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Wind-induced Motions
• Wind-induced building motion can essentially be divided into
three types: Along-wind
1. Along-wind motion Across-wind motion
motion
2. Across-wind motion
3. Torsional motion
Translation
Translation + Twisting
Nature of Wind
• Wind is the term used for air in motion and it is usually applied
to the natural horizontal motion of the atmosphere.
• Winds are produced by pressure differences in the atmosphere and
rotation of the earth.
• Air flowing over the earth’s surface is slowed down and made
turbulent by the roughness of the surface.
• Flow of wind unlike that of other fluids, is not steady and
fluctuates in a random fashion. The sudden variation in wind
speed, called gustiness or turbulence, is an important factor in
determining dynamic response of tall buildings.
• Because of this random nature, wind loads for building design are studied
statistically.
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Characteristics of Wind
• Wind flow is complex because numerous flow situations arise
from the interaction of wind with structures.
• In wind engineering, simplifications are made to arrive at the
design wind loads :
• Variation of wind velocity with height (velocity profile);
• Wind turbulence;
• Statistical probability;
• Vortex shedding;
• Dynamic nature of wind-structure interaction;
• Cladding pressure.
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Vz Vg ( z / z g )1/
p V 2
where
Vz is the mean wind speed at height z;
Vg is the gradient wind speed;
z is the height above-ground;
zg is the height of boundary layer;
α is the power law coefficient.
Bungale S.T. (2010). Reinforced Concrete Design of Tall Buildings. Taylor &Francis Group, LLC
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Wind Turbulence
• Air has a very low viscosity. Any movement of air at speeds
greater than 0.9 – 1.3 m/s is turbulent, causing particles of air
to move randomly in all directions (turbulent).
• The wind speeds can be decomposed into two components
• Quasi-steady mean wind speed that increase with height;
• Turbulent speed (Gust wind speed) remains the same over height.
Wind speeds 𝑣′ = 𝐺𝑣
𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑣 + 𝑣(𝑡)
Total pressure
𝑃 𝑡 = 𝑝 + 𝑝(𝑡)
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Probabilistic Approach
• The speed of wind is considered to be a function of the
duration of recurrence interval, i.e. return period.
• A 50 year return-period wind of 30 m/s means that on the
average, we will experience a wind faster than 30 m/s within a
period of 50 years.
• A return period of 50 years corresponds to a probability of
occurrence of 1/50 = 0.02 = 2% per year.
• Consider a building designed for a 50 year service life. The
probability of exceeding the design wind speed 30 m/s is
Vortex Shedding
• Along wind is used to refer to drag forces, while transverse
wind is the term used to describe cross-wind.
• In tall building design, the cross-wind motion is often more
critical than along-wind motion.
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Cladding Pressures
• When air flows around a structure, the resulting pressures may
damage the local components such corner windows, eave and
ridge tiles, etc.
• The expense of replacement and hazards posed to pedestrians
is of major concern.
1. Positive pressure zone on the
upstream face (Region 1)
2. Negative pressure zones at the
upstream corners (Region 2)
3. Negative pressure zone on the
downstream face (Region 3).
Scope
• This code of practice gives general methods for calculating the
wind loads to be used in the structural design of buildings.
• The code does not apply to buildings of an unusual shape or
buildings situated at locations where complicated local
topography adversely affects the wind conditions.
• Experimental wind tunnel data may be used in place of the values given
in the Code.
• The design wind pressures have been determined from the
hourly mean wind velocities and peak gust wind velocities
having a return period of 50 years.
• Appendix B in wind code provides mortification factor for design wind
pressure with return period greater than 50 years.
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Section 3
• Breadth (b) means the horizontal dimension of the building normal to the direction of wind.
• Depth (d) means the horizontal dimension of the building parallel to the direction of the
wind.
• Height (H) means the height of the building above the site-ground level in the immediate
vicinity of the building up to the top of the building. Masts and other appendages on top of
the building should not be include.
• Frontal projected area means the area of the shadow projection of the building on a plane
normal to the direction of the wind.
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Section 3
Section 4
Section 5
Forces on Buildings
• The total wind force F on a building shall be taken to be the
summation of the pressures acting on the effective projected
areas of the building
F C f q z Az
where
Cf is the force coefficient for the building (Appendix D);
qz is the design wind pressure at height z (Table 1);
Az is the effective projected area of that part of the building
corresponding to qz.
