Dr. A.

Vinoth Jebaraj
VIT University, Vellore.
 Design For Static Loading

Design For Variable Loading

 Ductile material Brittle material
Necking

Shear failure @ 45° plane Brittle fracture @ 0° plane

Ductile fracture Brittle fracture

Shear plane Normal plane

 Uniaxial loading

 The plane perpendicular to the line of action of the load is a

principal plane. [Because, It is having the maximum stress value
and shear stress in this plane is zero.]

 The plane which is at an angle of 90° will have no normal and

tangential stress.
Mohr’s circle for uniaxial loading
 Purpose of Tensile test

1 2

3 4

Image Courtesy: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D8U4G5kcpcM

 Simple Tension Test

 In simple tension test, all six quantities reaches its critical

values simultaneously (at a single instant).

Any one of the following will cause failure.

• Principal normal stress yield stress σmax = σy or σu

• Principal shear stress yield shear stress τmax = σy /2

• Principal strain energy strain energy at yield point Utotal = ½ [σy εy]

• Principal strain strain at yield point εmax = σy /E (or) σu /E

• Distortion energy distortion energy at yield point

Udistortion = [σy2]
 Real life examples for Combined loading

Torsion and bending

Crank Shaft
Side thrust from cylinder
wall, force due to piston

Thrust and torsional shear

Connecting rod
Lifting Jack

Axial, bending and Torsion

Coupling

Propeller shaft
Tensile and direct shear
Why failure theories?

Principal stress < Yield stress [safe]

but, Shear stress exceeds its limit.
Types of Loading
 Pure shear

Normal stress σn = τ sin 2θ  At θ = 45° σn = σmax = τ

Shear stress τ = τ cos 2θ  At θ = 0°, τ max = τ

 Under pure shear, ductile materials will fail in 0° plane and brittle materials will fail
in 45° plane. Because, at 0° plane induces maximum shear stress and 45° plane gives
maximum normal stress.
 Theories of Failure

 Predicting failure in the members subjected to uniaxial stress is very

simple and straightforward. Because all failure criterions are reaching
the critical limit at an instant.

 But, in multi axial loading the prediction of failure is much

complicated. Because, predicting the cause of failure i.e. which
quantity of failure criterion is causing failure is difficult to find.

Thus, theories were formulated to predict this issue, which are known
as failure theories.
 Maximum Principal or Normal Stress Theory
(Rankine’s Theory)

Max principal stress [σ1] ≥ [σy] yield stress

(In a multi axial loading) (In a simple tension test)
This theory is based on failure in tension or compression and ignores the
possibility of failure due to shearing stress, therefore it is not used for ductile
materials.

For Brittle materials which are relatively strong in shear but weak in tension
or compression, this theory is generally used.
Maximum Shear Stress Theory
σ2

σ1
 Maximum Distortion Energy Theory (Hencky
and Von Mises Theory)

According to this theory, the failure or yielding occurs at a point in a member when
the distortion strain energy (shear strain energy) per unit volume in a biaxial stress
system reaches the limiting distortion energy (distortion energy per unit volume) as
determined from a simple tension test.
 Total strain energy U = Uv + Ud Ud = U - Uv

For triaxial loading, the distortion energy

Ud = (1+µ) / 6E [(σ1 - σ2) 2 + (σ2 - σ3)2 + (σ3 – σ1)2]

For uniaxial tension test

Ud = (1+µ) / 6E [(σ1 2 + σ1)2] Ud = (1+µ) / 3E [σy2]

[When σ1 reaches σy]

 =

Thus, the left side of the Equation is a single, equivalent, or effective

stress for the entire general state of stress given by σ1, σ2, and σ3.
This effective stress is usually called the VonMises stress, σ′, named
after Dr. R. VonMises, who contributed to the theory.
 VonMises Stress component

= + +

Where ε1, ε2, ε3 are strain three principal directions

∈ = [ − + ]

