iv) d, v, µ.
12.4.4 Procedure for Solving Problems by Buckingham's n-theorem. The procedure
for solving problems by Buckingham's 1t-theorem is explained by considering the problem 12.6 which
is also solved by the Rayleigh's method. The problem is :
The resisting force R of a supersonic plane during flight can be considered as dependent upon the
length of the aircraft l, velocity V, air viscosity µ, air density p and bulk modulus of air K. Express the
functional relationship between these variables and the resisting force.
Solution. Step 1. The resisting force R depends upon (i) l, (ii) V, (iii)µ, (iv) p and (v) K. Hence R
is a function of l, V, µ, p and K. Mathematically,
R = f(l, V, µ, p, K) ... (i)
or it can be written as / 1 (R, l, V, µ, p, K) = 0 ... (ii)
Total number of variables, n = 6.
Number of fundamental dimensions, m = 3.
[m is obtained by writing dimensions of each variables as R = MLT-2, V = LT-1, µ = MC 1T-1,
p =ML-3 , K =ML- 1r 2 • Thus as fundamental dimensions in the problem are M, L, T and hence m = 3.]
Number of dimensionless 1t-terms = n - m = 6 - 3 = 3.
Thus three 1t-terms say 1t 1, 1t2 and 1t3 are formed. Hence equation (ii) is written as
/1 (1t1, 1t2, 1t3) = 0. . .. (iii)
Step 2. Each 1t term = m + 1 variables, where m is equal to 3 and also called repeating variables.
Out of six variables R, l, V, µ, p and K, three variables are to be selected as repeating variable. R is a
dependent variable and should not be selected as a repeating variable. Out of the five remaining
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variables, one variable should have geometric property, the second variable should have flow property
and third one fluid property. These requirements are fulfilled by selecting l, V and p as repeating
variables. The repeating variables themselves should not form a dimensionless term and should have
themselves fundamental dimensions equal to m, i.e., 3 here. Dimensions of l, V and p are L, Lr1,
MC3 and hence the three fundamental dimensions exist in l, V and p and they themselves do not form
dimensionless group.
Step 3. Each 1t-term is written as according to equation (12.4)
1t1 = /al • vb1 • Pel • R }
1t2 = [a2 . vb2 . PC2 . µ ... (iv)
1t3 = la' . vb, . Pc' . K
Step 4. Each 1t-term is solved by the principle of dimensional homogeneity. For the first 1t-term, we
have
1t1 = Af°LOf! = La1 . (LT-ll1. (MC3t1 . MLT-2.
Equating the powers of M, L, T on both sides, we get
Power of M, 0 = c1 + 1 c1 = - 1
Power of L, 0 = a 1 + b 1 - 3c 1 + 1,
a 1 = - b 1 + 3c 1 - 1 = 2 - 3 - 1 = - 2
Power of T, 0 = - b1- 2 b1= - 2
Substituting the values of a 1, b 1 and c 1 in equation (iv),
n1 = r2 . v-2 . P-1 . R
R R
or 1t - - - - - - ... (v)
1 - l2V2p - pl2V2
Similarly for the 2nd 1t-term, we get 1t2 = M°L0 f! = La2 • (Lr 1l 2 • (MC3t 2 • MC1r 1.
Power of M, 0 = c 2 + 1, c2 = - 1
Power of L, 0 = a2 + b 2 - 3c2 - 1,
a2 = - b 2 + 3c 2 + 1 = 1 - 3 + 1 = - 1
Power of T, 0 = - b2 - 1, b2 = - 1
Substituting the values of a2 b 2 and c2 1t2 of (iv)
, in
1t2= l-1 .
v-1
. p-1 . µ =µ- .
lVp
3rd 1t-term
1t3 = la' . vb3 . PC3 . K
or l
M°L 0 f! = La 3 • (Lr3 3 • (MC3 t 3 • MC 1 r2
Equating the powers of M, L, T on both sides, we have
Power of M, 0 = c3 + 1, c3 = - 1
Power of L, 0 = a 3 + b3 - 3c3 - 1, a 3 = - b3 + 3c3 + 1 = 2 - 3 + 1 = 0
Power of T, 0 = - b3 - 2, b 3 =-2
Substituting the values of a 3, b3 and c3 in 1t3 term
o. 2 -1 K
1t3=l V- .p .K=-2-·
Vp
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Step 5. Substituting the values of n 1, n2 and n 3 in equation (iii), we get
or R = pi2V2cl> [~,
IVp V p
~ l· Ans.
Problem 12.8 (a) State Buckingham's ![-theorem.

(b) The efficiency 17 of a fan depends on density p, dynamic viscosity µ of the fluid, angular velocity
~ diameter D of the rotor and the discharge Q. Express 17 in terms of dimensionless parameters.
Solution. (a) Statement of Buckingham's n-theorem is given in Article 12.4.2.

(b) Given : 11 is a function of p, µ, co, D and Q
11 = ftp, µ, co, D, Q) or f 1 (11, p, µ, co, D, Q) = 0 ... (i)
Hence total number of variables, n = 6.
The value of m, i.e., number of fundamental dimensions for the problem is obtained by writing
dimensions of each variable. Dimensions of each variable are
11 = Dimensionless, p = ML- 3 , µ = ML- 1r1, co= r1, D =Land Q = L3 r 1
m=3
Number of n-terms = n - m = 6 - 3 = 3
Equation (i) is written asf1 (n 1, 1t2 , 1t3) = 0 ... (ii)
Each n-term contains m + 1 variables, where m is equal to three and is also repeating variable.
Choosing D, co and p as repeating variables, we have
1t1 = Dal . cob1 . pct . 11
1t2 = Da2 . cob2 . pc2 . µ
1t3 = Da3 . cob3 . PC3 . Q
First n-term 1t1 = Da 1 • cob 1 . pc 1 . 11
Substituting dimensions on both sides of n 1,
MOLO'fl =Lal. (rll1. (Mc3r. M°LO'fl
Equating the powers of M, L, T on both sides
Power of M, 0 =Cl+ 0,
Power of L, 0 =al+ 0,
Power of T, 0 = - b 1 + 0,
Substituting the values of a 1, b 1 and c 1 in n 1, we get
1t1 = Docoopo . 11 = 11
[If a variable is dimensionless, it itself is a n-term. Here the variable 11 is a dimensionless and hence
11 is a n-term. As it exists in first n-term and hence n 1 = 11· Then there is no need of equating the
powers. Directly the value can be obtained.]
Second n-term 1t2 = Da2 . cob2 . pc2 . µ
Substituting the dimensions on both sides
M°L 0'fl = La2 • (r1l 2 • (MC3l 2 • MC1r 1
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Power of M, 0 = c2 + 1, c2 = - 1
Power of L, 0 = a2 - 3c 2 - 1, a 2 = 3c 2 + 1 =- 3 + 1 = - 2
Power of T, 0 = - b2 - 1, b2 = - 1
Substituting the values of a 2 , b2 and c2 in 1t2,
µ
1t2 =D -2 · CO-I · p-1 · µ = -D2 -
cop
Third 1t-term n 3 = Da 3 • cob 3 • pc3 • Q
M°LO-f! = La3. (r-ll3. (MC3t3. L3r-I
Equating the powers of M, L and Ton both sides
Power of M, 0 = c3 , c3 = 0
Power of L, 0 = a 3 - 3c 3 + 3, a 3 = 3c3 - 3 =- 3
Power of T, 0 = - b3 _ 1 , b3 = - 1
Substituting the values of a 3, b 3 and c3 in 1t3,
1t3 =D-3 · CO-1 · p0 · Q = -D2

Q
-
co
Substituting the values of 1t 1, 1t2 and 1t3 in equation (ii)
f1 +, +)
(11, DcopDco =0or 11 =cl> [+, +] .
DcopDco
Ans.
Problem 12.9 Using Buckingham's ![-theorem, show that the velocity through a circular orifice is
given by V = .J2gH cl> [D, ~J.

H pVH
where His the head causing flow, Dis the diameter of the orifice,
µ is co-efficient of viscosity, pis the mass density and g is the acceleration due to gravity.
Solution. Given :
Vis a function of H, D, µ, p and g
V=f(H, D, µ, p, g) orf1 (V, H, D, µ, p, g) = 0
:. Total number of variable, n = 6 ... (i)
Writing dimension of each variable, we have
V = LT- 1 , H = L, D = L, µ = ML- 1T- 1 , p = ML-3 , g = LT-2 •
Thus number of fundamental dimensions, m = 3
:. Number of 1t-terms =n - m =6 - 3 = 3.
Equation (i) can be written as f 1 (1t 1, 1t2 , 1t3) = 0 ... (ii)
Each 1t-term contains m + 1 variables, where m = 3 and is also equal to repeating variables. Here V
is a dependent variable and hence should not be selected as repeating variable. Choosing H, g, p as
repeating variable, we get three 1t-terms as
1t1 = Hal .gbi .pct. V
1t2 = Ha2 • gb2 • pc2 • D
1t3 = H a3 . g b3 . p C3 . µ
First 1t-term 1t1 -- Hal .g bi . pct . V
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Substituting dimensions on both sides
Af°LO-f! = Lal . (LT-2li. (MT-3l1. (LT-I)
Equating the powers of M, L, T on both sides,
Power of M, 0 = c,
1
Power of L, a 1 =- b 1 + 3c 1 - 1 = - - 1 =- -1
2 2
1
Power of T, b1 =- -
2
Substituting the values of a 1, b 1 and c 1 in 1t 1,
-½ o V
1t1 =H _.1
2. g . p . V= Jiii .
Second 1t-term n2 = J{-'2 . l2 . pc2 . D
Af°LO-f! = La2. (Lr-2l2. (MC3l2. L
Equating the powers of M, L, T,
Power of M, 0 = c2 c 2 =0
Power of L, 0 = a 2 + b2 - 3c2 + 1, a 2 = - b2 + 3c 2 - 1 =- 1
Power of T, 0 =- 2b 2 , b2 = 0
Substituting the values of a2 , b 2 , c2 in 1t2 ,
1t2 =H -1 . g opo . D = -D
H
Third n-term l
n 3 = J{-' 3 . 3 . pc 3 . µ
Af°LO-f! = La3. (Lr-2l3. (MC3l3. MCIT-I
Power of M, 0 = c 3 + 1, c3 = - 1
1
Power of L, a 3 =- b3 + 3c3 + 1 = - - 3 + 1 =- -3
2 2
1
Power of T, b3=- -
2
1t _ H-312 g-112 p-1 µ_ µ
3 - • • • - H312 PJi
- µ - µV [Multiply and Divide by V]
- Hp Jiii - HpV Jiii
- ---1:!:_ 1t
- HpV . 1
Substituting the values of 1t 1, 1t2 and 1t3 in equation (ii),
/1 ( ~ ~ , , 1t1 ~ V) =0 or ~ =~ [ ~ , ~ V] 1t1
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or V = .J2gH cl> [ D ,
H pVH
~J. Ans.
Multiplying by a constant does not change the character of 1t-terms.

