Animal Forms and Functions
Types of Reproduction
Sexual- genetic material from two individuals is
combined to produce genetically diverse offspring.
Asexual- one individual produces genetically
identical offspring.
Types of Asexual Reproduction
Regeneration- process of renewal, restoration
and growth that makes genomes, cells, organisms,
resilient to natural fluctuations.
Budding- parent organism creates bud from
own cell which then form the basis of the offspring
organisms and develop into an organism resembling the
parent.
Parthenogenesis- reproductive strategy that
involves the development of female gametes without
fertilization.
Fragmentation- parent organism can be divided
into many pieces and each piece will develop into a
complete individual.
Binary Fission- the cell divides itself into two,
equal, identical parts with the same DNA.
Sexual Reproduction
Isogamy- fusion of two motile gametes which
are morphologically identical and physiologically
different.
Anisogamy- fusion of morphologically dissimilar
male and female gametes which can be motile or
immotile
Oogamy- fusion of immotile, large female
gamete (egg) occurs with motile, small male gamete
(sperm)
Monoecious (Hermaphrodites)- organisms
containing both male and female reproductive organs
Dioeciuos- female and male
Sex change in Animals
Protandry- develop first as male and then
switch to female
Protogyny- born female and at some point in
their lifespan change sex to male
Development in Animals
Indirect- birth form is very different from the
adult form. The embryo hatches from the egg in a larval
form. The larva undergoes a drastic metamorphosis in
order to achieve its adult stage
Direct- animal is born in a smaller version of its
adult form.
Stages of Mammalian Animal development
Acrosomal Reaction- is triggered when the
sperm meets the egg
* acrosome at the tip of the sperm releases
hydrolytic enzymes that digest material surrounding the
egg. When the sperm binds a receptor in the zona
pellucida, it triggers a slow block to polyspermy
No fast block to polyspermy has been identified in
mammals. Gamete contact and/or fusion depolarizes
the egg cell membrane and sets up a fast block to
polyspermy
 Cortical Reaction- Seconds after the sperm
binds to the egg, vesicles just beneath the egg plasma
membrane release their contents and form a
fertilization envelope
* The cortical reaction requires a high
concentration of Ca2 ions in the egg. The reaction is
triggered by a change in Ca2 concentration. Ca2 spread
across the egg correlates with the appearance of the
fertilization envelope.
Egg Activation- The rise in Ca2+ in the cytosol
increases the rates of cellular respiration and protein
synthesis by the egg cell. With these rapid changes in
metabolism, the egg is said to be activated
The proteins and mRNAs needed for activation are
already present in the egg. The sperm nucleus merges
with the egg nucleus and cell division begins (12-36
hours after binding)
Cleavage Patterns
Holoblastic- complete division of the egg, occurs
in species whose eggs have little or moderate amounts
of yolk (oligolecithal).
Meroblastic- incomplete division of the egg,
occurs in species with yolk-rich eggs
Regulation of Cleavage
Animal embryos complete cleavage when the
ratio of material in the nucleus relative to the cytoplasm
is sufficiently large
Morphogenesis in animals involves specific changes in
cell shape, position, and survival
After cleavage, the rate of cell division slows
and the normal cell cycle is restored Morphogenesis,
the process by which cells occupy their appropriate
locations, involves Gastrulation, the movement of cells
from the blastula surface to the interior of the embryo
which rearranges the cells of a blastula into a three-
layered embryo, called a gastrula. Organogenesis, the
formation of organs
Gastrulation

