A curtain wall system is an outer covering of a building in which the outer walls are non-

structural, but merely keep the weather out and the occupants in. As the curtain wall is non-
structural it can be made of a lightweight material, reducing construction costs. When glass is
used as the curtain wall, a great advantage is that natural light can penetrate deeper within the
building. The curtain wall façade does not carry any dead load weight from the building other
than its own dead load weight. The wall transfers horizontal wind loads that are incident upon it
to the main building structure through connections at floors or columns of the building. A curtain
wall is designed to resist air and water infiltration, sway induced by wind and seismic forces
acting on the building, and its own dead load weight forces.

Curtain wall systems are typically designed with extruded aluminum members, although the first
curtain walls were made of steel. The aluminium frame is typically infilled with glass, which
provides an architecturally pleasing building, as well as benefits such as daylighting. However,
parameters related to solar gain control such as thermal comfort and visual comfort are more
difficult to control when using highly glazed curtain walls. Other common infills include: stone
veneer, metal panels, louvres, and operable windows or vents.

Curtain walls differ from store-front systems in that they are designed to span multiple floors,
and take into consideration design requirements such as: thermal expansion and contraction;
building sway and movement; water diversion; and thermal efficiency for cost-effective heating,
cooling, and lighting in the building.

History[edit]
Buildings were constructed with the exterior walls of the building (bearing walls, typically
masonry) supporting the load of the entire structure. The development and widespread use of
structural steel and later reinforced concrete allowed relatively small columns to support large
loads and the exterior walls of buildings were no longer required for structural support. The
exterior walls could be non-load bearing and thus much lighter and more open than the masonry
load bearing walls of the past. This gave way to increased use of glass as an exterior façade, and
the modern day curtain wall was born.

Early prototype versions of curtain walls may have existed in buildings of timber construction
before the nineteenth century, should columns have been used to support the building rather than
the walls themselves, particularly when large panels of glass infill were involved. When iron
began to be used extensively in buildings in late 18th Century Britain such as at Ditherington
Flax Mill, and later when buildings of wrought iron and glass such as The Crystal Palace were
built, the building blocks of structural understanding were laid for the development of curtain
walls.

Oriel Chambers (1864) and 16 Cook Street (1866), both built in Liverpool, England, by local
architect and civil engineer Peter Ellis, are characterised by their extensive use of glass in their
facades. Towards the courtyards they even boasted metal framed glass curtain walls which
makes them two of the world's first buildings to include this structural feature. The extensive
glass walls allowed light to penetrate further into the building utilizing more floor space and
reducing lighting costs in short winter months. Oriel Chambers comprises 43,000 sq ft (4,000 m2)
set over five floors without an elevator which had only recently been invented and was not yet
widespread.[1]

An early example of an all steel curtain wall used in the classical style is the Tietz Kaufhaus
Department Store, Leipzigerstrasse, Berlin built in 1901 (since demolished).[2]

Some of the first curtain walls were made with steel mullions and the plate glass was attached to
the mullions with asbestos or fiberglass modified glazing compound. Eventually silicone sealants
or glazing tape were substituted, using a glass mullion system. Some designs included an outer
cap to hold the glass in place and to protect the integrity of the seals. The first curtain wall
installed in New York City, in the Lever House building (Skidmore, Owings and Merrill, 1952),
was this type of construction. Earlier modernist examples are the Bauhaus in Dessau (1926) and
the Hallidie Building in San Francisco (1918).

The 1970s began the widespread use of aluminum extrusions for mullions. Aluminum offers the
unique advantage of being able to be easily extruded into nearly any shape required for design
and aesthetic purposes. Today, the design complexity and shapes available are nearly limitless.
Custom shapes can be designed and manufactured with relative ease. The 2100 Franklin Project
in Oakland California, (designed by Wright Heerema Architects) is an example of a stick built
Curtain wall where extruded mullions are used to give a building a radius like appearance while
actually being segmented. [3]

Similarly, sealing methods and types have evolved over the years, and as a result, today’s curtain
walls are high performance systems which require little maintenance.

Systems and principles[edit]

Stick systems[edit]

The vast majority of curtain walls are installed long pieces (referred to as sticks) between floors
vertically and between vertical members horizontally. Framing members may be fabricated in a
shop, but all installation and glazing is typically performed at the jobsite.

Ladder Systems[edit]

Very similar to a Stick system a ladder system has mullions which can be split and then either
clipped, or screwed together consisting of a half box and plate, this allows sections of curtain
wall to be fabricated in shop effectively reducing the time spent installing the system on site. The
drawback of using such a system is reduced structural performance and visible joint lines down
the length of each mullion.

Unitised systems[edit]

Unitized curtain walls entail factory fabrication and assembly of panels and may include factory
glazing. These completed units are hung on the building structure to form the building enclosure.
Unitized curtain wall has the advantages of: speed; lower field installation costs; and quality
control within an interior climate controlled environment. The economic benefits are typically
realized on large projects or in areas of high field labor rates.

Rainscreen principle[edit]

A common feature in curtain wall technology, the rainscreen principle theorizes that equilibrium
of air pressure between the outside and inside of the "rainscreen" prevents water penetration into
the building itself. For example the glass is captured between an inner and an outer gasket in a
space called the glazing rebate. The glazing rebate is ventilated to the exterior so that the
pressure on the inner and outer sides of the exterior gasket is the same. When the pressure is
equal across this gasket water cannot be drawn through joints or defects in the gasket.

Concerns[edit]
Curtain wall systems must be designed to handle all loads imposed on it as well as keep air and
water from penetrating the building envelope.