Problem 12.10 The pressure difference Lip in a pipe of diameter D and length l due to turbulent
flow depends on the velocity V, viscosity µ, density p and roughness k. Using Buckingham's
1!-theorem, obtain an expression for Lip.
Solution. Given :
!ip is a function of D, l, V, µ, p, k
!ip =f(D, l, V, µ, p, k) or f 1(/1p, D, l, V, µ, p, k) = 0 ... (i)
Total number of variables, n = 7.
Writing dimensions of each variable,
Dimension of !ip = Dimension of pressure =MC1r 2
D =L, 1= L, v = Lr1, µ =ML- 1 r 1, p = ML- 3 , k = L
Number of fundamental dimensions, m = 3
Number of 1t-terms =n - m =7 - 3 =4.
Now equation (z) can be grouped in 4 1t-terms as
f1 (1t1, 1t2, 1t3, 1t4) = 0 ... ( ii)
Each 1t-term contains m + 1 or 3 + 1 = 4 variables. Out of four variables, three are repeating
variables. Choosing D, V, p as the repeating variables, we have the four 1t-terms as
1t1 = Dal . vb1 . Pel . /1p
1t2 = Da2 . vb2 . PC2 . l
1t3 = Da, . vb, . Pc' . µ
1t4 = Da· . vb• . pc• . k
First 1t-term 1t1 = Da1 • Vb 1 • pc1 • /1p
Substituting dimensions on both sides,
Af°LO-f! = Lal. (LT-ll1 . (MC3t1 . ML-lT-2
Power of M, 0 = c 1+ 1 c 1 = -1
PowerofL, 0=a 1 +b 1 -3c 1 -l, a 1 =- b 1 + 3c 1 + 1 =2 - 3 + 1 = 0
Power of T, 0 = - b 1 - 2, b 1 =-2
Substituting the values of a 1, b 1 and c 1 in 1t1,
/1p
1t1 = D O · v-2 · P-1 · ilP = -pV
A
-2
Second 1t-term 1t2 = Da2 . Vb 2 . pc 2 • /

Af°LO-f! = La2. (LT-ll2 . (MC3t2. L
Power of M, 0 = c2, C2 = 0
Power of L, 0 = a 2 - b 2 -3c2 + 1, a 2 = b 2 + 3c 2 - 1 =- 1
Power of T, 0 = - b2 , b2 = 0
Substituting the values of a 2 , b 2 , c2 in 1t2,
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o l
1t2 =D-1 . v- ,,0
.p . = Dl
Third 1t-term 1t3 = Da 3 • yb 3 • pc 3 • µ
Af°LOT° = La3. (Lr-ll3. (MC3t3. MClr-1
Power of M, 0 = c 3 + 1, c3 = - 1
Power of L, 0 = a 3 + b3 - 3c3 - 1, a 3 =- b 3 + 3c 3 + 1 = 1 - 3 + 1 =- 1
Power of T, 0 = - b3 - 1, b3 = - 1
Fourth 1t-term
or {Dimension of k = L}
Equating the power of M, L, T on both sides,
Power of M, 0 = c4 , C4 =0
Power of L, 0 = a4 - b4 - 3c4 + 1, a4 =
b4 + 3c4 - 1 =- 1
Power of T, 0 = - b4 , b4 = 0
Substituting the values of a4 , b4 , c4 in 1t4 ,
1t4 = D -1 . V o . po . k = -Dk
Substituting the values of 1t 1, 1t2 , 1t3 and 1t4 in (ii),we get
/1 (pt2 ' ~' :VP ' ; J=0 or pt2 =~ [~ 'D~p ' !]. Ans.
Expression for h1 (Difference of pressure-head). From experiments, it was observed that pressure
difference, /).p is a linear function of ..!__ and hence it is taken out of function
D
pt2= ~ ~ [ :VP ' ; ]

/lp = v2 . ..!__ ~ [___t__ ,~]
p D DVp D
Dividing by g to both sides, we have /lp = V • 1

2
~ [___t_, ~].
pg g.D DVp D
Now ~ [___t__,
DVp D
~] contains two terms. First one is ___t__
DVp
which is 1
Reynolds number
or - 1- and
Re
second one is ~D which is called roughness factor. Now~ [-Re1-, D ~i is put equal to f, where f is the
co-efficient of friction which is a function of Reynolds number and roughness factor.
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/).p
pg
Multiplying or dividing by any constant does not change the character of 1t-terms.
/lp 4f.LV 2
- =h1 = ---.Ans.
pg D x2g
Problem 12.11 The pressure difference Lip in a pipe of diameter D and length l due to viscous flow
depends on the velocity V, viscosity µ and density p. Using Buckingham's 1!-theorem, obtain an
expression for Lip.
Solution. This problem is similar to problem 12.10. The only difference is that !lp is to be calcu-
lated for viscous flow. Then in the repeating variable instead of p, the fluid propertyµ is to be chosen.
Now !lp is a function of D, l, V, µ, p or !lp = j(D, l, V, µ, p)
or f 1 (/lp, D, l, V, µ, p) = 0 ... (i)
Total number of variables, n=6
Number of 1t-terms =n - 3 =6 - 3 = 3
Hence equation (i) is written asf1(1t 1, 1t2 , 1t3) = 0 ... (ii)
Each 1t-term contains m + 1 variables, i.e., 3 + 1 = 4 variables. Out of four variables, three are
repeating variables.
Choosing D, V, µ as repeating variables, we have 1t-terms as
1t1 = Dal . vb1 • µ C1 • /lp
1t2 = va2 • yb2 • µ C2 • l
1t3 = Da3. v~ .µC3 .p
First 1t-term 1t1 = Dal . yb1 • µct . /).p
M°L 0t-i = La 1 • (Lr 1/ 1 • (MC 1r 1l1. MC 1r 2 _
Power of M, 0 = c 1 + 1, c1 = - 1
Power of L, 0 = a 1 + b 1 - c 1 - 1, a 1 =- b 1 + c 1 + 1 = 1 - 1 + 1 = 1
Power of T, 0 = - b 1 - c 1 - 2, b1 =- C1 - 2 = 1 - 2 =- 1
1t1 =D 1 . v-1 . µ-1 . up =-

AD/lp
-.
µV
Second 1t-term 1t2 = na2 . ~2 • µC2 • l
M°L 0fJ = La2 . (LT- 1/ 2 . (MC 1T- 1 2 . L. t
Power of M, 0 = c2 , C2 = 0
Power of L, 0 = a 2 + b 2 - c2 + 1, a 2 =- b 2 + c2 - 1 =- 1
Power of T, 0 = - b2 - c 2 , b2 =- C2 = 0
Substituting the values of a 2 , b 2 and c2 in 1t2,
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n2 = v-1 . v° . µ o . l = _!:_.
D
Third 1t-term 1t3 = Da3 • ybJ . µc3 . p
Substituting the dimension on both sides,
M°L0 'f'J = La 3 • (LT- 1/ 3 • (MC 1 T- 1/ 3 • MC3 •
Power of M, 0 = c3 + 1, c3 = - 1
Power of L, 0 = a 3 + b3 - c3 - 3, a 3 =- b3 + c 3 + 3 = -1 - 1+ 3 = 1
Power of T, 0 = - b3 - c 3, b3 =- C3 = - (- 1) = 1
Substituting the values of a 3, b 3 and c 3 in 1t3,
pDV
1t3 = D 1 . V 1 . µ-1 . p = - -.
µ
Substituting the values of 1t 1, 1t2 and 1t3 in equation (ii),
f1 (:J, ~.p:V)=o or :t = $[~,p:V] or L\p= µ; $[~•p:V]

Experiments show that the pressure difference L\p is a linear function _!:__. Hence _!:__ can be taken
D D
out of the functional as
L\p = µV x _!_$ [pDV]· Ans.

D D µ
Expression for difference of pressure head for viscous flow
fip µV l 1
hf= pg = DX D X pg $ [Re]
µVI
= -- 2 $ [Rel• Ans.
wD
Problem 12.12 Derive on the basis of dimensional analysis suitable parameters to present the
thrust developed by a propeller. Assume that the thrust P depends upon the angular velocity ~ speed
of advance V, diameter D, dynamic viscosity µ, mass density p, elasticity of the fluid medium which
can be denoted by the speed of sound in the medium C.
Solution. Thrust P is a function of co, V, D, µ, p, C
or P = /(co, V, D, µ, p, C)
or f 1 = (P, co, V, D, µ, p, C) = 0 ... (i)
:. Total number of variables, n = 7
Writing dimensions of each variable, we have
P = MLT-2 , co= r-1, V= LT-1, D = L,
µ = MC 1 r-1, p = MC3 , C= LT-1
Number of 1t-terms = n - m = 7 - 3 = 4
Hence, equation (i) can be written as f 1(1t 1, 1t2 , 1t3, 1t4 ) = 0 ... (ii)
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Each 1t-term contains m + 1, i.e., 3 + 1 = 4 variables. Out of four variables, three are repeating
variables.
Choosing D, V, p as repeating variables, we get 1t-terms as
1t1 = Dal . vb1 . Pel . p
1t2 = Da2 . vb2 . PC2 . co
1t3 = Da, . vb, . Pc' . µ
1t4 = Da· . vb• . pc• . C
First 1t-term 1t1 = Da1 • Vb 1 • pc1 • p
Writing dimensions on both sides,
M.°L 0 T° = Lat . (LT- 1/1 . (MC3lt. MLT- 2 •
Power of M, 0 = c 1 + 1, c 1 =- 1
Power of L, 0 = a 1 + b 1 3c 1 + 1,
-
a 1 =- b 1 + 3c 1 - 1 = 2 - 3 - 1 =- 2
Power of T, 0 =- b 1 - 2, b 1 =- 2
1t1 =D-2 · V -2 · P-1 p = D 2pV 2 p •

Second n-term 1t2 = Da2 • v1' 2 • /!{ 2 • co
M°LoTo = La2. (LT-l/2. (MC3t2. r-t
Power of M, 0 = c2 , C2 = 0
Power of L, 0 = a 2 + b2 - 3c2 , a 2 =- b2 + 3c2 = 1 + 0 = 1
Power of T, 0 = - b2 - 1, b2 = - 1
Substituting the values of a 2 , b 2 , c2 in 1t2 ,
1t2 =D 1 . V -1 . po . co= -
Dco
.
V
Third n-term n3 = Da 3 • V' 3 • pc 3 • µ.
t
M°L 0 T° = Da 3 • (LT- 1 / 3 • (MC3 3 • MC 1T- 1
Power of M, 0 = c 3 + 1, c3 = - 1
Power of L, 0 = a 3 + b3 - 3c3 - 1, a 3 =- b3 + 3c3 + 1 = 1 - 3 + 1 =- 1
Power of T, 0 = - b3 - 1 b3 = - 1
1t3 =D-1 • -1
17
V • p
-1
• µ = --.
µ
DVp
Fourth n-term n4 = Da4 • V'4 • pc C.
4

M°L 0 T° = La4 • (LT- 1/ 4 • (MC3l 4 • LT-I
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Power of M, 0 = c4 , C4= 0
Power of L, 0 = a4 + b4 - 3c4 + 1, a4 = - b4 + 3c4 - 1 = 1 + 0 -1 = 0
Power of T, 0 = - a4 - 1, b 4 =- 1
Substituting the values of a4 , b4 and c4 in 1t4 ,
1t4 =D o . V -1 . po . C = -C .
V
Substituting the values of 1t 1, 1t2, 1t3 and 1t4 in equation (ii),
p Dro ___l:__
fi ( D 2 V 2 p ' V 'DVp ' V -
C) -0 or
or p = D2V2p cl> ( Dro ' ~ ' C). Ans.
V DVp V
Problem 12.13 The frictional torque T of a disc of diameter D rotating at a speed N in a fluid of
viscosityµ and density pin a turbulent flow is given by T = D 5N 2 p</J [+].D Np

Prove this by the method of dimensions.
Solution. Given: T =f(D, N, µ, p) or f 1(T, D, N, µ, p) = 0 ... (i)
Dimensions of each variable are expressed as
T= ML 2r- 2, D = L, N = r- 1, µ = ML- 1r-1, p = ML- 3
:. Number of fundamental dimensions, m = 3
Number of 1t-terms = n- m= 5- 3= 2
Hence equation (i) can be written asf1(1t 1, 1t2) = 0 ... (ii)
Each 1t-term contains m + 1 variable, i.e., 3 + 1 = 4 variables. Three variables are repeating variables.
Choosing D, N, p as repeating variables, the 1t-terms are
1t1 = Dal. ~1. pct. T
1t2 = Da2. ~2. pc2 • µ
Dimensional Analysis of 1t 1
1t1 = Dal . ~I • pct • T
M°LOfl = Lal . (T-ll1. (MC3t1 . ML2T-2.
Power of M, 0 = c 1 + 1, c 1 =- 1
Power of L, 0 = a 1 - 3c 1 + 2, a 1 = 3c 1- 2 = - 3 - 2 = - 5
Power of T, 0 = - b 1 - 2, bl =-2
Substituting the values of a 1, b 1, c 1 in 1t,
Dimensional Analysis of 1t2