Appendix D
• The force coefficient Cf for an enclosed building is given as
C f Ch C s
• where the height aspect factor Ch and the shape factor Cs given in Table
D1 and Table D2 respectively; or
• International Codes acceptable to the Building Authority may be used.
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25
• If the frontal projected area is greater than 500 m2, the force
coefficient may be multiplied by a reduction factor RA given in
Table D3 .
• This is applicable for structures without significant resonant
dynamic response.
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Example 1
Determine the design wind pressure distribution along the
height of building. Compute the base shear and overturning
moment. Assume that the building is sitting on a smooth surface
(open sea terrain). 20
10
40
Unit: m
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Solution
Checking for resonant effect
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H 40 m 100 m 10
H / d 40 / 10 4 5
Without significant resonant
dynamic response (Clause 3.3) 40
Along wind
Topography effect direction
Insignificant
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40m
qz = 2.57 kPa
30m
qz = 2.37 kPa
20m
qz = 2.23 kPa
10m
qz = 2.01 kPa
5m
qz = 1.82 kPa
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H / b 40 / 20 2
Ch 1.0
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b / d 20 / 10 2
C s 1 .1
Section 7
Dynamic Effects
• For building with significant resonant dynamic response, the
total along-wind force F on an enclosed building with
significant resonant dynamic response shall be determined by
F GC f q z Az
where
G is the dynamic magnification factor, or gust factor (Appendix F)
Cf is the force coefficient for the structure (Appendix D);
𝑞𝑧 is the design hourly mean wind pressure at height z (Table 2);
Az is the effective projective area.
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Appendix F
• The dynamic magnification factor G may be taken as the
values from Table F1 or Table F2, or by
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• Special cases
• an open framed building with significant resonant dynamic response; or
• a building for which the fundamental natural frequency is less than 0.2
Hz, or
• the cross wind resonant response / torsional resonant response may be
significant.
• The dynamic effects should be investigated in accordance with
recommendations given in published literature and/or through
dynamic wind tunnel model studies.
• The combination total response of such a building would
usually be calculated from the of the response in the three
fundamental modes of vibration.
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Wind Tunnels
• Wind tunnels are used to provide accurate distributions of
wind pressure on buildings as well as investigate aero-elastic
behaviour of slender and light weight structures.
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Appendix B
• The design wind pressures on buildings where the period of
exposure to wind is longer than 50 years shall be multiplied by
the following factor:
Appendix C
• Wind code states that local
topography is considered
significant for a site located
within the topography
significant zone as defined
in Figure C1.
47
where
αe = effective slope
Le = effective slope length
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Section 6
Forces on Elements
• The total wind force Fp acting in a direction normal to the
individual elements such as walls, roofs, cladding panels or
members of open framework structures shall be determined by
Fp C p q z Am
where
Cp is the total pressure coefficient for individual elements (Appendix E);
qz is the design wind pressure at height z;
Am is the surface area of the element.
Appendix E
• The total pressure coefficient Cp for individual elements in a
particular area of an enclosed building:
• where there is only a negligible probability of a dominant opening
occurring during a severe storm, the value given in Table E1; and
• where a dominant opening is likely to occur during a severe storm, the
value determined with the aid of other published materials acceptable to
the Building Authority or through the use of wind tunnel model studies.
• The total pressure coefficient Cp for individual elements of an
open framework building shall be
• 2.0; or
• appropriate value specified in other International Codes acceptable to
Building Authority.
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Summary
• (Method 1) Without significant • (Method 2) With significant
resonant dynamic response resonant dynamic response
1. Calculate design wind 1. Calculate design hourly mean
pressure (Table 1) wind pressure (Table 2)
2. Determine topography factor 2. Compute gust response factor
Sa (Appendix C) G (Appendix F)
3. Calculate force coefficients Cf 3. Determine topography factor
(Appendix D) Sa (Appendix C)
4. Calculate total wind force 4. Calculate force coefficients Cf
(Appendix D)
F C f qz Az
5. Calculate total wind force
F GC f qz Az
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Remark 1
415.4 kN
3.09 kPa
402 kN
F1 1.1 2.8(3)(40)
2.80 kPa
370 kN
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References
• Bungale S. Taranath (2004). Wind and Earthquake Resistant Buildings:
Structural Analysis and Design. CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group.
• Bungale S. Taranath (2010). Reinforced Concrete Design of Tall Buildings.
CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group.
• Hong Kong Buildings Department. (2004). Code of Practice on Wind Effects
in Hong Kong 2004.