Loads[edit]

The loads imposed on the curtain wall are transferred to the building structure through the
anchors which attach the mullions to the building. The building structure design must account for
these loads.

Dead load

Dead load is defined as the weight of structural elements and the permanent features on the
structure. In the case of curtain walls, this load is made up of the weight of the mullions, anchors
and other structural components of the curtain wall, as well as the weight of the infill material.
Additional dead loads imposed on the curtain wall, such as sunshades, must be accounted for in
the design of the curtain wall components and anchors.

Wind load

Wind load acting on the building is the result of wind blowing on the building. This wind
pressure must be resisted by the curtain wall system since it envelops and protects the building.
Wind loads vary greatly throughout the world, with the largest wind loads being near the coast in
hurricane-prone regions. For each project location, building codes specify the required design
wind loads. Often, a wind tunnel study is performed on large or unusually shaped buildings. A
scale model of the building and the surrounding vicinity is built and placed in a wind tunnel to
determine the wind pressures acting on the structure in question. These studies take into account
vortex shedding around corners and the effects of surrounding area

Seismic load
Seismic loads need to be addressed in the design of curtain wall components and anchors. In
most situations, the curtain wall is able to naturally withstand seismic and wind induced building
sway because of the space provided between the glazing infill and the mullion. In tests, standard
curtain wall systems are able to withstand three inches (75 mm) of relative floor movement
without glass breakage or water leakage. Anchor design needs to be reviewed, however, since a
large floor-to-floor displacement can place high forces on anchors. (Additional structure must be
provided within the primary structure of the building to resist seismic forces from the building
itself.)

Snow load

Snow loads and live loads are not typically an issue in curtain walls, since curtain walls are
designed to be vertical or slightly inclined. If the slope of a wall exceeds 20 degrees or so, these
loads may need to be considered.

Thermal load

Thermal loads are induced in a curtain wall system because aluminum has a relatively high
coefficient of thermal expansion. This means that over the span of a couple of floors, the curtain
wall will expand and contract some distance, relative to its length and the temperature
differential. This expansion and contraction is accounted for by cutting horizontal mullions
slightly short and allowing a space between the horizontal and vertical mullions. In unitized
curtain wall, a gap is left between units, which is sealed from air and water penetration by wiper
gaskets. Vertically, anchors carrying wind load only (not dead load) are slotted to account for
movement. Incidentally, this slot also accounts for live load deflection and creep in the floor
slabs of the building structure.

Blast load

Accidental explosions and terrorist threats have brought on increased concern for the fragility of
a curtain wall system in relation to blast loads. The bombing of the Alfred P. Murrah Federal
Building in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, has spawned much of the current research and mandates
in regards to building response to blast loads. Currently, all new federal buildings in the U.S. and
all U.S. embassies built on foreign soil, must have some provision for resistance to bomb blasts.

Since the curtain wall is at the exterior of the building, it becomes the first line of defense in a
bomb attack. As such, blast resistant curtain walls must be designed to withstand such forces
without compromising the interior of the building to protect its occupants. Since blast loads are
very high loads with short durations, the curtain wall response should be analyzed in a dynamic
load analysis, with full-scale mock-up testing performed prior to design completion and
installation.

Blast resistant glazing consists of laminated glass, which is meant to break but not separate from
the mullions. Similar technology is used in hurricane-prone areas for the protection from wind-
borne debris.
Air Infiltration[edit]

Air infiltration is the air which passes through the curtain wall from the exterior to the interior of
the building. The air is infiltrated through the gaskets, through imperfect joinery between the
horizontal and vertical mullions, through weep holes, and through imperfect sealing. The
American Architectural Manufacturers Association (AAMA) is an industry trade group in the
U.S. that has developed voluntary specifications regarding acceptable levels of air infiltration
through a curtain wall. This limit is expressed (in the USA) in cubic feet per minute per square
foot of wall area at a given test pressure. (Currently, most standards cite maximum of 0.06
CFM/sq ft at a pressure of at least 1.57 psf or higher as acceptable.) Testing is typically
conducted by an independent third party agency using the ASTM E-783 standard.

Water penetration[edit]

 Water penetration is defined as water passing from the exterior of the building through to
the interior of the curtain wall system. Sometimes, depending on the building
specifications, a small amount of controlled water on the interior is deemed acceptable.
Controlled water penetration is defined as water that penetrates beyond the inner most
vertical plane of the test specimen, but has a designed means of drainage back to the
exterior. AAMA Voluntary Specifications allow for controlled water penetration while
the underlying ASTM E1105 test method would define such water penetration as a
failure. To test the ability of a curtain wall to withstand water penetration in the field, an
ASTM E1105 water spray rack system is placed on the exterior side of the test specimen,
and a positive air pressure difference is applied to the system. This set up simulates a
wind driven rain event on the curtain wall to check for field performance of the product
and of the installation. Field quality control and assurance checks for water penetration
has become the norm as builders and installers apply such quality programs to help
reduce the number of water damage litigation suits against their work.
 ASTM E1105 Calibrated Spray Rack System is a field test instrument used by test agents
to conduct water penetration testing on installed fenestration systems for Quality
Control and Quality Assurance purposes. The spray rack must be calibrated to deliver
water at a minimum rate of 8" of rain per per hour/per square foot, or the equivalent of
5.0 US gallons per hour/square foot. The duration that water is sprayed continuously on
the specimen is normally for a period of 15 or 20 minutes. The spray rack must be
calibrated at least once every six months per the ASTM E1105 test method; calibrations
may be necessary at smaller intervals should the spray rack system become damaged.