1t2 = Da2 • ~2 • pC2 • µ
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l
M°L0 fl = La2 • (r- 1 2 • (Mc'Y 2 • MC 1T- 1•
Power of M, 0 = c 2 + 1, c2 = - 1
Power of L, 0 = a2 - 3c 2 - 1, a2 = 3c 2 + 1 =- 3 + 1 =- 2
Power of T, 0 = - b2 - 1, b2 = - 1
Substituting the values of a2 , b2 and c2 in 1t2,
1t2 =D
-2N-I -1
p ·µ = -D2µNp
-.
Substituting the values of 1t 1 and 1t2 in equation (ii),
fi1 ( sT 2 , _2µ
D N p D Np
J= 0 or 5T 2
D N p
= <\l (-2µ
D Np
)
or T= D 5N 2 p cl>[+].D Np
Ans.
Problem 12.14 Using Buckingham's 1!-theorem, show that the discharge Q consumed by an oil
ring is given by
Q - Nd3"'
-
[_l!__ a
.,, pNd 2 'pN 2 d 3 'pN 2 d
_w_]
where d is the internal diameter of the ring, N is rotational speed, p is density, µ is viscosity, a is
surface tension and w is the specific weight of oil.
Solution. Given : Q =f(d, N, p, µ, cr, w) or f 1(Q, d, N, p, µ, cr, w) = 0 ... (i)
Dimensions of each variables are
=
Q L 3 T- 1 , d = L, N = r- 1, p =ML-3, µ =ML- 1r-1, a= Mr-2
and w = ML- 2 2 r
Total number of fundamental dimensions, m = 3
Total number of 1t-terms = n - m = 7 - 3 =4
Equation (i) becomes asf1(7t 1, 1t2, 1t3, 1t4) = 0 ... (ii)
Choosing d, N, p as repeating variables, the 1t-terms are
1t1 = dal . }/1 . pct . Q
7t2 = ~2 • }/2 • pC2 • µ
1t3 = ~3 . }/3 . PC3 . O"
1t4 = ~4. }/4. PC4. w.
First n-term n 1 = ~1. }/1. pc1. Q.
Af°LOfl =Lal. (T-ll1. (MC3t1. L3T-I.
Power of M, 0 = c 1, C1 = 0
Power of L, 0 = a 1 - 3c 1 + 3, a 1 = 3c 1 - 3 = 0- 3 =- 3
Power of T, 0 = - b 1 - 1, b 1 =- 1
. .
Su bstitutmg . 1t , 1t = d-3
a 1, b 1, c 1 m 1 1 . N-I . Po • Q = - Q
3-
dN
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Second 1t-term n 2 = d,°'2 • Nb2 • pc2 • µ.
M°L 0 fl = La2 • (r- 1l 2 • (Mc'Y 2 • MC 1 r- 1
Power of M, 0 =c2 + 1, c2 =- 1
Power of L, 0 = a2 - 3c 2 - 1,
a2 = 3c 2 + 1 = - 3 + 1 = - 2
Power of T, 0 =- b2 - 1, b2 =- 1
Substituting the values of a 2 , b 2 , c2 in 1t2 ,
1t2
µ-
=d -2 . N-I . p-1 . µ = - 2 or µ
d Np pNd 2 .
Third 1t-term 1t3 = d,°'J . ~3 • pc3 • cr.
Af°LOfl = La3. (T-ll3. (MC3l3. MT-2.
Equating the powers of M, L, Ton the sides,
Power of M, 0 = c 3 + 1, c3 = - 1
Power of L, 0 = a 3 - 3c3 , a 3 = 3c 3 =- 3
Power of T, 0 = - b3 - 2, b3 =-2
Substituting the values of a 3, b3, c3 in 1t3,
1t3= d -3 · N-2 .p-1 .O"= 3

O"
2.
d Np
Fourth 1t-term 1t4 = d°'4• ~ 4 • pc4 • w
M°L 0 fl = La4 • (T- 1l 4 • (MC'Y4 • MC 2 T- 2 •
Power of M, 0 = c4 + 1, c4 = - 1
Power of L, 0 = a4 - 3c4 - 2, a4 = 3c4 + 2 = - 3+2= - 1
Power of T, 0 = -b4 -2, b4 =-2
Substituting the values of a4 , b4 and c4 in 1t4 ,
1t4 =d -I · N-2 · p-1 · W = --2-

W
dN p
·
Now substituting the values of 1t 1, 1t2 , 1t3, 1t4 in (ii),
t(d~N' p:d2 'd3;2p 'd;2p) =0 or d~N =/1 [p:d2 'd3;2p' d;2p]

or Q = d3Ncl> [ ~ , ~ ,
pNd d Nd dN p
-;-J. Ans.
• 12.S MODEL ANALYSIS
For predicting the performance of the hydraulic structures (such as dams, spillways etc.) or
hydraualic machines (such as turbines, pumps etc.), before actually constructing or manufacturing,
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models of the structures or machines are made and tests are performed on them to obtain the desired
information.
The model is the small scale replica of the actual structure or machine. The actual structure or
machine is called Prototype. It is not necessary that the models should be smaller than the prototypes
(though in most of cases it is), they may be larger than the prototype. The study of models of actual
machines is called Model analysis. Model analysis is actually an experimental method of finding
solutions of complex flow problems. Exact analytical solutions are possible only for a limited number
of flow problems. The followings are the advantages of the dimensional and model analysis :
1. The performance of the hydraulic structure or hydraulic machine can be easily predicted, in
advance, from its model.
2. With the help of dimensional analysis, a relationship between the variables influencing a flow
problem in terms of dimensionless parameters is obtained. This relationship helps in conducting tests
on the model.
3. The merits of alternative designs can be predicted with the help of model testing. The most
economical and safe design may be, finally, adopted.
4. The tests performed on the models can be utilized for obtaining, in advance, useful information
about the performance of the prototypes only if a complete similarity exists between the model and the
prototype.
• 12.6 SIMILITUDE-TYPES OF SIMILARITIES
Similitude is defined as the similarity between the model and its prototype in every respect, which
means that the model and prototype have similar properties or model and prototype are completely
similar. Three types of similarities must exist between the model and prototype. They are
1. Geometric Similarity, 2. Kinematic Similarity, and 3. Dynamic Similarity.
1. Geometric Similarity. The geometric similarity is said to exist between the model and the
prototype. The ratio of all corresponding linear dimension in the model and prototype are equal.
Let Lm =Length of model, b m = Breadth of model,
D m =Diameter of model, Am = Area of model,
V m = Volume of model,
and Lp, bp, Dp, Ap, V p = Corresponding values of the prototype.
For geometric similarity between model and prototype, we must have the relation,
Lp = !!.L = Dp =Lr ... (12.6)

Lm bm Dm
where Lr is called the scale ratio.
For area's ratio and volume's ratio the relation should be as given below :
Ap = Lp x bp =Lr X Lr= Lr2 ... (12.7)

Am Lm Xb m
and VP = (Lp ) =
3 (.!!.L) 3=(Dp )3 ... (12.8)
Vm Lm bm Dm
2. Kinematic Similarity. Kinematic similarity means the similarity of motion between model and
prototype. Thus kinematic similarity is said to exist between the model and the prototype if the ratios
of the velocity and acceleration at the corresponding points in the model and at the corresponding
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1 sso Fluid Mechanics

points in the prototype are the same. Since velocity and acceleration are vector quantities, hence not
only the ratio of magnitude of velocity and acceleration at the corresponding points in model and
prototype should be same ; but the directions of velocity and accelerations at the corresponding points
in the model and prototype also should be parallel.
Let VP = Velocity of fluid at point 1 in prototype,
I
Vp = Velocity of fluid at point 2 in prototype,
2
ap = Acceleration of fluid at point 1 in prototype,
I
ap = Acceleration of fluid at point 2 in prototype, and
2
Vm 1 , Vm 2 , am1 , am 2 = Corresponding values at the corresponding points of fluid velocity and accel-
eration in the model.

For kinematic similarity, we must have
V V
i = ___!l_ = Vr ... (12.9)
vm1 vm2
where Vr is the velocity ratio.

aP.
For acceleration, we must have - 1 = -ap, =ar
2- ... (12.10)
am[ am2
where ar is the acceleration ratio.

Also the directions of the velocities in the model and prototype should be same.
3. Dynamic Similarity. Dynamic similarity means the similarity of forces between the model and
prototype. Thus dynamic similarity is said to exist between the model and the prototype if the ratios of
the corresponding forces acting at the corresponding points are equal. Also the directions of the
corresponding forces at the corresponding points should be same.
Let (F;)p = Inertia force at a point in prototype,
(Fv)P = Viscous force at the point in prototype,
(Fg)P = Gravity force at the point in prototype,
and (F;)m (Fv)mo (Fg)m = Corresponding values of forces at the corresponding point in model.
Then for dynamic similarity, we have
Also the directions of the corresponding forces at the corresponding points in the model and proto-
type should be same.
• 12. 7 TYPES OF FORCES ACTING IN MOVING FLUID
For the fluid flow problems, the forces acting on a fluid mass may be any one, or a combination of
the several of the following forces :
1. Inertia force, Fi. 2. Viscous force, Fv.
3. Gravity force, Fg. 4. Pressure force, Fr
5. Surface tension force, Fs. 6. Elastic force, Fe.
1. Inertia Force (F;). It is equal to the product of mass and acceleration of the flowing fluid and
acts in the direction opposite to the direction of acceleration. It is always existing in the fluid flow
problems.
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2. Viscous Force (FJ. It is equal to the product of shear stress (t) due to viscosity and surface
area of the flow. It is present in fluid flow problems where viscosity is having an important role to
play.
3. Gravity Force (Fg). It is equal to the product of mass and acceleration due to gravity of the
flowing fluid. It is present in case of open surface flow.
4. Pressure Force (Fp). It is equal to the product of pressure intensity and cross-sectional area of
the flowing fluid. It is present in case of pipe-flow.
5. Surface Tension Force (F,). It is equal to the product of surface tension and length of surface of
the flowing fluid.
6. Elastic Force (Fe). It is equal to the product of elastic stress and area of the flowing fluid.
For a flowing fluid, the above-mentioned forces may not always be present. And also the
forces, which are present in a fluid flow problem, are not of equal magnitude. There are always one
or two forces which dominate the other forces. These dominating forces govern the flow of fluid.
• 12.8 DIMENSIONLESS NUMBERS
Dimensionless numbers are those numbers which are obtained by dividing the inertia force by
viscous force or gravity force or pressure force or surface tension force or elastic force. As this is a
ratio of one force to the other force, it will be a dimensionless number. These dimensionless numbers
are also called non-dimensional parameters. The followings are the important dimensionless numbers :
1. Reynold's number, 2. Froude's number,
3. Euler's number, 4. Weber's number,
5. Mach's number.
12.8.1 Reynold's Number (Re). It is defined as the ratio of inertia force of a flowing fluid and
the viscous force of the fluid. The expression for Reynold's number is obtained as
Inertia force (F;) = Mass x Acceleration of flowing fluid
Velocity Volume
= p x V o1ume x - - - = p x - - - xVelocity
Time Time
=pxAVxV {·: Volume per sec= Area x Velocity= Ax V}
= pAV2 ... (12.11)
Viscous force (Fv) = Shear stress x Area Force = 't x Area}
=tXA
= (µ ~;) X A = µ. ~ X A
By definition, Reynold's number,
R __F, - pAV 2 pVL

e- F - V
v µ. L xA µ
=
VXL
(µ / p)
=
VXL
V
{-: ~ = v = Kinematic viscosity}
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In case of pipe flow, the linear dimension Lis taken as diameter, d. Hence Reynold's number for
pipe flow,
Re = Vxd or pVd ••• (12.12)
V µ
12.8.2 Froude's Number (Fe)• The Froude's number is defined as the square root of the ratio
of inertia force of a flowing fluid to the gravity force. Mathematically, it is expressed as
where F; from equation (12.11)

