Thermodynamics 1

Carnot Cycle & Three-Process Cycle

 Heat Engine/Thermal Engine
• A closed system (no mass crosses its boundaries)
• They receive heat from a high-temperature source (solar energy, oil furnace, nuclear reactor,
etc.)
• They convert part of this heat to work (usually in a form of a rotating shaft)
• They reject the remaining waste heat to a low-temperature sink (the atmosphere, rivers, etc.)
• They operates on a cycles
Elements of a thermodynamic heat engine with a
fluid as the working substance:

Working Substance - matter that receives heat, rejects heat &

does work

Heat Source - a hot body, a heat reservoir, or just source

- from which the working substance receives heat

Heat Sink - a receiver, a cold body, or just sink

- to which the working substance can reject heat

Engine - wherein the working substance may do work or have

work done on it.
Thermodynamic cycle occurs when the
working fluid of a system experiences a
number of processes that eventually return
the fluid to its initial state.
QA = heat added

QR = heat rejected

W = net work
• Available energy is that part of the heat that was
converted into mechanical work.
• Unavailable energy is the remainder of the heat
that had to be rejected into the receiver (sink).
Kelvin-Planck Statement:
– All energy received as heat by a heat-engine cycle cannot be
converted into mechanical work.

– It is impossible for any device that operates in a cycle to receive

heat from a single reservoir and produce a net amount of work.
Clausius Statement:
– It is impossible to construct a device that
operates in a cycle and produces no effect other
than the transfer of heat from lower temperature
body to a higher temperature body
Work or (Wnet) of a Cycle
(a) Wnet = ∑Q = Q1-2 + Q2-3 + Q3-4 + … (Algebraic sum)

Wnet = QA + (- QR) (Arithmetic difference)

The net work of a cycle is the algebraic sum of the

works (non-flow works) done by the individual
processes.
(b) Wnet = ∑W
Wnet = W1-2 + W2-3 + W3-4 + . . .
Mean Effective Pressure, pm
Mean effective pressure pm, is the average
constant pressure, acting through one stroke, will do
on the piston the net work of a single cycle.

pm = Wnet kPa or psi

VD

VD = displacement volume, the volume swept by

the piston in one stroke.
Thermal Efficiency, e
The thermal efficiency e is defined as
the fraction of the heat supplied to a
thermodynamic cycle that is converted
into work
e = Wnet x 100%
QA (Total)
Carnot Cycle
• The Carnot cycle is a theoretical thermodynamic cycle proposed
by Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot in 1824

• the most efficient cycle conceivable

• a perfect cycle that forms a standard of comparison for actual

engines, actual cycles and also for other less efficient ideal cycles

Carnot Engine
• is a hypothetical engine that operates on the reversible Carnot
cycle. The basic model for this engine was developed by Nicolas
Leonard Sadi Carnot.
A cylinder contains m mass of
a substance.
The cylinder head, the only
place where heat may enter
or leave the substance
(system) is placed in contact
with the source of heat, hot
body, into the substance in
the cylinder isothermally,
process 1-2, and the piston
moves from 1’-2’.
 2
Next, the cylinder is removed
from the hot body and the
insulator I is placed over the
head of the cylinder, so that
no heat may be transferred
in or out. As a result, any
further process is adiabatic.
The isentropic change 2-3
now occurs and the piston
moves 2’-3’.
 3
When the piston reaches the
end of the stroke 3’, the
insulator I is removed and the
cylinder head is placed in
contact with the receiver or
sink, which remains at the
constant temperature T3.
Heat then flows from the
substance to the sink and the
isothermal compression 3-4
occurs while piston moves
from 3’-4’.
 4
Finally, the insulator I is again
placed over the head & the
isentropic compression 4-1
returns the substance to its initial
condition, as the piston moves
from 4’-1’

Processes of Carnot Cycle:

1-2 Isothermal expansion
addition of heat
2-3 Isentropic expansion
3-4 Isothermal compression
rejection of heat
4-1 Isentropic compression
From the T-S plane:

QA = T1 (S2 – S1), area 1-2-n-m-1

QR = T3 (S4 – S3), area 3-4-m-n-3 = – T3 (S3 – S4) = – T3 (S2 – S1)
W = ΣQ = QA + QR = T1 (S2 – S1) – T3 (S2 – S1)
= (T1 – T3) (S2 – S1), area 1-2-3-4-1
The thermal efficiency e, is defined as the fraction of
the heat supplied to a thermodynamic cycle that is
converted into work.

𝑊 (T1 –T3) (S 2 – S1 ) T1 – T3
e= = =
𝑄𝐴 T1 (S1 – S2 ) T1
Work from the TS plane:
𝑉2
QA = mRT1ln
𝑉1
𝑉4 𝑉3
QR = mRT3ln = – mRT3ln
𝑉3 𝑉4

𝑇3 𝑉2 𝑘−1
From process 2-3, =
𝑇2 𝑉3

𝑇4 V1 k−1
From process 4-1, =
𝑇1 V4

And T4 = T3 and T1 = T2

V2 k−1 V1 k−1
Therefore, =
V3 V4

V3 V2
Then, =
V4 V1
 𝑉2
QR = –mRT3ln
𝑉1

𝑉2 𝑉2
W = ΣQ = QA + QR = mRT1ln – mRT3ln
𝑉1 𝑉1
𝑉2
W = (T1 – T3) mRln
𝑉1

𝑉
𝑊 T1 –T3 mR ln𝑉2
e= = 𝑉
1
𝑄𝐴 mR T1 ln𝑉2
1
T1 – T3
e=
T1

Work from the pV plane:

W = ∑W = W1-2 + W2-3 + W3-4 + W4-1

V2 p3 V3 − p2 V2 V4 p1 V1 − p4 V4
W = p1V1ln + + p3V3ln +
V1 1−k V3 1−k
 𝑊
Pm =
𝑉𝐷

𝑽𝑫 = displacement volume, the volume swept by the

piston in one stroke.
Pm = Mean effective pressure is the average constant
pressure that, acting through one stroke, will do on the
piston the net work of a single cycle.
 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
Expansion Ratio =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑉2
Isothermal Expansion Ratio =
𝑉1

𝑉3
Isentropic Expansion Ratio =
𝑉2

𝑉3
Overall Expansion Ratio =
𝑉1
 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
Compression Ratio =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑉3
Isothermal Compression Ratio =
𝑉4
𝑉4
Isentropic Compression Ratio, rk =
𝑉1
𝑉3
Overall Compression Ratio =
𝑉1

The isentropic compression ratio, rk, is the compression

ratio most commonly used.
Sample Problem 1: Carnot Cycle
1. A Carnot power cycle operates on 2lb of air between the limits of
70°F and 500°F. The pressure at the beginning of isothermal expansion
is 400psia and at the end of isothermal expansion is 185psig.
Determine (a) the volume at the end of isothermal compression,
(b) ΔS during an isothermal process, (c) QA, (d) QR, (e) W, (f) e,
(g) the ratio of expansion during isothermal heating and the overall
ratio of expansion, and (h) the mean effective pressure.
Sample Problem 1: Carnot Cycle
Solution Point 4:
m = 2lb 𝑽𝟏 𝟏.𝟕𝟕𝟖
• V4 = V3 = (15.72) = 7.849ft3
p1 = 400psia 𝑽𝟐 𝟑.𝟓𝟔𝟏

T1 = 960°R a) V4 = 7.849ft3
p2 = 199.7psia 𝑽𝟐 𝟐 𝟓𝟑.𝟑𝟒 𝟑.𝟓𝟔𝟏 𝑩𝒕𝒖
b) ΔS1-2 = mRln = ln = 0.0952
𝑽𝟏 𝟕𝟕𝟖 𝟏.𝟕𝟕𝟖 °𝑹
T3 = 530°R
c) QA = T1(ΔS) = (960)(0.0952) = 91.43Btu
Point 1:
d) QR = -T3(ΔS) = -(530)(0.0952) = -50.46Btu
𝒎𝑹𝑻𝟏 (𝟐)(𝟓𝟑.𝟑𝟒)(𝟗𝟔𝟎)
• V1 = = = 1.778ft3
𝒑𝟏 (𝟒𝟎𝟎)(𝟏𝟒𝟒) e) W = QA – QR = 91.43 – 50.46 = 40.97Btu
Point 2: 𝑾 𝟒𝟎.𝟗𝟕
f) e = = = 0.4481 or 44.81%
𝒎𝑹𝑻𝟐 (𝟐)(𝟓𝟑.𝟑𝟒)(𝟗𝟔𝟎) 𝑸𝑨 𝟗𝟏.𝟒𝟑
• V2 = = = 3.561ft3
𝒑𝟐 (𝟏𝟗𝟗.𝟕)(𝟏𝟒𝟒)
𝑽𝟐 𝟑.𝟓𝟔𝟏
Point 3: g) Isothermal Expansion Ratio = = =2
𝑽𝟏 𝟏.𝟕𝟕𝟖
𝒌 𝟏.𝟒 𝑽𝟑 𝟏𝟓.𝟕𝟐
𝑻 𝒌−𝟏 𝟓𝟑𝟎 𝟏.𝟒−𝟏 Overall Expansion Ratio = = = 8.84
• p3 = p2 𝟑 = (199.7) = 24.57psia 𝑽𝟏 𝟏.𝟕𝟕𝟖
𝑻𝟐 𝟗𝟔𝟎
𝑾 𝑾 (𝟒𝟎.𝟗𝟕)(𝟕𝟕𝟖)
• V3 =
𝒎𝑹𝑻𝟑
=
(𝟐)(𝟓𝟑.𝟑𝟒)(𝟓𝟑𝟎)
= 15.72ft3 h) pm = = = = 15.88psi
𝑽𝑫 𝑽𝟑 −𝑽𝟏 (𝟏𝟓.𝟕𝟐−𝟏.𝟕𝟕𝟖)(𝟏𝟒𝟒)
𝒑𝟑 (𝟐𝟒.𝟗𝟕)(𝟏𝟒𝟒)
Sample Problem 2: Carnot Engine
2. A Carnot engine operating between 775K and 305K produces 54kJ
of work. Determine (a) QA, (b) ΔS during heat rejection, and (c) e.
Solution
T1 = 775K
T3 = 305K
W = 54 kJ
𝑻𝟏 − 𝑻𝟑 𝟕𝟕𝟓− 𝟑𝟎𝟓
(a) e = = = 0.6065 or 60.65%
𝑻𝟏 𝟕𝟕𝟓

𝑾 𝟓𝟒
QA = = = 89.04kJ
𝒆 𝟎.𝟔𝟎𝟔𝟓

(b) QR = W – QA = 54 – 89.04 = – 35.04kJ

𝑸𝑹 −𝟑𝟓.𝟎𝟒 𝒌𝑱
ΔS3-4 = = = -0.115
𝑻𝟑 𝟑𝟎𝟓 𝑲

(c) e = 60.65%