Deflection[edit]

One of the disadvantages of using aluminum for mullions is that its modulus of elasticity is about
one-third that of steel. This translates to three times more deflection in an aluminum mullion
compared to the same steel section under a given load. Building specifications set deflection
limits for perpendicular (wind-induced) and in-plane (dead load-induced) deflections. It is
important to note that these deflection limits are not imposed due to strength capacities of the
mullions. Rather, they are designed to limit deflection of the glass (which may break under
excessive deflection), and to ensure that the glass does not come out of its pocket in the mullion.
Deflection limits are also necessary to control movement at the interior of the curtain wall.
Building construction may be such that there is a wall located near the mullion, and excessive
deflection can cause the mullion to contact the wall and cause damage. Also, if deflection of a
wall is quite noticeable, public perception may raise undue concern that the wall is not strong
enough.

Deflection limits are typically expressed as the distance between anchor points divided by a
constant number. A deflection limit of L/175 is common in curtain wall specifications, based on
experience with deflection limits that are unlikely to cause damage to the glass held by the
mullion. Say a given curtain wall is anchored at 12 foot (144 in) floor heights. The allowable
deflection would then be 144/175 = 0.823 inches, which means the wall is allowed to deflect
inward or outward a maximum of 0.823 inches at the maximum wind pressure. However, some
panels require stricter movement restrictions, or certainly those that prohibit a torque-like
motion.

Deflection in mullions is controlled by different shapes and depths of curtain wall members. The
depth of a given curtain wall system is usually controlled by the area moment of inertia required
to keep deflection limits under the specification. Another way to limit deflections in a given
section is to add steel reinforcement to the inside tube of the mullion. Since steel deflects at 1/3
the rate of aluminum, the steel will resist much of the load at a lower cost or smaller depth.

Strength[edit]

Strength (or maximum usable stress) available to a particular material is not related to its
material stiffness (the material property governing deflection); it is a separate criterion in curtain
wall design and analysis. This often affects the selection of materials and sizes for design of the
system. For instance, a particular shape in aluminum will deflect almost three times as much as
the same steel shape for an equivalent load (see above), though its strength (i.e. the maximum
load it can sustain) may be equivalent or even slightly higher, depending on the grade of
aluminum. Because aluminum is often the material of choice, given its lower unit weight and
better weathering capability as compared with steel, deflection is usually the governing criteria in
curtain wall design.

Thermal criteria[edit]

Relative to other building components, aluminum has a high heat transfer coefficient, meaning
that aluminum is a very good conductor of heat. This translates into high heat loss through
aluminum curtain wall mullions. There are several ways to compensate for this heat loss, the
most common way being the addition of thermal breaks. Thermal breaks are barriers between
exterior metal and interior metal, usually made of polyvinyl chloride (PVC). These breaks
provide a significant decrease in the thermal conductivity of the curtain wall. However, since the
thermal break interrupts the aluminum mullion, the overall moment of inertia of the mullion is
reduced and must be accounted for in the structural analysis of the system.

Thermal conductivity of the curtain wall system is important because of heat loss through the
wall, which affects the heating and cooling costs of the building. On a poorly performing curtain
wall, condensation may form on the interior of the mullions. This could cause damage to
adjacent interior trim and walls.

Rigid insulation is provided in spandrel areas to provide a higher R-value at these locations.

Infills[edit]
Infill refers to the large panels that are inserted into the curtain wall between mullions. Infills are
typically glass but may be made up of nearly any exterior building element.

Regardless of the material, infills are typically referred to as glazing, and the installer of the infill
is referred to as a glazier. More commonly this trade is now known as Fenestration.

Glass[edit]

The Mexican hothouse at the Jardin des Plantes, built by Charles Rohault de Fleury from 1834 to
1836, is an early example of metal and glass curtain wall architecture.

By far the most common glazing type, glass can be of an almost infinite combination of color,
thickness, and opacity. For commercial construction, the two most common thicknesses are
1/4 inch (6 mm) monolithic and 1 inch (25 mm) insulating glass. Presently, 1/4 inch glass is
typically used only in spandrel areas, while insulating glass is used for the rest of the building
(sometimes spandrel glass is specified as insulating glass as well). The 1 inch insulation glass is
typically made up of two 1/4-inch lites of glass with a 1/2 inch (12 mm) airspace. The air inside
is usually atmospheric air, but some inert gases, such as argon or krypton may be used to offer
better thermal transmittance values. In residential construction, thicknesses commonly used are
1/8 inch (3 mm) monolithic and 5/8 inch (16 mm) insulating glass. Larger thicknesses are
typically employed for buildings or areas with higher thermal, relative humidity, or sound
transmission requirements, such as laboratory areas or recording studios.

Glass may be used which is transparent, translucent, or opaque, or in varying degrees thereof.
Transparent glass usually refers to vision glass in a curtain wall. Spandrel or vision glass may
also contain translucent glass, which could be for security or aesthetic purposes. Opaque glass is
used in areas to hide a column or spandrel beam or shear wall behind the curtain wall. Another
method of hiding spandrel areas is through shadow box construction (providing a dark enclosed
space behind the transparent or translucent glass). Shadow box construction creates a perception
of depth behind the glass that is sometimes desired.
Fabric veneer[edit]

Fabric is another type of material which is common for curtain walls. Fabric is often much less
expensive and serves as a less permanent solution. Unlike glass or stone, fabric is much faster to
install, less expensive, and often much easier to modify after it is installed. Because of low
density of fabrics total weight of structure is very low then strength consideration of structure is
not too important.

Stone veneer[edit]

Thin blocks (3 to 4 inches (75–100 mm)) of stone can be inset within a curtain wall system to
provide architectural flavor. The type of stone used is limited only by the strength of the stone
and the ability to manufacture it in the proper shape and size. Common stone types used are:
Arriscraft(calcium silicate);granite; marble; travertine; and limestone. To reduce weight and
improve strength, the natural stone may be attached to an aluminum honeycomb backing as with
the StonePly system.