Fe =
= pAV2
F.g
and Fg = Force due to gravity

= Mass x Acceleration due to gravity
= p X Volume X g = p X L3 X g { ·: Volume= L3 }
=pxUxLxg=pxAxLxg { ·: L 2 =A= Area}
{K /pAv2 {v2 V
Fe= VFg = VpALg = fii = Jii ... (12.13)
12.8.3 Euler's Number (Eu)• It is defined as the square root of the ratio of the inertia force of a
flowing fluid to the pressure force. Mathematically, it is expressed as
Eu =RE;
F p
where F p = Intensity of pressure x Area = p x A

and F; = pAV2
/pAv2 - {v2 -
u-v~-vp/p-
E -
.jp7p
_V ... (12.14)
12.8.4 Weber's Number CWe>• It is defined as the square root of the ratio of the inertia force
of a flowing fluid to the surface tension force. Mathematically, it is expressed as
Weber's Number, we =Jt,i

F
s
where F; = Inertia force = pA V2

and Fs = Surface tension force
= Surface tension per unit length x Length= cr x L
We = ✓ pA V 2 = p X L2 X V2
O"XL O"XL
=~= ✓a~:L = ~-
... (12.15)
12.8.S Mach's Number (M). Mach's number is defined as the square root of the ratio of the
inertia force of a flowing fluid to the elastic force. Mathematically, it is defined as
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M= Inertia force = {K
Elastic force V Fe
where F; = pAV2
and Fe= Elastic force= Elastic stress x Area
=KXA=KxL2 { ·: K = Elastic stress}
M= ✓ pAV2 = p X L2 X V 2 fv2 V
KxL2 K X L2 = VK/p = -JK!p
But l = C = Velocity of sound in the fluid
M= V_ ... (12.16)
C
• 12.9 MODEL LAWS OR SIMILARITY LAWS
For the dynamic similarity between the model and the prototype, the ratio of the corresponding
forces acting at the corresponding points in the model and prototype should be equal. The ratio of the
forces are dimensionless numbers. It means for dynamic similarity between the model and prototype,
the dimensionless numbers should be same for model and the prototype. But it is quite difficult to
satisfy the condition that all the dimensionless numbers (i.e., Re, Fe, We, Eu and M) are the same for the
model and prototype. Hence models are designed on the basis of ratio of the force, which is dominating
in the phenomenon. The laws on which the models are designed for dynamic similarity are called
model laws or laws of similarity. The followings are the model laws:
1. Reynold's model law, 2. Froude model law,
3. Euler model law, 4. Weber model law,
5. Mach model law.
12.9.1 Reynold's Model Law. Reynold's model law is the law in which models are based on
Reynold's number. Models based on Reynold's number includes:
(i) Pipe flow
(ii) Resistance experienced by sub-marines, airplanes, fully immersed bodies etc.
As defined earlier that Reynold number is the ratio of inertia force and viscous force, and hence
fluid flow problems where viscous forces alone are predominent, the models are designed for dynamic
similarity on Reynolds law, which states that the Reynold number for the model must be equal to the
Reynold number for the prototype.
Let Vm = Velocity of fluid in model,
Pm= Density of fluid in model,
Lm = Length or linear dimension of the model,
µm = Viscosity or fluid in model,
and V p, pp, Lp and µp are the corresponding values of velocity, density, linear dimension and viscosity
of fluid in prototype. Then according to Reynold's model law,
[Relm= [Re]por PmVmLm = pp;pLp ... (12.17)

µm p
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or Pr. V,. L, = 1
µ,
{where Pr =EE_, V, = Vp and L, = Lp ,&=µ,}

Pm Vm 4. µm
And also p,, V,, L, and µ, are called the scale ratios for density, velocity, linear dimension and
viscosity.
The scale ratios for time, acceleration, force and discharge for Reynold's model law are obtained as
t, = Time scale ratio = !::I....

v,
{-: V = ~ :. t = i}
V
a, = Acceleration scale ratio = - '
t,
F, = Force scale ratio = (Mass x Acceleration),
= m, x a, = p,A, V, x a, {A,= Area ratio}
2
= p,L, V, X a,
Q, = Discharge scale ratio = (pA V),
= p,A, V, = Pr. L,2 . V,.
Problem 12.15 A pipe of diameter 1.5 m is required to transport an oil of sp. gr. 0.90 and viscosity
3 x 10-2 poise at the rate of .WOO litre/s. Tests were conducted on a 15 cm diameter pipe using water at
20°C. Find the velocity and rate of flow in the model. Viscosity of water at 20°C = 0.01 poise.
Solution. Given :
Dia. of prototype, Dp = 1.5 m
Viscosity of fluid, µp = 3 x 10-2 poise
Q for prototype, Qp = 3000 lit/s = 3.0 m 3/s
Sp. gr. of oil, Sp= 0.9
:. Density of oil, pp= Sp X 1000 = 0.9 X 1000 = 900 kg/m3
Dia. of the model, D 111 = 15 cm= 0.15 m
Viscosity of water at 20°C = .01 poise= 1 x 10-2 poise or µ 111 = 1 x 10-2 poise
Density of water or p111 = 1000 kg/m3.
For pipe flow, the dynamic similarity will be obtained if the Reynold's number in the model and
prototype are equal
Hence using equation (12.17), Pm VmDm = ppVpDp {For pipe, linear dimension is D}
µm µp
900 1.5 1 X 10-2 900 1

= --X--X------=- = -- X 10 X - = 3.0
1000 0.15 3 X 10-2 1000 3
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VP = Rate of flow in prototype = __
3._0_ = _3_.0_
But
Area of prototype : ( Dp )2 : (1. 5 )2
= 3·0 X 4 = 1.697 mis

2.25
1t X
Vm = 3.0 X Vp = 3.0 X 1.697 = 5.091 mis. Ans.

1t 2 1t 2 3
Rate of flow through model, Qm = Am X Vm = - (Dm) X Vm = - (0.15) X 5.091 m Is
4 4
= 0.0899 m 3/s = 0.0899 x 1000 lit/s = 89.9 lit/s. Ans.
Problem 12.16 Water is flowing through a pipe of diameter 30 cm at a velocity of 4 mis. Find the
velocity of oil flowing in another pipe of diameter JO cm, if the condition of dynamic similarity is
satisfied between the two pipes. The viscosity of water and oil is given as 0.01 poise and .025 poise.
The sp. gr. of oil = 0.8.
Solution. Given :
Two pipes having different liquids.
Let for pipe 1, Liquid = Water
Dia. of pipe, d 1 = 30 cm= 0.30 m
Velocity of flow, V1 = 4 mis
Viscosity, µ 1 = 0.01 poise= O.Ol (S.1. Units)

10
Density, p 1 = 1000 kg/m 3
For pipe 2, Liquid= Oil
Dia. of pipe, d 2 =10cm=0.lm
Velocity of flow, V2 =?
Viscosity, µ 2 = 0.025 poise= 0 ·025 (S.1. Units)

10
Sp. gr. of oil = 0.8
:. Density, p2 = 0.8 x 1000 = 800 kg/m 3
If the pipes are dynamically similar, the Reynold's number for both the pipes should be same.
P1 ½d1 = P2 V2d2 or
u
v2 -
_ El_ 5_
• •
h V
1
µI µ2 P2 d2 µI
.025
= 1000 x 0.30 x 10 x 4 _0 = 1000 x 3 x .025 x 4 _0
800 0.10 .01 800 .01
10
= 37.5 mis. Ans.
Problem 12.17 The ratio of lengths of a sub-marine and its model is 30 : 1. The speed of sub-
marine (prototype) is JO mis. The model is to be tested in a wind tunnel. Find the speed of air in wind
tunnel. Also determine the ratio of the drag (resistance) between the model and its prototype. Take the
value of kinematic viscosities for sea water and air as .012 stokes and .016 stokes respectively. The
density for sea-water and air is given as 1030 kglm 3 and 1.24 kglm 3 respectively.
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Solution. Given :
Prototype (sub-marine) and its model.
For prototype, Speed Vp = 10 mis
Fluid = Sea - water
Kinematic viscosity, Vp = 0.012 stokes= .012 cm 2/s
= .012 x 10--4m2/s { ·: Stoke = cm 2/s}
Density, PP= 1030 kg/m 3
For model Fluid= Air

Kinematic viscosity, vm = 0.016 stokes= 0.016 cm 2/s = .016 x 10--4m2/s
Density, Pm= 1.24 kg/m 3
Also Length of prototype = Lp = 30 _0
Length of model Lm
Let the velocity of air in model = Vm·
For dynamic similarity between model and sub-marine, the viscous resistance is to be overcame and
hence for fully submerged sub-marine, the Reynold's number for model and prototype should be same.
pp VpDp - Pm VmDm VpDp - VmDm . VpDp - VmDm
or
µp µm (µ/p)P - (µ/p)m ' Vp - Vm
0.016 X 10--4
= 30 10 mis
.012 X 10--4
X X
{---
0.016
=- - x 30 x 10 =400 mis. Ans .
.012
Ratio of drag force (resistance) :
Drag force = Mass x Acceleration
3 V 2 L 2 2
= pL x - = p . L . - x V = p L V
t t
Let F p and Fm denote the drag force for the prototype and for the model respectively then,
Fp = ppL:V~ = EE_ X (Lp ) 2 X (Vp ) 2

Fm PmLm Vm Pm Lm Vm
2
=- - X 302 X ( - 10 ) =467.22. Ans.
1030
1.24 400
Problem 12.18 A ship 300 m long moves in sea-water, whose density is I 030 kg/m 3, A I : I 00
model of this ship is to be tested in a wind tunnel. The velocity of air in the wind tunnel around the
model is 30 mis and the resistance of the model is 60 N. Determine the velocity of ship in sea-water and
also the resistance of the ship in sea-water. The density of air is given as 1.24 kg/m 3• Take the kinematic
viscosity of sea-water and air as 0.012 stokes and 0.018 stokes respectively.
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Solution. Given :
For Prototype,
Length, Lp = 300 m
Fluid = Sea-water
Density of water = 1030 kg/m 3
Kinematic viscosity, Vp = 0.012 stokes= 0.012 x 10--4 m 2/s
Let velocity of ship = Vp
Resistance = Fp
For model
1
Length, L = - x300=3m
m 100
Velocity, Vm = 30 mis
Resistance, Fm = 60 N
Density of air, Pm= 1.24 kg/m 3
Kinematic viscosity of air, vm = 0.018 stokes= .018 x 10--4 m 2/s.
For dynamic similarity between the prototype and its model, the Reynolds number for both of them
should be equal.
.012 X 10--4 3 1 1
= _018 x 10 --4 x 300 x 30 = LS X 100 x 30 = 0.2 mis. Ans.
Resistance = Mass x Acceleration

V V L
= pL3 x - = pL2 x - X - = pL2V 2
t 1 t
Then
But ..e..r_ = 1030

Pm 1.24
Fp = 1030 X (300)2 X (0.2)2 = 369.17

Fm 1.24 3 30
Fp = 369.17 X Fm= 369.17 X 60 = 22150.2 N. Ans.
12.9.2 Froude Model Law. Froude model law is the law in which the models are based on
Froude number which means for dynamic similarity between the model and prototype, the Froude
number for both of them should be equal. Froude model law is applicable when the gravity force is
only predominant force which controls the flow in addition to the force of inertia. Froude model law is
applied in the following fluid flow problems :
1. Free surface flows such as flow over spillways, weirs, sluices, channels etc.,
2. Flow of jet from an orifice or nozzle,
3. Where waves are likely to be formed on surface,
4. Where fluids of different densities flow over one another.
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Let Vm = Velocity of fluid in model,
Lm = Linear dimension or length of model,
gm= Acceleration due to gravity at a place where model is tested.
and Vp, Lp and gp are the corresponding values of the velocity, length and acceleration due to gravity
for the prototype. Then according to Froude model law,
(Fe)model = (Fe)prototype or ~ ... (12.18)

gm m
If the tests on the model are performed on the same place where prototype is to operate, then gm = gp
and equation (12.18) becomes as
... (12.19)
or
Vp = [!;;_ = .jL,
{-: ~:=Lr}
vm VLm
where Lr = Scale ratio for length
Vp = Vr = Scale ratio for velocity.

vm
Vp
V
=Vr = "\J'--'r
IL. ... (12.20)
m
Scale ratios for various physical quantities based on Froude model law are :
(a) Scale ratio for time
. Length
As time=-~-,
Velocity
then ratio of time for prototype and model is
= .jL,. ... (12.21)

(b) Scale ratio for acceleration
Acceleration = V
T
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1
= JL,x ...;L,
fT
= 1. ... (12.22)
(c) Scale ratio for discharge
2 L L3
Q=AXV=L X - = -
T T
Q, = ~: !
=f l: =(~J x (;:) =L,' k
x = L,' 5 ... (12.23)
(d) Scale ratio for force
As Force= Mass x Acceleration= pL3 x V = pL2 • L . V = pL2 V 2

T T
Ratio for force, F,= Fp = ppLtV~ =&x(Lp)2 x(Vp)2

Fm PmLm Vm Pm Lm Vm
If the fluid used in model and prototype is same, then
-PP = l or pp= Pm
Pm
and hence Fr = ( ~:
(e) Scale ratio for pressure intensity

r ~r
X ( = L/ x ( JL,)2 = L,2 . L, = L,3. ... (12.24)
As _ Force _ pL2V2 _ V2
p- A r e a - ~ - p
2
Pressure ratio, P =PP= ppVp
r
Pm Pm m
v2
If fluid is same, then PP= Pm
p,= ~ =(;:)' = L, ... (12.25)
(j) Scale ratio for work, energy, torque, moment etc.