∈ = [ − + ]

∈ = [ − + ]

Substituting the above equations,

= [( + + ) – 2μ ( + + )]
 Total strain energy U = Uv + Ud
Therefore, the corresponding stresses are resolved into three
components

= + ; = + ; = +
∈ +∈ +∈ =

∈ = [ − + ]

∈ = [ − + ]

∈ = [ − + ]

− ( + + )=0 − ≠

Therefore, ( + + )=0

+ + =
Strain energy for volume change Uv = 3

Volumetric Strain ∈ = [ − [ + ]

( )
∈ =

( )
Uv =

Uv =

Ud = U - Uv

( )
Ud = [ − + − + − ]
 Distortion strain energy in triaxial loading

( )
Ud = [ − + − + − ]

In simple tension test, when yielding starts = = =

Distortion strain energy in uniaxial loading

( )
Ud =
Therefore, Failure criterion is,
( ) ( )
= [ − + − + − ]

= [ − + − + − ]
 Maximum Principal Strain Theory
(St. Venant’s Principle)

Max principal strain [ɛ1] ≥ [ɛy] Strain at yield point

(In a multi axial loading) (In a simple tension test)

The strain in the direction of σ1 [ε1] =

 According to this theory of failure, σ1 could be increased to a
value somewhat higher than σy without causing yielding if the
second normal stress σ2 is a tensile stress. But if σ2 is a
compressive stress the maximum value of σ1 that could be applied
without causing yielding would be somewhat smaller than σy.

 This theory is not applicable if the failure in elastic behavior is

by yielding. It is applicable when the conditions are such that
failure occurs by brittle fracture.
 Maximum Strain Energy Theory
(Haigh’s Theory)

Total strain energy [UTotal] ≥ [Uy] Strain energy at yield point

(In a multi axial loading) (In a simple tension test)

According to this theory, the failure or yielding occurs at a point in a member

when the strain energy per unit volume in a biaxial stress system reaches the
limiting strain energy (strain energy at yield point) per unit volume as
determined from the simple tension test.
Liberty ship failure De Havilland Comet failure

Historical failures
Aloha airplane failure Boston molasses tank failure
 Stress Concentration!

De Havilland Comet was the World first commercial jet liner, with a cruising
speed of 490 mph at altitudes up to 40,000 ft. One year after its introduction,
a Comet tore apart in mid-flight near Calcutta, India. Another Comet fell
into the sea near Elba, in January of 1954. Then three months later, a third
Comet crashed near Naples, in Italy.
Image Courtesy: http://lessonslearned.faa.gov/ll_main.cfm?TabID=1&LLID=28&LLTypeID=2
 Stress Concentration

Stress concentration: Localization of Reasons for stress

high stresses due to the irregularities concentration
present in the component and abrupt
changes of the cross section  Variation in properties of
materials

 Load application

 Abrupt changes in cross

section

 Discontinuities in the
component

 Machining scratches
 Stress concentration in brittle materials

 Brittle materials do not yield locally and there is no readjustment of stresses at

the discontinuities. (due to inability of plastic deformation)

 When the magnitude of stress reaches the ultimate strength of the material, a
crack will nucleate and increases the stress concentration at the crack.

 Therefore, stress concentration factors have to be used in the design of brittle

materials.
 Stress concentration in ductile materials (static load)

 When the stress reaches the yield point, then there will be a local plastic deformation
near the discontinuity which will lead to redistribution of stresses near the stress
concentration zone.

 There is no remarkable damage to the machine component. This redistribution of

stresses will be restricted to very small area.

Stress concentration in ductile materials (fluctuating load)

 Due to fluctuating load the component may fail due to fatigue. stress
concentration will leads to the reduction in endurance limit of the ductile
materials.

 Therefore stress concentration factors have to be used in the design of machine

components made of ductile materials.
 Cup and cone ductile fracture Brittle fracture

Why ductile
material fails in a
brittle fashion?