Panels[edit]

Metal panels can take various forms including aluminum plate; aluminum composite panels
consisting of two thin aluminum sheets sandwiching a thin plastic interlayer; copper wall
cladding, and panels consisting of metal sheets bonded to rigid insulation, with or without an
inner metal sheet to create a sandwich panel. Other opaque panel materials include fiber-
reinforced plastic (FRP), stainless steel, and terracotta. Terracotta curtain wall panels were first
used in Europe, but only a few manufacturers produce high quality modern terracotta curtain
wall panels.

Louvers[edit]

A louver is provided in an area where mechanical equipment located inside the building requires
ventilation or fresh air to operate. They can also serve as a means of allowing outside air to filter
into the building to take advantage of favorable climatic conditions and minimize the usage of
energy-consuming HVAC systems. Curtain wall systems can be adapted to accept most types of
louver systems to maintain the same architectural sightlines and style while providing the
necessary functionality.

Windows and vents[edit]

Most curtain wall glazing is fixed, meaning there is no access to the exterior of the building
except through doors. However, windows or vents can be glazed into the curtain wall system as
well, to provide required ventilation or operable windows. Nearly any window type can be made
to fit into a curtain wall system.

Fire safety[edit]
Combustible Polystyrene insulation in point contact with sheet metal backban. Incomplete
firestop in the perimeter slab edge, made of rockwool without topcaulking.

Firestopping at the "perimeter slab edge", which is a gap between the floor and the backpan of
the curtain wall is essential to slow the passage of fire and combustion gases between floors.
Spandrel areas must have non-combustible insulation at the interior face of the curtain wall.
Some building codes require the mullion to be wrapped in heat-retarding insulation near the
ceiling to prevent the mullions from melting and spreading the fire to the floor above. It is
important to note that the firestop at the perimeter slab edge is considered a continuation of the
fire-resistance rating of the floor slab. The curtain wall itself, however, is not ordinarily required
to have a rating. This causes a quandary as Compartmentalization (fire protection) is typically
based upon closed compartments to avoid fire and smoke migrations beyond each engaged
compartment. A curtain wall by its very nature prevents the completion of the compartment (or
envelope). The use of fire sprinklers has been shown to mitigate this matter. As such, unless the
building is sprinklered, fire may still travel up the curtain wall, if the glass on the exposed floor
is shattered due to fire influence, causing flames to lick up the outside of the building. Falling
glass can endanger pedestrians, firefighters and firehoses below. An example of this is the 1988
First Interstate Tower fire in Los Angeles, California. The fire here leapfrogged up the tower by
shattering the glass and then consuming the aluminium skeleton holding the glass.[4] Aluminium's
melting temperature is 660 °C, whereas building fires can reach 1,100 °C. The melting point of
aluminium is typically reached within minutes of the start of a fire. Firestops for such building
joints can be qualified to UL 2079 -- Tests for Fire Resistance of Building Joint Systems.
Sprinklering of each floor has a profoundly positive effect on the fire safety of buildings with
curtain walls.

Fireman knock-out glazing panels are often required for venting and emergency access from the
exterior. Knock-out panels are generally fully tempered glass to allow full fracturing of the panel
into small pieces and relatively safe removal from the opening.

the material which is most fire proof is austeritics stainless steel, which retains high strength to
1000 C and melts at above 1450 C.

Maintenance and repair[edit]

Curtain walls and perimeter sealants require maintenance to maximize service life. Perimeter
sealants, properly designed and installed, have a typical service life of 10 to 15 years. Removal
and replacement of perimeter sealants require meticulous surface preparation and proper
detailing.
Aluminum frames are generally painted or anodized. Care must be taken when cleaning areas
around anodized material as some cleaning agents will destroy the finish. Factory applied
fluoropolymer thermoset coatings have good resistance to environmental degradation and require
only periodic cleaning. Recoating with an air-dry fluoropolymer coating is possible but requires
special surface preparation and is not as durable as the baked-on original coating.

Anodized aluminum frames cannot be "re-anodized" in place, but can be cleaned and protected
by proprietary clear coatings to improve appearance and durability.

Stainless steel curtain walls require no coatings, and modern, embossed, as opposed to abrasively
finished, surfaces maintain their original appearance indefinitely without cleaning or other
maintenance. Some specially textured matte stainless steel surface finishes are hydrophobic and
resist airborne and rain-borne pollutants.[5] This has been valuable in the American Southwest
and in the Mideast for avoiding dust, as well as avoiding soot and smoke staining in polluted
urban areas.

Exposed glazing seals and gaskets require inspection and maintenance to minimize water
penetration, and to limit exposure of frame seals and insulating glass seals to wetting.

Reinforced concrete (RC) is a composite material in which concrete's relatively low tensile
strength and ductility are counteracted by the inclusion of reinforcement having higher tensile
strength and/or ductility. The reinforcement is usually, though not necessarily, steel reinforcing
bars (rebar) and is usually embedded passively in the concrete before the concrete sets.
Reinforcing schemes are generally designed to resist tensile stresses in particular regions of the
concrete that might cause unacceptable cracking and/or structural failure. Modern reinforced
concrete can contain varied reinforcing materials made of steel, polymers or alternate composite
material in conjunction with rebar or not. Reinforced concrete may also be permanently stressed
(in compression), so as to improve the behaviour of the final structure under working loads. In
the United States, the most common methods of doing this are known as pre-tensioning and post-
tensioning.