Torque = Force x Distance = F x L
Tp * ( F x L) P 3 4
Torque ratio, T* = - - = - - ~ = F,xL,= L, xL,= L,. ... (12.26)
r Tm* (F x L)m
(g) Scale ratio for power
As Power = Work per unit time
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FXL
---
T
Power ratio,
=Fr. Lr. - 1 =Lr3 . Lr. 1

fT =L3.5 . ... (12.27)
T, ...;L,
Problem 12.19 In 1 in 40 model of a spillway, the velocity and discharge are 2 mis and 2.5 m3Js. Find
the corresponding velocity and discharge in the prototype.
Solution. Given :
Scale ratio of length, Lr = 40
Velocity in model, Vm = 2 mis
Discharge in model, Qm = 2.4 m 3/s
Let Vp and Qp are the velocity and discharge in prototype.
Using equation (12.20) for velocity ratio, Vp= JL, = /4o

vm
Vp = Vm X J40 = 2 X J40 = 12.65 mis. Ans.
Using equation (12.23) for discharge ratio,
Qp = L 2.5 = (40)2-5
Qm r
Qp = Qm X 40 2·5 =2.5 x 40 2·5 = 25298.2 m 3/s. Ans.
Problem 12.20 A ship model of scale _!_ is towed through sea water at a speed of 1 mis. A force of
50
2 N is required to tow the model. Determine the speed of ship and the propulsive force on the ship, if
prototype is subjected to wave resistance only.
Solution. Given :
Scale ratio of length, Lr = 50
Speed of model, Vm = 1 mis
Force required for model, Fm = 2 N
Let the speed of ship = Vp
and the propulsive force for ship = Fp•
As prototype is subjected to wave resistance only for dynamic similarity, the Froude number should
be same for model and prototype. Hence for velocity ratio, for Froude model law using equation
(12.20), we have
V:
_f_
V ff: = Jso
= --.JLr
m
Vp = J5o X Vm = J5o X 1 =7.071 mis. Ans.

Force scale ratio is given by equation (12.24),
F=Fp=L3
r F r
m
Fp =Fm x L,3 =2 x (50)3 =250000 N. Ans.
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Problem 12.21 In the model test of a spillway the discharge and velocity of flow over the model
were 2 m 3/s and 1.5 mis respectively. Calculate the velocity and discharge over the prototype which is
36 times the model size.
Solution. Given :
Discharge over model, Qm = 2 m 3/s
Velocity over model, Vm = 1.5 mis
Linear scale ratio, Lr = 36.
For dynamic similarity, Froude model law is used. Using equation (12.20), we have
Vp
V 'L = J36 =6.0
= -,,JLr
m
Vp = Velocity over prototype= Vm x 6.0 = 1.5 x 6.0 = 9 mis. Ans.

For discharge, using equation (12.23), we get
Qp =L 2.5 =(36)2-5.
Qm r
Qp = Qm X (36)2- 5 = 2 X 362·5 = 15552 m 3/s. Ans.
Problem 12.22 In a geometrically similar model of spillway the discharge per metre length is
!_ m3Js. If the scale of the model is _!_, find the discharge per metre length of the prototype.
6 36
Solution. Given :
Discharge per metre length for model,
Linear scale ratio, Lr = 36

Discharge per metre length for prototype, qp = ?
The discharge ratio for spillway is given by equation (12.23), Qp = L/- 5 •

Qm
But discharge ratio per metre length is given as
!f.L = Qp I Lp Qp X Lm = L 2.5 X _l_ = L 1.5
qm Qm / Lm Qm Lp r L, r
q p = qm XL r l. 5 = _!_
6
X (36)1. 5 = _!_
6
X 6 2 X 1. 5
= 63- 1 = 6 2 = 36 m 3/s per metre length. Ans.
Problem 12.23 A spillway model is to be built to a geometrically similar scale of _!_ across a
50
flume of 600 mm width. The prototype is 15 m high and maximum head on it is expected to be 1.5 m.
(i) What height of model and what head on the model should be used ? (ii) If the flow over the model
at a particular head is 12 litres per second, what flow per metre length of the prototype is expected ?
(iii) If the negative pressure in the model is 200 mm, what is the negative pressure in prototype ? Is it
practicable ?
Solution. Given :
Scale ratio for length, L,= 50
Width of model, Bm = 600 mm= 0.6 m
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Flow over model, Qm = 12 litres/s
Pressure in model, hm = - 200 mm of water = - 0.2 m
Height of prototype, Hp= 15 m
Head on prototype, HP* = 1.5 m
(i) Let the height of model = Hm
and head on model = H m*
Linear scale ratio, Lr = HP = HP* = 50
Hm Hm*
Hp 15
Height of model, H =- = - = 0.3 m. Ans.
m 50 50
And head on model, * _ HP* _ 1.50 _
H - - - - - - - 0.03 m. Ans.
m 50 50
Width of prototype, Bp = Lr X Bm = 50 x 0.6 = 30 m.
(ii) Discharge ratio is given by equation (12.23) as
Qp = L 2 ·5 = (50)2- 5 = 17677 .67

Qm r
Qp = Qm X 17677.67 = 12 X 17677.67 = 212132.04 lit/s
Q 212132.04
Discharge per metre length of prototype = P = -------
Length of prototype Width of prototype
212132.04 •
=- - - - =7071.078 htres/s. Ans.
30
(iii) Negative pressure head in prototype,
hp= Lr X hm = 50 X (- 0.2) =-10.0 m. Ans.
This negative pressure is not practicable. Maximum practicable negative pressure head is - 7 .50 m
of water.
Problem 12.24 In a 1 in 20 model of stilling basin, the height of the hydraulic jump in the model is
observed to be 0.20 metre. What is the height of the hydraulic jump in the prototype ? If the energy
dissipated in the model is _!_ kW, what is the corresponding value in prototype ?
JO
Solution. Given :
Height of hydraulic jump in model, hm = 0.20 m
Energy dissipated in model, Pm = _!_ kW
10
(i) Let the height of hydraulic jump in the prototype= hp
Then !!:..r_
h
= L = 20
r
m
hp= hm X 20 = 0.20 X 20 =4 m. Ans.
(ii) Let the energy dissipated in prototype= Fp
p
Using equation (12.27) for power ratio, _E_ = L/5 = 203·5 = 35777.088
pm
1
Pp= Pm X 35777.088 = - X 35777.088 = 3577.708 kW. Ans.
10
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Problem 12.25 The characteristics of the spillway are to be studied by means of a geometrically
similar model constructed to the scale ratio of 1 : JO.
(i) If the maximum rate of flow in the prototype is 28.3 cumecs, what will be the corresponding
flow in model ?
(ii) If the measured velocity in the model at a point on the spillway is 2.4 mis, what will be the
corresponding velocity in prototype ?
(iii) If the hydraulic jump at the foot of the model is 50 mm high, what will be the height ofjump in
prototype?
(iv) If the energy dissipated per second in the model is 3.5 Nm, what energy is dissipated per second
in the prototype ?
Solution. Given :
Linear dimension of model 1
----------- =
Linear dimension of prototype 10
Scale ratio, Lr = 10.
(i) Discharge in prototype, Qp = 28.3 m 3/s
Let Qm = Discharge in model
For discharge using equation (12.23), we get
Qp = L 2.5
Qm r
Qp 28.3
Qm = 25 =~ =0.0895 m 3Is. Ans.
L," 10 ·
( ii) Velocity in the model, V m = 2.4 mis
Let Vp = Velocity in the prototype
For velocity using equation (12.20), we get
Vp = [f;-
V '\,/Lr
m
Vp = Vm X J4 = 2.4 X .Jfo = 7.589 mis. Ans.

(iii) Hydraulic jump in model, Hm = 50 mm
Let Hp= Hydraulic jump in prototype
Hp
Now scale ratio =-
Hm
Hp= Hm X Scale ratio= 50 X 10 = 500 mm. Ans.
(iv) Energy dissipated/sin model, Em= 3.5 N mis
Let E P = Energy dissipated/s in prototype
Now using equation (12.27), we get Ep = L/ 5

Em
Ep = Em X L/ 5 = 3.5 X 103·5 = 11067.9 N mis. Ans.
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Problem 12.26 A I : 64 model is constructed of an open channel in concrete which has Man-
ning's N = 0.014. Find the value of N for the model.
Solution. Given :
Linear scale ratio, Lr= 64
Value of N for prototype, Np= 0.014
Let Nm = Value of N for model.
The Manning's formula* is given by, V = _!_ m312 • i 112

N
in which m = Hydraulic mean depth in m
i = Slope of the bed of the channel
Now for the model, the Manning's formula becomes as
Vm = _1_ · ( mm )2/3 · ("lm )l/2 ... (i)

Nm
and for the prototype, the Manning's formula is written as
Vp = _1_ . (mp)213. (ip}1'2 ... (ii)

Np
Dividing equation (ii) by equation (i), we get
1 2/3 . 1/2
Vp = Np.(mp) .(ip) = Nm ·(mp)2l3 -(~P)112 ... (iii)
vm _1_ . ( mm )2/3 . (.lm )1/2 Np mm lm
Nm
For dynamic similarity, Froude model law is used. Using equation (12.20), we have
Vp
V ff:" =JM = 8
= '\,/Lr
m
m i
But _P =Lr and --!-- = 1 as ip and im are dimensionless.
mm lm
Substituting these values in equation (iii), we get
8= Nm x(L)213 xl= Nm x(64)213 (·:Np= 0.014)

Np r 0.014
N _ 8 X 0.014 _ 8 X 0.014 _ O 007 A
m- 64 2/3 - 16 - . . ns.
Problem 12.27 A 7.2 m height and 15 m long spillway discharges 94 m3Js discharge under a head
of 2.0 m. If a I : 9 scale model of this spillway is to be constructed, determine model dimensions, head
over spillway model and the model discharge. If model experiences a force of 7500 N (764.53 kgf),
determine force on the prototype.
Solution. Given :
For prototype: Height hp= 7.2 m
Length, Lp = 15 m
Discharge, Qp = 94 m 3Is
*See chapter 16 where Manning's formula for velocity through an open channel flow is given.
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Head, Hp= 2.0 m
Size of model = _!_ of the size of prototype.