Image courtesy: http://www.reliasoft.com/newsletter/v8i2/fatigue.htm

 Fluctuating stresses

σmax = max stress ; σmin = min stress ; σa = stress amplitude

σmean = mean stress
The stresses induced in a machine component due to dynamic load
(change in magnitude with respect to time) is known as fluctuating
stresses.
 Variable loading
Types of loading
• Change in magnitude of the
• Fully Reversed loading
applied load
Example: Punching machine

• Change in direction of the load

Example: Connecting rod

• Change in point of application

• Repeated loading
Example: Rotating shaft
 Fatigue failure
( Time delayed fracture under cyclic loading)

Fatigue failure begins with a crack at some point in the material .

Regions of discontinuities (oil holes, keyways and screw threads)

Regions of irregularities in machining operations (scratches on the

surface, stamp mark, inspection marks)

Internal cracks due to defects in materials like blow holes

 These regions are subjected to stress concentration due to crack,

then due to fluctuating load the crack spreads.
Region indicating slow growth of
crack with a fine fibrous Region of sudden fracture with
appearance a coarse granular appearance
Crack initiation  Crack propagation  Fracture
 Design of machine components for fluctuating load

Number of Stress
cycles amplitude

Stress
Mean stress Fatigue concentration

Residual Corrosion
stresses & creep
Endurance limit or fatigue limit of a material is defined as the maximum amplitude of
completely reversed stress that the standard specimen can sustain for an unlimited number
of cycles without fatigue failure.

106 cycles are considered as a sufficient number of cycles to define the endurance limit.

Fatigue life: The total number of stress cycles that the standard specimen can complete
during the test before appearance of the first fatigue crack.
S-N Curve

Fatigue test specimen

 Effect of stress concentration on fatigue life

Real-World Allowable Cyclic Stress = ka * kb * kc * kd * ke * kf * EL

 Size factor, surface finish factor, load factor, reliability factor, temperature factor,
impact factor
Macro observation of the Micro observation of the metal
metal Surface Surface
Micro observation of the
polished metal Surface
The graph shows that the
endurance limit is very low
in the corrosive
environment.

Because the corroded

surface will induce crack
in the component surface
which will reduce the life
drastically.
 Notch sensitivity factor (q)

In case of dynamic loading, if stress concentration present in the material, then it will
reduce the endurance limit.

The actual reduction in the endurance limit of a material due to stress concentration
under dynamic loading is varied by the theoretical values predicted using theoretical stress
concentration factor.

Therefore two separate stress concentration factors are used . i.e. Kt and Kf.

 kf is the fatigue stress concentration factor

 kf = Endurance limit of the notch free specimen / Endurance limit of the notched
specimen

Notch sensitivity [q] : Susceptibility of a material to succumb to the damaging effects of

stress raising notches in fatigue loading.

q = Increase of actual stress over nominal stress / Increase of theoretical stress over
nominal stress
Notch sensitivity (q) for different materials
σo = nominal stress obtained by the elementary equations

Actual stress due to fatigue loading = Kf σ0

Theoretical stress = Kt σ0

Increase of actual stress over nominal stress = (Kf σ0 - σ0)

Increase of theoretical stress over nominal stress = (Kt σ0 - σ0)

q=

Kf = 1 + q (Kt – 1)

When the material has no sensitivity to notches,

q = 0 and Kf = 1

When the material is fully sensitive to notches,

q = 1 and Kf = Kt
Design for Variable loading

Modified Goodman diagram?

Modified Goodman line
According to Soderberg line,

= + [ ( & )]

= + [For shear stress]

According to Goodman line,

= + [ ( & )]

= + [For shear stress]

 Combined variable loading
According to Soderberg line, (for normal stresses)

= +
Multiplying throughout by we get,
= +

Equivalent normal stress = +

According to Soderberg line, (for shear stresses)

= +
Multiplying throughout by we get,
= +

Equivalent shear stress = +