Homeostasis- tendency to resist change in
order to maintain a stable, relatively constant internal
environment
Two type of Homeostasis
Positive Feedback- when a response to an
event increases the likelihood of the event to continue
moving the system away from the starting point.
Negative Feedback- is a response to a stimulus
that keeps a variable close to a set value by "shutting
off" or "turning on" a system when it varies from a set
value.
Systems of the Body
Digestive System- digestion and absoprtion to
obatin nutrition for survival
Invertebrates
Gastrovascular Cavity- blind tube or cavity with
only one opening; “mouth serves as an anus”
Alimentary Canal- consists of one end and an
anus at the other
Vertebrates
Monogastric- one stomach chamber
Two-Chambered stomach- 2 stomach chambers
*Proventriculus- gastric juice are produces to
digest the food before it enters the stomach
Gizzard- food is stored, soaked, and
mechanically ground
Four-chambered stomach- 4 stomach chambers
*Rumen and reticulum- contains prokaryotes
and protists that are able to digest cellulose fiber
*Omasum- 3rd stomach ; cud from reticulum,
chews it and swallows, which removes water
*Abomasum- 4th stomach; where it is digested
by enzymes produces by the ruminant
Respiratory system- responsible for taking in
oxygen and expelling carbon dioxide
Invertebrate
Gills and trachae, large surface areas, in contact
with air or water, if require diffusion they must be moist
Terrestrial Invertebrates
Book Lungs- main respiratory organ, consist of
series of haemolymph filled plate-like structures
Spiracles- openings found on the thorax and
abdomen of insects
Mantle Cavity- allows water or air to circulate
through the mollusk, bringing with it nutrients and
oxygen
Vertebrates
Gills – for aquatic chordates Example: tunicates,
fish and amphibians
Lungs - for terrestrial chordates
Circulatory Systems- transport nutrients,
oxygen, and hormones to cells throughout the body and
removal of metabolic wastes
Invertebrates
*do not need a circulatory system because
diffusion allows adequate exchange of water, nutrients
and wastes
Vertebrates
*closed circulatory systems are a characteristic
of vertebrates. Blood circulates unidirectionally from
the heart, around the body and back to the heart
Fish: single direction, blood flows unidirectional
from the 2-chambered heart through gills and the
through the body
Amphibian: 2 circulatory routes
Pulmonary and Skin circulation
Systemic Circulation- blood is pumped
from a 3 chambered heart with two atria and a single
ventricle
Reptile: Pulmonary circulation
Systemic circulation- blood is pumped
from a 3 chambered heart with 2 atria and a single
ventricle
Mammal: Pulmonary Circulation
Systemic Circulation- efficient heart
with 4 chambers that completely separate the
oxygenated blood and deoxygenated blood.
 Nervous System- collection of nerves and
specialized cells known as neurons that transmit signals
between different parts of the body
Invertebrates
Cnidarian: lack true brain, have a system of
separate but connected nerve cells(neurons) called a
‘nerve net’
Echinoderm: have nerve cells that are bundle
into fibers called nerves
Planarian: made up of small ‘brain’ and 2 nerve
cords, and a peripheral nervous system containing a
system of nerves
Arthropod: brain, central nerve cord and ganglia
(clusters of connected neurons, control movements and
behaviors)
Mollusk: neurons that are organized in
specialized lobes and eyes that are structurally similar
to vertebrate species
Vertebrate
Brain structure: CNS that contains a brain anf
spinal cord; PNS made up of peripheral sensory and
motor nerves
Endocrine System- made up of glands that
produce and secrete hormones, chemical substances
produced in the body that regulate the activity of cells
Invertebrate
Cnidarian: do not have certain endocrine
system, yet they have hormones that are present in the
tissues * Hydra secrete a hormone called Thyroxine,
which regulates asexual reproduction through budding
Annelid: hormones regulate reproduction and
regeneration
Arthropod: systems are similar with the
vertebrate endocrine system; maintain homeostasis for
during growth, during molting, for mate recognition,
and during migration
Nematode: not have an endocrine system
because it does not have any organs that work
together; have communication cells
Vertebrate
the hypothalamus is the neural control center
for all endocrine systems
Senses
Sensory Receptors
Mechanoreceptors- respond to mechanical
stimulation; responsible for senses of touch and hearing
Chemoreceptors- taste and smell
*Olfaction- detection of airborne
chemicals
*Gustation- detections of dissolved
chemicals
Electromechanical receptors- detect
electromagnetic energy such as light, electricity and
magnetism
*Photoreceptors- detect light and are
responsible for vision
Thermoreceptors- changes in temperature
Nociceptors- Detect injurious stimuli such as
extreme heat, pressure and dangerous chemicals
Immune System- complex network of cells and
proteins that defends the body against infection
First line of defense
Skin- largest organ in the body; waterproof
barrier between invaders (pathogens) and the body
Tears, mucus and saliva- contain an enzyme
that breaks down the cell wall of many bacteria
Cilia- move mucus and trapped particles away
from the lungs
Stomach acid- kills bacteria and parasites that
have been swallowed
Urine flow- flushes out pathogens from the
bladder area
Second Line of defense
White blood cells- seek out and destroy disease
causing organisms or substances.
Cytotoxic T cells- secrete cytotoxin which
triggers destruction of the pathogen's DNA or perforin
which is a protein that creates holes in the pathogen’s
plasma membrane causing the pathogen to lyse
Helper T cells- secrete interleukin 2 (I-2) which
stimulates cell division of T cells and B cells • these cells
recruit even more cells to help fight the pathogen.
Suppressor T cells- blocks the actions of some
other types of lymphocytes, to keep the immune
system from becoming overactive

Third line of defense

Lymphocytes- act to recognize antigens,
produce antibodies, and destroy cells that could cause
damage
Antibodies- are Y-shaped proteins that circulate
through the blood stream and bind to specific antigens,
thereby attacking microbes; immunoglobulins or Ig's