9
Force experienced by model, F p = 7500 N
Find: (i) Model dimensions i.e., height and length of model (hm and Lm)
(ii) Head over model i.e., Hm
(iii) Discharge through model i.e., Qm
(iv) Force on prototype (i.e., Fp)
(i) Model dimensions (hm and Lm)
!!:..r_ = Lp = L r = 9
hm Lm
hp 7.2
h = - = - = 0.8 m. Ans.
m 9 9
Lp 15
And L = - = - = 1.67 m. Ans.
m 9 9
(ii) Head over model (Hm)
Hp
H= Lr =9
-
m
H 2
Hm = = - = 0.222 m. Ans.
____!_
9 9
(iii) Discharge through model (Qm)
Using equation (12.23), we get Qp = L/- 5

Qm
Qp 94 94 3
Qm = ~=~ =- = 0.387 m /s. Ans.
Lr· 9 · 243
(iv) Force on the Prototype (Fp)
Using equation (12.24), we get Fr= Fp = L/

Fm
Fp = Fm x L/ = 7500 x 9 3 = 5467500 N. Ans.
12.9.3 Euler's Model Law. Euler's model law is the law in which the models are designed on
Euler's number which means for dynamic similarity between the model and prototype, the Euler
number for model and prototype should be equal. Euler's model law is applicable when the pressure
forces are alone predominant in addition to the inertia force. According to this law :
(Eu)model = (Eu)prototype ... (12.28)
If Vm = Velocity of fluid in model,
pm = Pressure of fluid in model,
and Vp, Pp, PP= Corresponding values in prototype, then
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Substituting these values in equation (12.28), we get
Vm _ Vp
... (12.29)
✓PmlPm - ✓Pplpp
If fluid is same in model and prototype, then equation (12.29) becomes as
Vm Vp
... (12.30)
Ji: = Ji;
Euler's model law is applied for fluid flow problems where flow is taking place in a closed pipe in
which case turbulence is fully developed so that viscous forces are negligible and gravity force and
surface tension force is absent. This law is also used where the phenomenon of cavitation takes place.
12.9.4 Weber Model Law. Weber model law is the law in which models are based on Weber's
number, which is the ratio of the square root of inertia force to surface tension force. Hence where
surface tension effects predominate in addition to inertia force, the dynamic similarity between the
model and prototype is obtained by equating the Weber number of the model and its prototype. Hence
according to this law :
where We is Weber number and = ~

cr / pL
crm = Surface tensile force in model,
Lm = Length of surface in model,
and Vp, <Jp, pp, Lp = Corresponding values of fluid in prototype.
Then according to Weber law, we have
Vm V
----;:::====== = ----;:::==== ... (12.31)
,JcrmlPmLm ,Jcrp/ppLp
Weber model law is applied in following cases :
1. Capillary rise in narrow passages,
2. Capillary movement of water in soil,
3. Capillary waves in channels,
4. Flow over weirs for small heads.
12.9.S Mach Model Law. Mach model law is the law in which models are designed on Mach
number, which is the ratio of the square root of inertia force to elastic force of a fluid. Hence where the
forces due to elastic compression predominate in addition to inertia force, the dynamic similarity
between the model and its prototype is obtained by equating the Mach number of the model and its
prototype. Hence according to this law :
(M)model = (M)prototype
V
where M =Mach number = ~
-vK /p
Km = Elastic stress for model,
and Vp, Kp and pp= Corresponding values for prototype. Then according to Mach law,
Vm V
= ----;::=== -=== ... (12.32)
..JKmf Pm ..JKplpp
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Mach model law is applied in the following cases :
1. Flow of aeroplane and projectile through air at supersonic speed, i.e., at a velocity more than the
velocity of sound,
2. Aerodynamic testing,
3. Under water testing of torpedoes,
4. Water-hammer problems.
Problem 12.28 The pressure drop in an aeroplane model of size _!__ of its prototype is 80 N/cm 2•
JO
The model is tested in water. Find the corresponding pressure drop in the prototype. Take density of
air= 1.24 kg/m 3• The viscosity of water is 0.01 poise while the viscosity of air is 0.00018 poise.
Solution. Given :
Pressure drop in model, Pm= 80 N/cm 2 = 80 x 104 N/m 2
Fluid in model = Water, while in prototype= Air
Viscosity of water, µm = 0.01 poise
Density of water, Pm= 1000 kg/m 3
Viscosity of air, µp = .00018 poise
Density of air, pp= 1.24 kg/m 3
Let the corresponding pressure drop in prototype= PP·
As the problem involves pressure force and viscous force and hence for dynamic similarity between
the model and prototype, Euler's number and Reynold's number should be considered. Making first of
all, Reynold's number equal, we get from equation (12.17)
Pm VmLm ppVpLp or -
---=-'-'-----'----'-
vm= - PPXLp -X-
µm
µm µp Vp Pm Lm µp
But 2.f__ = 1.24
Pm 1000
Lp =Lr=40, µm =___.Q:Q!_
Lm µp .00018
Vm = 1.24 X 40 X ~ = 2.755.
Vp 1000 .00018
Now making Euler's number equal, we get from equation (12.29) as
vm_ .Jii:jp;,,_ ~ x ~
IE-~
~-_Ji__ or
Vp - .Jpp /pp -vPP VPm
V PP 1.24
But = 2.755 and-=--
_!!!_
Vp Pm 1000
2.755 = ~ X ✓ 1. = ~ X .0352
24
vi;; 1000 vi;;
~ = 2·755 =78.267
VPP .0352
80
Pm =(78.267) 2 or p = Pm
pp p (78.267) 2 (78.267) 2
= 0.01306 N/cm 2• Ans.
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• 12.1 O MODEL TESTING OF PARTIALLY SUB-MERGED BODIES
Let us consider the testing of a ship model (ship is a partially sub-merged body) in a water-tunnel
in order to find the drag force F or resistance experienced by a ship. The drag experienced by a ship
consists of :
1. The wave resistance, which is the resistance offered by the waves on the free sea-surface, and
2. The frictional or viscous resistance, which is offered by the water on the surface of contact of the
ship with water.
Thus in this case three forces namely inertia, gravity and viscous forces are present. Then for
dynamic similarity between the model and its prototype, the Reynold's number (which is ratio of
inertia force to viscous force) and the Froude number (which is the ratio of inertia force to gravity
force) should be taken into account. This means that in this case, the Reynold model law and Froude
model law should be applied.
But for Reynold model law, the condition is
Reynold number of model= Reynold number of prototype
Pm VmLm - ppVpLp
or
µm µp
If fluid is same for the model and prototype, then Pm= pp and µm = µp
VmLm = VpLp
V
m
= VpLp
L
m
= L r VP {-: Lp =L}
L
m
, ... (12.33)
For Froude model law, have from equation (12.18) as ~

gmLm
If fluid is same for model and prototype and test is conducted at the same place where prototype is
to operate, then gm= gp
Vm Vp
Fm = Ji;
Vm=
V~
Lp
XVp=VpX RlLp
= VpX ~
....;L,
{·: -Lp = L, } ... (12.34)
Lm
Lm
From equations (12.33) and (12.34), we observe that the velocity of fluid in model for Reynold
model law and Froude model law is different. Thus it is quite impossible to satisfy both the laws
together, which means the dynamic similarity between the model and its prototype will not exist. To
overcome this difficulty, the method suggested by William Froude is adopted for testing the ship
model (or partially sub-merged bodies) as :
Step 1. The total resistance experienced by a ship is equal to the wave resistance plus frictional or
viscous resistance.
Let (R) p = Total resistance experienced by prototype,
(Rw)P = Wave resistance experienced by prototype,
(R1)p = Frictional resistance experienced by prototype, and
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(R)m, (Rw)mo (R1)m = Corresponding values for model.
Then, we have for prototype, (R)p = (Rw)P + (R1)p ... (12.35)
and for model, (R)m = (Rw)m + (R1)m ... (12.36)
Step 2. The frictional resistances for the model and the ship [i.e., (R1)m and (R1)p] are calculated
from the expressions given below :
(R1)p = [pApV/ ... (12.37)
and (Rf)m = fmAm Vmn ... (12.38)
where f p = Frictional resistance per unit area per unit velocity of prototype,
Ap = Wetted surface area of the prototype,
Vp = Velocity of prototype,
n = Constant, and
fmo Amo Vm = Corresponding values of frictional resistance, wetted area and velocity of model.
The values of [p and f m are determined from experiments.
Step 3. The model is tested by towing it in water contained in a towing tank such that the dynamic
similarity for Froude number is satisfied i.e., (Fe)m = (Fe)P. The total resistance of the model (Rm) is
measured for this condition.
Step 4. The total resistance (Rm) for the model is known from step 3 and frictional resistance of the
model (R1)m is calculated from equation (12.37). Then the wave resistance for the model is known from
equation (12.36) as
(Rw)m = Rm- (Rf)m ... (12.39)
Step 5. The resistance experienced by a ship of length L, flowing with velocity Vin fluid of viscosity
µ, density p depends upon g, the acceleration due to gravity. By dimensional analysis, the expression
for resistance is given by
2
R
pL2V2 = [pVL
µ' VgL ] = [Re, Fe]2
Thus resistance is a function of Reynold number (Re) and Froude number (Fe).
For dynamic similarity for model and prototype for wave resistance only, we have
... (12.40)
But from Step 3,
Substituting the value of Vm in equation (12.40), we have
) _ EE_ X
(R wP- Lt2 X
V; L X
(R )
wm
Pm Lm V2 x____!!!_
P Lp
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=- PPX -L~- X (Rw)m. . .. (12.41)

3
Pm Lm
Step 6. The total resistance of the ship is given by adding (Rw)P from equation (12.41) to (Rf)P
given by equation (12.37) as
... (12.42)
Problem 12.29 A 1 in 20 model of a naval ship having a sub-merged surface area of 5 m 2 and
length 8 m has a total drag of 20 N when towed through water at a velocity of 1.5 mis. Calculate the
total drag on the prototype when moving at the corresponding speed. Use the relation Ff= !_ Cf pA V2
2
for calculating the skin (frictional) resistance. The value of Cf is given by Cf= ~:~;;.
Take kinematic viscosity of water (or sea-water) as 0.01 stoke and density of water (or sea-water)
as 1000 kg/m 3•
Solution. Given :
Sub-merged area of model, Am= 5.0 m 2
Length of model, Lm = 8.0 m
Total drag of model, Rm= 20 N
Velocity of model, Vm = 1.5 mis
Let Ap, Lp, Rp, Vp = Corresponding values for prototype.
Fluid in model is the same as in prototype and is sea-water.
Kinematic viscosity of sea-water, vm = Vp = 0.01 stokes= .01 cm 2/s = .01 x 10-4 m 2/s
The skin (frictional) resistance of model is given by
1 2
(Ff)m = 2Cfm P~mVm ... (i)
C _ 0.0735
where ... (ii)
fm - [(Re )Jl/5
where (Re)m = Reynold's number for model