For a strong, ductile and durable construction the reinforcement needs to have the following
properties at least:

 High relative strength

 High toleration of tensile strain
 Good bond to the concrete, irrespective of pH, moisture, and similar factors
 Thermal compatibility, not causing unacceptable stresses in response to changing
temperatures.
  Durability in the concrete environment, irrespective of corrosion or sustained stress for
example.

Use in construction[edit]

Rebars of Sagrada Família's roof in construction (2009)

Many different types of structures and components of structures can be built using reinforced
concrete including slabs, walls, beams, columns, foundations, frames and more.

Reinforced concrete can be classified as precast or cast-in-place concrete.

Designing and implementing the most efficient floor system is key to creating optimal building
structures. Small changes in the design of a floor system can have significant impact on material
costs, construction schedule, ultimate strength, operating costs, occupancy levels and end use of
a building.[10]

Without reinforcement, constructing modern structures with concrete material would not be
possible.

Behavior of reinforced concrete[edit]

Materials[edit]

Concrete is a mixture of coarse (stone or brick chips) and fine (generally sand or crushed stone)
aggregates with a paste of binder material (usually Portland cement) and water. When cement is
mixed with a small amount of water, it hydrates to form microscopic opaque crystal lattices
encapsulating and locking the aggregate into a rigid structure. The aggregates used for making
concrete should be free from harmful substances like organic impurities, silt, clay, lignite etc.
Typical concrete mixes have high resistance to compressive stresses (about 4,000 psi (28 MPa));
however, any appreciable tension (e.g., due to bending) will break the microscopic rigid lattice,
resulting in cracking and separation of the concrete. For this reason, typical non-reinforced
concrete must be well supported to prevent the development of tension.

If a material with high strength in tension, such as steel, is placed in concrete, then the composite
material, reinforced concrete, resists not only compression but also bending and other direct
tensile actions. A reinforced concrete section where the concrete resists the compression and
steel resists the tension can be made into almost any shape and size for the construction industry.

Key characteristics[edit]

Three physical characteristics give reinforced concrete its special properties:

1. The coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete is similar to that of steel, eliminating

large internal stresses due to differences in thermal expansion or contraction.
2. When the cement paste within the concrete hardens, this conforms to the surface details
of the steel, permitting any stress to be transmitted efficiently between the different
materials. Usually steel bars are roughened or corrugated to further improve the bond or
cohesion between the concrete and steel.
3. The alkaline chemical environment provided by the alkali reserve (KOH, NaOH) and the
portlandite (calcium hydroxide) contained in the hardened cement paste causes a
passivating film to form on the surface of the steel, making it much more resistant to
corrosion than it would be in neutral or acidic conditions. When the cement paste is
exposed to the air and meteoric water reacts with the atmospheric CO2, portlandite and
the Calcium Silicate Hydrate (CSH) of the hardened cement paste become progressively
carbonated and the high pH gradually decreases from 13.5 – 12.5 to 8.5, the pH of water
in equilibrium with calcite (calcium carbonate) and the steel is no longer passivated.

As a rule of thumb, only to give an idea on orders of magnitude, steel is protected at pH above
~11 but starts to corrode below ~10 depending on steel characteristics and local physico-
chemical conditions when concrete becomes carbonated. Carbonatation of concrete along with
chloride ingress are amongst the chief reasons for the failure of reinforcement bars in concrete.[11]

The relative cross-sectional area of steel required for typical reinforced concrete is usually quite
small and varies from 1% for most beams and slabs to 6% for some columns. Reinforcing bars
are normally round in cross-section and vary in diameter. Reinforced concrete structures
sometimes have provisions such as ventilated hollow cores to control their moisture & humidity.

Distribution of concrete (in spite of reinforcement) strength characteristics along the cross-
section of vertical reinforced concrete elements is inhomogeneous.[12]

Mechanism of composite action of reinforcement and concrete[edit]

A heavy reinforced concrete column, seen before and after the concrete has been cast in place
around the rebar cage.

The reinforcement in a RC structure, such as a steel bar, has to undergo the same strain or
deformation as the surrounding concrete in order to prevent discontinuity, slip or separation of
the two materials under load. Maintaining composite action requires transfer of load between the
concrete and steel. The direct stress is transferred from the concrete to the bar interface so as to
change the tensile stress in the reinforcing bar along its length, this load transfer is achieved by
means of bond (anchorage) and is idealized as a continuous stress field that develops in the
vicinity of the steel-concrete interface.

Anchorage (bond) in concrete: Codes of specifications[edit]

Because the actual bond stress varies along the length of a bar anchored in a zone of tension,
current international codes of specifications use the concept of development length rather than
bond stress. The main requirement for safety against bond failure is to provide a sufficient
extension of the length of the bar beyond the point where the steel is required to develop its yield
stress and this length must be at least equal to its development length. However, if the actual
available length is inadequate for full development, special anchorages must be provided, such as
cogs or hooks or mechanical end plates. The same concept applies to lap splice length mentioned
in the codes where splices (overlapping) provided between two adjacent bars in order to maintain
the required continuity of stress in the splice zone.