_ Pm VmLm
~~~or
VmLm
µm Vm
= 1.5 X 8.0 = 1.2 X 107•

.01 X 10-4
Substituting this value in equation (ii), we get
C = 0.0735 1/5 = .0735 = 2.82 X 10-3 ... ( iii)
fm (1.2 X 107) 26.0517
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Substituting the value of C1m in equation (i), we get
1 -3 2
(Ff)m = 2 X 2.82 X 10 X 1000 X 5.0 X (1.5) = 15.8617 = 15.862 N
Using equation (12.36), we get Rm= (Rw)m + (Rf)m

where (R1)m = (F1)m = 15.862 or 20 = (Rw)m + 15.862
:. Wave resistance for model, (Rw)m = 20 - 15.862 = 4.138 N ... (iv)
The wave resistance experienced by the ship is given by equation (12.41) as
= 1X L/ X 4.138 N {-: :: = 1 for same fluid}

= 1 X 203 X 4.138 = 33104 N
and skin (frictional) resistance of prototype is given by
(R1)p = (F1)p = 21 c1 p x PP x Ap x Vp
2
... (v)
where Vp is the velocity of prototype and is given by Froude model law,
i.e.,
Vp = &
VLm
X Vm = F, X Vm
= Jw X 1.5 = 6.708 m/s

Now Ap
A
= Lr2 = 202
m
Ap = Am X 20 2 = 5 X 400 = 2000 m 2
and Lp = Lm X Lr = 8 X 20 = 160 m
In equation (v), the value of C is given by C = 0 ·073 ~,

5
JP JP [(Re)p]
where (Re)P = Reynolds number for prototype

= Vp X Lp = 6.708 X 1~0 = 1.073 X l09
Vp .0lxlO
C _ 0.0735 0.0735
63.99 = 1.1486 X 10-3
fp - (1.073 X 109 )1' 5
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Substituting this value of C1p in equation (v), we get
(Rf)P =(Ff)P = 21 X 1.1486 X 10~ X 1000 X 2000 X (6.708) 2 =51683.8 N

:. Total drag on prototype is obtained by using equation (12.35).
Rp = (Rw)P + (R1)p = 33104 + 51683.8 = 84787.8 N. Ans.
Problem 12.30 A 1 : 15 model of a flying boat is towed through water. The prototype is moving in
sea-water of density 1024 kg/m 3 at a velocity of 20 mis. Find the corresponding speed of the model. Also
determine the resistance due to waves on model if the resistance due to waves of prototype is 600 N.
Solution. Given :
Linear scale ratio, Lr= 15
Velocity of prototype, VP = 20 mis
Fluid in prototype is sea-water while in model it is water
Density of sea-water, pp= 1024 kg/m 3
Resistance due to waves for prototype is, (Rw)P = 600 N.
Find Vm and (Rw)m.
(i) The velocity, Vm from model is given by Froude model law,
Vm Vp
.JLmg = ,JLp Xg
20
../15
= -20- =5.165 mis. Ans.
3.872
(ii) For dynamic similarity between model and its prototype for wave resistance only, we have
equation (12.41) as
. . 1024 3 1024 3
Subst1tutmg the known values, 600 =- -
1000
x Lr X (Rw)m = - - X
1000
15 X (Rw)m
(Rw)m = 6 00 X lOO~ =0.1736 N. Ans.

1024 X 15
Problem 12.31 A 1 : 40 model of an ocean tanker is dragged through fresh water at 2 mis with a
total measured drag of 12 N. The skin (frictional) drag co-efficient 'f' for model and prototype are
0.03 and 0.002 respectively in the equation R1 = f. A V2• The wetted surface area of the model is
25 m 2• Determine the total drag on the prototype and the power required to drive the prototype.
Take PP= 1030 kg/m 3 and Pm= 1000 kg/m 3•
Solution. Given :
Linear scale ratio,
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Velocity of model, Vm = 2 mis
Total drag of model, Rm= 12 N
Wetted area of model, Am= 25 m 2
Co-efficient of friction for model, fm = .03
for prototype, fp = .002.
Let the total drag on prototype = Rp
And power required to drive the prototype =P
Frictional drag on model, (R1)m =fmAmVm 2= .03 x 25 x 22 = 3 N
:. Wave drag on model, (Rw)m =Rm - (R1)m = 12- 3 =9 N.
The waves drag on prototype is obtained from equation (12.41) as
) = EL X ( LLp )
(R wP
Pm m
3
X ) = 1030
(R wm lOOO X L 3X
r
9 {-: ~: =L, =40}
= l0 30X 40 3 X 9 = 593291.8 N ... (i)
1000
The frictional drag on prototype is given by
(R1)p =fp XAp X Vp 2 ... (ii)
where the velocity of prototype Vp is obtained from Froude model law as
Vm - Vp or Vm =____!E_
-JLm Xg - -JLp Xg JL,: J"E;
Vp = ft'P
L X Vm = Vff:
i..,r X Vm = J40 X 2 = 12.65 mis
m
A
and __E_ =L/ =40 x 40 or Ap =40 x 40 X Am
Am
=40 X 40 X 25 =40000 m 2•
Substituting these values in (ii), we get
(Rf)P = .002 X 40000 X (12.65)2 = 12801.8 N ... (iii)
Total drag on the prototype is obtained by adding equations (i) and (ii) as
Rp = (Rw)P + (Rf)P
= 593291.8 + 12801.8 =606093.6 N. Ans.
Power required to drive the prototype,
(Total drag on prototype) X Velocity of prototype
P=------------------
1000
= 606093.6 X 12.65 =7667 kW. Ans.
1000
Problem 12.32 Resistance R, to the motion of a completely sub-merged body is given by
R = pV2t2 <p (:).
where p and v are density and kinematic viscosity of the fluid while l is the length of the body and V
is the velocity of flow. If the resistance of a one-eight scale air-ship model when tested in water at
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12 mis is 22 N, what will be the resistance in air of the air-ship at the corresponding speed? Kinematic
viscosity of air is 13 times that of water and density of water is 810 times of air.
Solution. Given :
Velocity of model, Vm = 12 mis
Resistance to model, Rm= 22 N
The fluid for model is water and for prototype the fluid is air.
Kinematic viscosity of air = 13 x Kinematic viscosity of water
Vp = 13 X Vm
Density of water = 810 x Density of air
Pm= 810 X PP
Let Vp = Velocity of the air-ship (Prototype)
Rp = Resistance of the air-ship
The resistance, R, is given by R = pV2 t2 (:)

The non-dimensional terms ~ and VI should be same for the prototype and its model.
pV I v
Vplp Vmlm
or --=--
( : totocype = ( : todel Vp Vm
I
Vp =V x _f_
....!!!..
V
= 12 x - 1 x 13
mIp vm Lr
= 12 X -1 X 13 = 19.5 mis
8
Also ( ; 1
p
2) protocype
= ( ; 1
p
2) model
or
v2 12
R =R X £f._ X _f.__ X ....f...
p m p v2 12
m m m
= 22 X _1_ X (19.5)2 X 82 (·.- :: = I, = 8.0)

810 12 2
= 4.59 N. Ans.
• 12.11 CLASSIFICATION OF MODELS
The hydraulic models are classified as :

1. Undistorted models, and 2. Distorted models.
12.1 1.1 Undistorted Models. Undistorted models are those models which are geometrically
similar to their prototypes or in other words if the scale ratio for the linear dimensions of the model and
its prototype is same, the model is called undistorted model. The behaviour of the prototype can be
easily predicted from the results of undistorted model.
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12.1 1.2 Distorted Models. A model is said to be distorted if it is not geometrically similar to
its prototype. For a distorted model different scale ratios for the linear dimensions are adopted. For
example, in case of rivers, harbours, reservoirs etc., two different scale ratios, one for horizontal
dimensions and other for vertical dimensions are taken. Thus the models of rivers, harbours and reser-
voirs will become as distorted models. If for the river, the horizontal and vertical scale ratios are taken
to be same so that the model is undistorted, then the depth of water in the model of the river will be
very-very small which may not be measured accurately. The following are the advantage of distorted
models:
1. The vertical dimensions of the model can be measured accurately.
2. The cost of the model can be reduced.
3. Turbulent flow in the model can be maintained.
Though there are some advantages of the distorted model, yet the results of the distorted model
cannot be directly transferred to its prototype. But sometimes from the distorted models very useful
information can be obtained.
12.1 1.3 Scale Ratios for Distorted Models. As mentioned above, two different scale ratios,
one for horizontal dimensions and other for vertical dimensions, are taken for distorted models.
Let (Lr) H = Scale ratio for horizontal dimension
= Lp = Bp = Linear horizontal dimension of prototype
Lm Bm Linear horizontal dimension of model
(Lr)v = Scale ratio for vertical dimension
= Linear vertical dimension of prototype = hp
Linear vertical dimension of model hm
Then the scale ratios of velocity, area of flow, discharge etc., in terms of (Lr)H and (Lr)v can be
obtained for distorted models as given below :
1. Scale ratio for velocity
Let Vp = Velocity in prototype
Vm = Velocity in model.
Vp = ,J2ghp ~ UT\
Then
vm fiih: Vhm =,..;(Lr)v
2. Scale ratio for area of flow
Let A p = Area of flow in prototype = B p x hp
Am = Area of flow in model = Bm x hm
Ap = Bp X hp = Bp X hp = (L ) x (L )
B Xh
A
m m m Bm hm r H r V
3. Scale ratio for discharge

Let Qp = Discharge through prototype= Ap x Vp
Qm = Discharge through model = Am x V m
Qp = Ap X Vp = (Lr)H X (Lr)v X .J( Lr )v = (Lr)H X [(Lr)v]3/2 ... (12.43)

Qm Am xVm
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Problem 12.33 The discharge through a weir is 1.5 m3Is. Find the discharge through the model of
1
the weir if the horizontal dimension of the model = - the horizontal dimension of the prototype and
50
1
vertical dimension of the model = - the vertical dimension of the prototype.
JO
Solution. Given :
Discharge through weir (prototype), Qp = 1.5 m 3/s
Horizontal dimension of model = - 1- x Horizontal dimension of prototype

50
Horizontal dimension of prototype
--------~-~~ =50 or (L,)H = 50
Horizontal dimension of model
Vertical dimension of model = - 1- x Vertical dimension of prototype

10
Vertical dimension of prototype = 10
Vertical dimension of model
(L,)v = 10.
Using equation (12.43), we get Qp

Qm
=(L r)H X [(L r)v] 312 =50 X 10312 = 1581.14
Q Qp l. 50 = .000948 m 3/s
m = 1581.14 1581.14
= 0.948 litres/s. Ans.
H I GHLIGHTS
1. Dimensional ana lys is is the method of dimensions, in wh ich fundamental d imensions are M, l and T.
2. Dimensional ana lys is is performed by two methods namely Ray leigh's Method and Buckingham's
n-theorem.
3. Rayleigh 's method is used for find ing an expression for a variab le which depends on maximum three
or fo ur variables while there is no restriction on the number of variables for Buckingham 's 7t-theorem.
4. Model ana lys is is an experimental method of finding solutions of complex flow problems. A model is a
sma ll scale replica of the actual machine or structure. The actual machine or structure is called prototype.
5. Three types of simi larities must exist between the model and prototype. They are : (i) Geometric
Similarity, (ii) Kinematic Similarity, and (iii) Dynamic Similarity.
6. For geometric similarity, the ratio of all linear dimensions of the model and of the prototype shou ld be
equal.
7. Kinematic simil ar ity means the simil arity of motion between model and prototype .
8. Dynamic sim ilarity means the simil arity of forces between the model and prototype .
9. Reynold 's number is defined as the ratio of inertia force and viscous force of a flowing fluid. It is given
by,
pVL Vl Vx d .
Re = - - = - =- - for pipe flow
µ V V
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where V = Velocity of flow, d = Diameter of pipe and

v = Kinematic viscosity of fluid.
10. Froude's Number is the ratio of the square root of inertia force and gravity force and is given by
Fe=f;= i.·
11. Euler's number is the ratio of the square root of inertia force and pressure force and is given by,
E" =ff= .J:!p .

12. Mach number is the ratio of the square root of inertia force and elastic force and is given by
M = ft= ✓:/ P = ~.
13. The laws on which the models are designed for dynamic similarity are called model laws or laws of
similarity. The model laws are (i) Reynold's Model Law, (ii) Froude Model Law, (iii) Euler Model Law,
(iv) Weber Model Law , (v) Mach Model Law .
14. The drag experienced by a ship model (or partially sub-merged body) is obtained by Froude's method.
15. Hydraulic models are classified as (i) undistorted models and (ii) distorted models.
16. If the models are geometrically similar to its prototype, the models are known as undistorted model. And
if the models are having different scale ratio for horizontal and vertical dimensions, the models are known
as distorted model.
EXERCISE
(A) THEORETICAL PROBLEMS

1. Define the terms dimensional analysis and model analysis.