Anti-corrosion measures[edit]

In wet and cold climates, reinforced concrete for roads, bridges, parking structures and other
structures that may be exposed to deicing salt may benefit from use of corrosion-resistant
reinforcement such as uncoated, low carbon/chromium (micro composite), epoxy-coated, hot dip
galvanised or stainless steel rebar. Good design and a well-chosen concrete mix will provide
additional protection for many applications. Uncoated, low carbon/chromium rebar looks similar
to standard carbon steel rebar due to its lack of a coating; its highly corrosion-resistant features
are inherent in the steel microstructure. It can be identified by the unique ASTM specified mill
marking on its smooth, dark charcoal finish. Epoxy coated rebar can easily be identified by the
light green colour of its epoxy coating. Hot dip galvanized rebar may be bright or dull grey
depending on length of exposure, and stainless rebar exhibits a typical white metallic sheen that
is readily distinguishable from carbon steel reinforcing bar. Reference ASTM standard
specifications A1035/A1035M Standard Specification for Deformed and Plain Low-carbon,
Chromium, Steel Bars for Concrete Reinforcement,A767 Standard Specification for Hot Dip
Galvanised Reinforcing Bars, A775 Standard Specification for Epoxy Coated Steel Reinforcing
Bars and A955 Standard Specification for Deformed and Plain Stainless Bars for Concrete
Reinforcement.

Another, cheaper way of protecting rebars is coating them with zinc phosphate.[13] Zinc phosphate
slowly reacts with calcium cations and the hydroxyl anions present in the cement pore water and
forms a stable hydroxyapatite layer.

Penetrating sealants typically must be applied some time after curing. Sealants include paint,
plastic foams, films and aluminum foil, felts or fabric mats sealed with tar, and layers of
bentonite clay, sometimes used to seal roadbeds.

Corrosion inhibitors, such as calcium nitrite [Ca(NO2)2], can also be added to the water mix
before pouring concrete. Generally, 1–2 wt. % of [Ca(NO2)2] with respect to cement weight is
needed to prevent corrosion of the rebars. The nitrite anion is a mild oxidizer that oxidizes the
soluble and mobile ferrous ions (Fe2+) present at the surface of the corroding steel and causes
them to precipitate as an insoluble ferric hydroxide (Fe(OH)3). This causes the passivation of
steel at the anodic oxidation sites. Nitrite is a much more active corrosion inhibitor than nitrate,
which is a less powerful oxidizer of the divalent iron.

Reinforcement and terminology of beams[edit]

Rebar constructed to properly reinforce a beam element, awaiting concrete to be poured.

A beam bends under bending moment, resulting in a small curvature. At the outer face (tensile
face) of the curvature the concrete experiences tensile stress, while at the inner face (compressive
face) it experiences compressive stress.

A singly reinforced beam is one in which the concrete element is only reinforced near the
tensile face and the reinforcement, called tension steel, is designed to resist the tension.

A doubly reinforced beam is one in which besides the tensile reinforcement the concrete
element is also reinforced near the compressive face to help the concrete resist compression. The
latter reinforcement is called compression steel. When the compression zone of a concrete is
inadequate to resist the compressive moment (positive moment), extra reinforcement has to be
provided if the architect limits the dimensions of the section.

An under-reinforced beam is one in which the tension capacity of the tensile reinforcement is
smaller than the combined compression capacity of the concrete and the compression steel
(under-reinforced at tensile face). When the reinforced concrete element is subject to increasing
bending moment, the tension steel yields while the concrete does not reach its ultimate failure
condition. As the tension steel yields and stretches, an "under-reinforced" concrete also yields in
a ductile manner, exhibiting a large deformation and warning before its ultimate failure. In this
case the yield stress of the steel governs the design.

An over-reinforced beam is one in which the tension capacity of the tension steel is greater than
the combined compression capacity of the concrete and the compression steel (over-reinforced at
tensile face). So the "over-reinforced concrete" beam fails by crushing of the compressive-zone
concrete and before the tension zone steel yields, which does not provide any warning before
failure as the failure is instantaneous.

A balanced-reinforced beam is one in which both the compressive and tensile zones reach
yielding at the same imposed load on the beam, and the concrete will crush and the tensile steel
will yield at the same time. This design criterion is however as risky as over-reinforced concrete,
because failure is sudden as the concrete crushes at the same time of the tensile steel yields,
which gives a very little warning of distress in tension failure.[14]

Steel-reinforced concrete moment-carrying elements should normally be designed to be under-

reinforced so that users of the structure will receive warning of impending collapse.

The characteristic strength is the strength of a material where less than 5% of the specimen
shows lower strength.

The design strength or nominal strength is the strength of a material, including a material-
safety factor. The value of the safety factor generally ranges from 0.75 to 0.85 in Permissible
stress design.

The ultimate limit state is the theoretical failure point with a certain probability. It is stated
under factored loads and factored resistances.

Reinforced concrete structures are normally designed according to rules and regulations or
recommendation of a code such as ACI-318, CEB, CP110 or the like. WSD, USD or LRFD
methods are used in design of RC structural members. Analysis and design of RC members can
be carried out by using linear or non-linear approaches. When applying safety factors, building
codes normally propose linear approaches, but for some cases non-linear approaches. To see the
examples of a non-linear numerical simulation and calculation visit the references:[15][16]

Prestressed concrete[edit]
Main article: Prestressed concrete

Prestressing concrete is a technique that greatly increases the load-bearing strength of concrete
beams. The reinforcing steel in the bottom part of the beam, which will be subjected to tensile
forces when in service, is placed in tension before the concrete is poured around it. Once the
concrete has hardened, the tension on the reinforcing steel is released, placing a built-in
compressive force on the concrete. When loads are applied, the reinforcing steel takes on more
stress and the compressive force in the concrete is reduced, but does not become a tensile force.
Since the concrete is always under compression, it is less subject to cracking and failure.[17]

Another way is to insert plastic tubes into the bottom of the beam. Rebar is inserted into these
tubes. Once the concrete has cured the rebar can be tensioned and the formwork removed.
Usually the tension is applied using hydraulic jacks. The advantage of this method is that it is
easy to measure the applied tension. The nuts are then snugged-up and the job is done. It should
be noted that all nuts and bolts when mated together will have a helical groove which is a
potential rust-trap. An easy method of eliminating this rust-trap is to apply rust-preventive red-
oxide paint to the threads and to join the nuts and bolts while this paint is still wet.

Common failure modes of steel reinforced concrete[edit]

Reinforced concrete can fail due to inadequate strength, leading to mechanical failure, or due to a
reduction in its durability. Corrosion and freeze/thaw cycles may damage poorly designed or
constructed reinforced concrete. When rebar corrodes, the oxidation products (rust) expand and
tends to flake, cracking the concrete and unbonding the rebar from the concrete. Typical
mechanisms leading to durability problems are discussed below.

Mechanical failure[edit]

Cracking of the concrete section is nearly impossible to prevent; however, the size and location
of cracks can be limited and controlled by appropriate reinforcement, control joints, curing
methodology and concrete mix design. Cracking can allow moisture to penetrate and corrode the
reinforcement. This is a serviceability failure in limit state design. Cracking is normally the result
of an inadequate quantity of rebar, or rebar spaced at too great a distance. The concrete then
cracks either under excess loading, or due to internal effects such as early thermal shrinkage
while it cures.

Ultimate failure leading to collapse can be caused by crushing the concrete, which occurs when
compressive stresses exceed its strength, by yielding or failure of the rebar when bending or
shear stresses exceed the strength of the reinforcement, or by bond failure between the concrete
and the rebar.

Carbonation[edit]
Concrete wall cracking as steel reinforcing corrodes and swells. Rust has a lower density than
metal, so it expands as it forms, cracking the decorative cladding off the wall as well as
damaging the structural concrete. The breakage of material from a surface is called spalling.

Detailed view of spalling probably caused by a too thin layer of concrete between the steel and
the surface, accompanied by corrosion from external exposure
Main article: carbonation

Carbonation, or neutralisation, is a chemical reaction between carbon dioxide in the air and
calcium hydroxide and hydrated calcium silicate in the concrete.

When a concrete structure is designed, it is usual to state the concrete cover for the rebar (the
depth of the rebar within the object). The minimum concrete cover is normally regulated by
design or building codes. If the reinforcement is too close to the surface, early failure due to
corrosion may occur. The concrete cover depth can be measured with a cover meter. However,
carbonated concrete incurs a durability problem only when there is also sufficient moisture and
oxygen to cause electropotential corrosion of the reinforcing steel.

One method of testing a structure for carbonatation is to drill a fresh hole in the surface and then
treat the cut surface with phenolphthalein indicator solution. This solution turns pink when in
contact with alkaline concrete, making it possible to see the depth of carbonation. Using an
existing hole does not suffice because the exposed surface will already be carbonated.
Chlorides[edit]

Chlorides, including sodium chloride, can promote the corrosion of embedded steel rebar if
present in sufficiently high concentration. Chloride anions induce both localized corrosion
(pitting corrosion) and generalized corrosion of steel reinforcements. For this reason, one should
only use fresh raw water or potable water for mixing concrete, ensure that the coarse and fine
aggregates do not contain chlorides, rather than admixtures which might contain chlorides.

Rebar for foundations and walls of a sewage pump station.

The Paulins Kill Viaduct, Hainesburg, New Jersey, is 115 feet (35 m) tall and 1,100 feet (335 m)
long, and was heralded as the largest reinforced concrete structure in the world when it was
completed in 1910 as part of the Lackawanna Cut-Off rail line project. The Lackawanna
Railroad was a pioneer in the use of reinforced concrete.

It was once common for calcium chloride to be used as an admixture to promote rapid set-up of
the concrete. It was also mistakenly believed that it would prevent freezing. However, this
practice fell into disfavor once the deleterious effects of chlorides became known. It should be
avoided whenever possible.

The use of de-icing salts on roadways, used to lower the freezing point of water, is probably one
of the primary causes of premature failure of reinforced or prestressed concrete bridge decks,
roadways, and parking garages. The use of epoxy-coated reinforcing bars and the application of
cathodic protection has mitigated this problem to some extent. Also FRP (fiber-reinforced
polymer) rebars are known to be less susceptible to chlorides. Properly designed concrete
mixtures that have been allowed to cure properly are effectively impervious to the effects of de-
icers.
Another important source of chloride ions is sea water. Sea water contains by weight
approximately 3.5 wt.% salts. These salts include sodium chloride, magnesium sulfate, calcium
sulfate, and bicarbonates. In water these salts dissociate in free ions (Na+, Mg2+, Cl−, SO42−,
HCO3−) and migrate with the water into the capillaries of the concrete. Chloride ions, which
make up about 50% of these ions, are particularly aggressive as a cause of corrosion of carbon
steel reinforcement bars.

In the 1960s and 1970s it was also relatively common for magnesite, a chloride rich carbonate
mineral, to be used as a floor-topping material. This was done principally as a levelling and
sound attenuating layer. However it is now known that when these materials come into contact
with moisture they produce a weak solution of hydrochloric acid due to the presence of chlorides
in the magnesite. Over a period of time (typically decades) the solution causes corrosion of the
embedded steel rebars. This was most commonly found in wet areas or areas repeatedly exposed
to moisture.