2. What do you mean by fundamental units and derived units ? Give examples.
3. Explain the term, 'dimensionally homogeneous equation'.
4. What are the methods of dimensional analysis ? Describe the Rayleigh's method for dimensional
analysis.
5. State Buckingham's 1t-theorem. Why this theorem is considered superior over the Rayleigh's method
for dimensional analysis ?
6. What do you mean by repeating variables ? How are the repeating variables selected for dimensional
analysis ?
7. Define the terms : model, prototype, model analysis, hydraulic similitude.
8. Explain the different types of hydraulic similarities that must exist between a prototype and its model.
9. What do you mean by dimensionless numbers ? Name any four dimensionless numbers.
Define and explain Reynold' s number, Froude's number's and Mach number. Derive expressions for
any above two numbers.
10. What is meant by geometric, kinematic and dynamic similarities ? Are these similarities truly attainable ?
If not why?
11. Define the following non-dimensional numbers : Reynold's number, Froude's number and Mach's
number. What are their significances for fluid flow problems ?
12. What are the different laws on which models are designed for dynamic similarity ? Where are they used ?
13. How will you determine the total drag of a ship or partially sub-merged bodies ?
14. Explain the terms : distorted models and undistorted models. What is the use of distorted models ?
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15. Prove that the scale ratio for discharge for a distorted model is given as
Qp
Qm
= (LrH
) x (L ) 312
rV
where Qp = Discharge through prototype

Qm = Discharge through model
(L,) 8 = Horizontal scale ratio
(L,)v = Vertical scale ratio.
16. Show that ratio of inertia force to viscous force gives the Reynolds number.
17. State Buckingham's 1t-theorem. What do you mean by repeating variables? How are the repeating
variables selected in dimensional analysis ?
18. What is the significance of the non-dimensional numbers : Reynolds number, Froude number and Mach
number in the theory of similarity ? What is the dimensional analysis ? How is this analysis related to the
theory of similarity? (Delhi University, December 2001)
19. Define and explain : (i) Froude's number, (ii) Mach number, (iii) Hydraulic similarities (iv) Distorted and
undistorted models. (Delhi University, December 2002)
(B) NUMERICAL PROBLEMS
1. Give the dimensions of : (i) Force (ii) Viscosity (iii) Power and (iv) Kinematic viscosity.
[Ans. ML12, MC 11 1, ML+2 r-3, L 21 1]
2. The variables controlling the motion of a floating vessel through water are the drag force F, the speed V,
the length L, the density p and dynamic viscosity µ of water and acceleration due to gravity g. Derive an
expression for F by dimensional analysis. [ Ans. F = pL2 V 2 <j> [__!:_,

pVL V 2
Lg]]
3. The resistance R, to the motion of a completely sub-merged body depends upon the length of the body L,
velocity of flow V, mass density of fluid p and kinematic viscosity of fluid v. By dimensional analysis
prove that
R = pV2L 2 <j> ( ~ )-
4. A pipe of diameter 1.8 m is required to transport an oil of sp. gr. 0.8 and viscosity .04 poise at the rate of
4 m 3Is. Tests were conducted on a 20 cm diameter pipe using water at 20°C. Find the velocity and rate of
flow in the model. Viscosity of water at 20°C = .01 poise. [Ans. 2.829 mis, 88.8 litresls]
5. A model of a sub-marine of scale - 1- is tested in a wind tunnel. Find the speed of air in wind tunnel if the
40
speed of sub-marine in sea-water is 15 mis. Also find the ratio of the resistance between the model and its
prototype. Take the values of kinematic viscosities for sea-water and air as .012 stokes and 0.016 stokes
respectively. The density of sea-water and of air are given as 1030 kglm3 and 1.24 kglm 3 respectively.
[Ans. 800 mis, : ; = 0.00214]

6. A ship 250 m long moves in sea-water, whose density is 1030 kglm 3 • A 1 : 125 model of this ship is to
be tested in wind tunnel. The velocity of air in the wind tunnel around the model is 20 mis and the
resistance of the model is 50 N. Determine the velocity of ship in sea-water and also the resistance of
the ship in sea-water. The density of air is given as 1.24 kglm 3 • Take the kinematic viscosity of sea-
water and air as 0.012 stokes and 0.018 stokes respectively. [Ans. 0.106 mis, 18228.7 N]
-11
Assistant Professor
~I IL

7. In 1 : 30 model of a spillway, the velocity and discharge are 1.5 mis and 2.0 m 3ls. Find the corresponding
velocity and discharge in the prototype. [Ans. 8.216 mis, 9859 m 3ls]
8. A ship-model of scale _!_ is towed through sea-water at a speed of 0.5 mis. A force of 1.5 N is required to
60
tow the model. Determine the speed of the ship and propulsive force on the ship, if prototype is subjected
to wave resistance only. [Ans. 3.873 mis, 324000 N]
9. A spillway model is to be built to a geometrically similar scale of - 1- across a flume, of 50 cm width. The
40
prototype is 20 m high and maximum head on it is expected to be 2 m. (i) What height of model and what
head on the model should be used ? (ii) If the flow over the model at a particular head is 10 litresls, what
flow per metre length of the prototype is expected ? (iii) If the negative pressure in the model is 150 mm,
what is the negative pressure in the prototype ? Is it practicable ?
[Ans. (i) 0.5 m, 0.05 m, (ii) 5059.64 litresls (iii) 6 m. Yes]
10. The pressure drop in an aeroplane model of size _!_

of its prototype is 4 Nlcm 2 • The model is tested in
50
water. Find the corresponding pressure drop in the prototype. Take density of air= 1.24 kglm3. The vis-
cosity of water is 0.01 poise while the viscosity of air is 0.00018 poise. [Ans . .00042 Nlcm 2 ]
11. A 1 : 20 model of a flying boat is towed through water. The prototype is moving in sea-water of density
1024 kglm3 at a velocity of 15 mis. Find the corresponding speed of the model. Also determine the resis-
tance due to waves on model, if the resistance due to waves of prototype is 500 N.
[Ans. 3.354 mis, .061 N]
12. A 1 : 50 model of an ocean tanker is dragged through fresh water at 1.5 mis with a total measured drag of
10 N. The frictional drag co-efficient 'f' for model and prototype are 0.03 and 0.02 respectively in the
equation,
R1 =J.A. V2 ;
the wetted surface area of the model is 20 m 2 • Determine the total drag on the prototype and the power
required to derive the prototype. Take density of sea-water and of fresh water as 1024 kg/m3 and 1000 kg/m2
respectively. [Ans. 1118436 N, 158072 h.p.]
13. If model prototype ratio is 1 : 75, show that the ratio of discharges per unit width of spillway is given by
14. A fluid of density p and viscosity µ, flows at an average velocity V through a circular pipe of diameter D.
Show by dimensional analysis, that the shear stress at the pipe wall is given as
'to -
_ p vi,._"' [pVD] .
µ
15. The drag force exerted by a flowing fluid on a solid body depends upon the length of the body, L, velocity
of flow V, density of fluid p, and viscosity µ. Find an expression for drag force using Buckingham's
theorem.
16. The efficiency TJ of geometrically similar fans depends upon the mass density of air p, its viscosity µ,
speed of fan N (revolutions per sec), diameter of blades D and discharge Q. Perform dimensional analysis.
[Hint. Take D, N, p as repeating variables. Then three 7t-terms will be
n, = If't . !/'1. pct . 1'J = 1'J ;
1t2 = [j'2 . !/'2 . pc2 . µ = +

DNP
and 7t3 = Da3 . N'3 . pc3 . Q = +
DN
1'l = (7t2, 7t3) = (DfNP' D~N) ]
-11
Assistant Professor
~I IL

17. The discharge through an orifice depends on the diameter D of the orifice, head H over the orifice,
density p of liquid, viscosity µ of the liquid and acceleration g due to gravity. Using dimensional
analysis, find an expression for the discharge. Hence find the dimensionless parameters on which the
discharge co-efficient of an orifice meter depend.
[ Hint. Q = f(D, H, p, µ, g). Hence N = 6, m = 3 and number of 1t-terms = 3. Take p, D, g as repeating
variables. Then
1t1 = pal Dbl get Q, 1t2 = pa2. Dh2 . gc2. µ and 1t3 = pa3 . Db3 . gc3 . H.
Find 1t 1, 1t2 and 1t3. They will be 1t 1 =

D
2 _5 Q
xg
112 , 1t2 =
p.D
fi .g
3 112 and 1t3 = H .
D
Hence Q =d·s. g112. (H'

D p.D
3Yi .g112) =D2. g112. D'12 (H'
D p.D
3Yi .g112 )·
Also Q = Cd x A x .J2gh .
Comparing the two values of Q.
We get Cd= (H,

D p.D
3Yi .g112 )· Hence Cd depends upon H and
D
3Yi 112 ]
p.D .g
18. The force exerted by a flowing fluid on a stationary body depends upon the length (L) of the body, velocity
(V) of the fluid, density (p) of fluid, viscosity(µ) of the fluid and acceleration (g) due to gravity. Find an
expression for the force using dimensional analysis.
[ Ans. F = pL V (j>
2 2 Lx
pVL' V 2
(__!:_ g)]
19. The pressure difference !!.p in a pipe of diameter D and length L due to turbulent flow depends upon the
velocity V, viscosityµ, density p and roughness k. Using Buckingham's 1t-theorem or otherwise obtain an
expression for !!.p. (Delhi University, December 2002)
-11
Assistant Professor

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SASURIE COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING 1

Dimensional analysis is a method of dimensions. It is a mathematical technique used in research

• 12.2 SECONDARY OR DERIVED QUANTITIES

S. No. Physical Quantity Symbol Dimensions

I 560 Fluid Mechanics

S.No. Physical Qualltity Sylllbol Dimellsions

19. Modulus of Elasticity {f MC 1T - 2

20. Surface Tension (J MT - 2

t Shear Stress Force

Dimensional and Model Analysis 561 I

Weight Force MLr-2

• 12.3 DIMENSIONAL HOMOGENEITY

Dimension of L.H.S. = Dimension of R.H.S. = LT- 1

• 12.4 METHODS OF DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

I 562 Fluid Mechanics

Power of L, O=a+b a=-b=-(-½) =½

t=KLl/2 .g-l/2=K f-f-

Dimensional and Model Analysis 563 I

=KD2V2p (D--d. y-d. p-d. µd) = KpD2V2 (~)d

= KpD 2V 2cl>(__t___) . Ans.

=A t2V2 p (p~LJ {p~2 J

R = pL2V2 ¢ [(p~L} (t )].

Dimensional and Model Analysis 565 I

= Kpfv' . (:VJ' -( ~ )' = Kpl'V'$ [(:vi}(:,)l An,.

12.4.2 Buckingham's 1t-Theorem. The Rayleigh's method of dimensional analysis becomes

I 566 Fluid Mechanics

n 1 = X/1 . x/1 . X/1 . X1 }

Dimensional and Model Analysis 567 I

I 568 Fluid Mechanics

Problem 12.8 (a) State Buckingham's ![-theorem.

Solution. (a) Statement of Buckingham's n-theorem is given in Article 12.4.2.

Dimensional and Model Analysis 569 I

1t3 =D-3 · CO-1 · p0 · Q = -D2

given by V = .J2gH cl> [D, ~J.

I 570 Fluid Mechanics

Substituting the values of 1t 1, 1t2 and 1t3 in equation (ii),

Dimensional and Model Analysis 571 I

Multiplying by a constant does not change the character of 1t-terms.

Second 1t-term 1t2 = Da2 . Vb 2 . pc 2 • /

I 572 Fluid Mechanics

pt2= ~ ~ [ :VP ' ; ]

Dividing by g to both sides, we have /lp = V • 1

co-efficient of friction which is a function of Reynolds number and roughness factor.

Dimensional and Model Analysis 573 I

1t1 =D 1 . v-1 . µ-1 . up =-

I 574 Fluid Mechanics

f1 (:J, ~.p:V)=o or :t = $[~,p:V] or L\p= µ; $[~•p:V]

L\p = µV x _!_$ [pDV]· Ans.

Dimensional and Model Analysis 575 I

1t1 =D-2 · V -2 · P-1 p = D 2pV 2 p •

Substituting dimensions on both sides,

I 576 Fluid Mechanics

viscosityµ and density pin a turbulent flow is given by T = D 5N 2 p</J [+].D Np

Dimensional Analysis of 1t2

Dimensional and Model Analysis 577 I

Substituting the values of 1t 1 and 1t2 in equation (ii),

I 578 Fluid Mechanics

1t3= d -3 · N-2 .p-1 .O"= 3

1t4 =d -I · N-2 · p-1 · W = --2-

Now substituting the values of 1t 1, 1t2 , 1t3, 1t4 in (ii),

t(d~N' p:d2 'd3;2p 'd;2p) =0 or d~N =/1 [p:d2 'd3;2p' d;2p]

• 12.S MODEL ANALYSIS

Dimensional and Model Analysis 579 I

= KpD 2V 2cl>(t_) . Ans.