Alkali silica reaction[edit]

Main article: Alkali Silica Reaction

This a reaction of amorphous silica (chalcedony, chert, siliceous limestone) sometimes present in
the aggregates with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) from the cement pore solution. Poorly crystallized
silica (SiO2) dissolves and dissociates at high pH (12.5 - 13.5) in alkaline water. The soluble
dissociated silicic acid reacts in the porewater with the calcium hydroxide (portlandite) present in
the cement paste to form an expansive calcium silicate hydrate (CSH). The alkali silica reaction
(ASR) causes localised swelling responsible for tensile stress and cracking. The conditions
required for alkali silica reaction are threefold: (1) aggregate containing an alkali-reactive
constituent (amorphous silica), (2) sufficient availability of hydroxyl ions (OH−), and (3)
sufficient moisture, above 75% relative humidity (RH) within the concrete.[18][19] This
phenomenon is sometimes popularly referred to as "concrete cancer". This reaction occurs
independently of the presence of rebars; massive concrete structures such as dams can be
affected.

Conversion of high alumina cement[edit]

Resistant to weak acids and especially sulfates, this cement cures quickly and has very high
durability and strength. It was frequently used after World War II to make precast concrete
objects. However, it can lose strength with heat or time (conversion), especially when not
properly cured. After the collapse of three roofs made of prestressed concrete beams using high
alumina cement, this cement was banned in the UK in 1976. Subsequent inquiries into the matter
showed that the beams were improperly manufactured, but the ban remained.[20]

Sulphates[edit]

Sulfates (SO4) in the soil or in groundwater, in sufficient concentration, can react with the
Portland cement in concrete causing the formation of expansive products, e.g., ettringite or
thaumasite, which can lead to early failure of the structure. The most typical attack of this type is
on concrete slabs and foundation walls at grades where the sulfate ion, via alternate wetting and
drying, can increase in concentration. As the concentration increases, the attack on the Portland
cement can begin. For buried structures such as pipe, this type of attack is much rarer, especially
in the eastern United States. The sulfate ion concentration increases much slower in the soil mass
and is especially dependent upon the initial amount of sulfates in the native soil. A chemical
analysis of soil borings to check for the presence of sulfates should be undertaken during the
design phase of any project involving concrete in contact with the native soil. If the
concentrations are found to be aggressive, various protective coatings can be applied. Also, in
the US ASTM C150 Type 5 Portland cement can be used in the mix. This type of cement is
designed to be particularly resistant to a sulfate attack.

Steel plate construction[edit]

Main article: Steel plate construction

In steel plate construction, stringers join parallel steel plates. The plate assemblies are fabricated
off site, and welded together on-site to form steel walls connected by stringers. The walls
become the form into which concrete is poured. Steel plate construction speeds reinforced
concrete construction by cutting out the time-consuming on-site manual steps of tying rebar and
building forms. The method results in excellent strength because the steel is on the outside,
where tensile forces are often greatest.

Fiber-reinforced concrete[edit]
Main article: Fiber reinforced concrete

Fiber reinforcement is mainly used in shotcrete, but can also be used in normal concrete. Fiber-
reinforced normal concrete is mostly used for on-ground floors and pavements, but can be
considered for a wide range of construction parts (beams, pillars, foundations, etc.), either alone
or with hand-tied rebars.

Concrete reinforced with fibers (which are usually steel, glass, or plastic fibers) is less expensive
than hand-tied rebar, while still increasing the tensile strength many times. The shape,
dimension, and length of the fiber are important. A thin and short fiber, for example short, hair-
shaped glass fiber, is only effective during the first hours after pouring the concrete (its function
is to reduce cracking while the concrete is stiffening), but it will not increase the concrete tensile
strength. A normal-size fiber for European shotcrete (1 mm diameter, 45 mm length—steel or
plastic) will increase the concrete's tensile strength.

Steel is the strongest commonly-available fiber, and comes in different lengths (30 to 80 mm in
Europe) and shapes (end-hooks). Steel fibers can only be used on surfaces that can tolerate or
avoid corrosion and rust stains. In some cases, a steel-fiber surface is faced with other materials.

Glass fiber is inexpensive and corrosion-proof, but not as ductile as steel. Recently, spun basalt
fiber, long available in Eastern Europe, has become available in the U.S. and Western Europe.
Basalt fibre is stronger and less expensive than glass, but historically has not resisted the alkaline
environment of portland cement well enough to be used as direct reinforcement. New materials
use plastic binders to isolate the basalt fiber from the cement.

The premium fibers are graphite-reinforced plastic fibers, which are nearly as strong as steel,
lighter in weight, and corrosion-proof. Some experiments have had promising early results with
carbon nanotubes, but the material is still far too expensive for any building.

Non-steel reinforcement[edit]
There is considerable overlap between the subjects of non-steel reinforcement and fiber-
reinforcement of concrete. The introduction of non-steel reinforcement of concrete is relatively
recent; it takes two major forms: non-metallic rebar rods, and non-steel (usually also non-
metallic) fibres incorporated into the cement matrix. For example there is increasing interest in
glass fiber reinforced concrete (GFRC) and in various applications of polymer fibres
incorporated into concrete. Although currently there is not much suggestion that such materials
will in general replace metal rebar, some of them have major advantages in specific applications,
and there also are new applications in which metal rebar simply is not an option. However, the
design and application of non-steel reinforcing is fraught with challenges. For one thing,
concrete is a highly alkaline environment, in which many materials, including most kinds of
glass, have a poor service life. Also, the behaviour of such reinforcing materials differs from the
behaviour of metals, for instance in terms of shear strength, creep and elasticity.[21][22]

Fibre-Reinforced Polymer (FRP) (Fibre-reinforced plastic or FRP) and Glass-reinforced plastic

(GRP) consist of fibres of polymer, glass, carbon, aramid or other polymers or high-strength
fibres set in a resin matrix to form a rebar rod, or grid, or fibres. These rebars are installed in
much the same manner as steel rebars. The cost is higher but, suitably applied, the structures
have advantages, in particular a dramatic reduction in problems related to corrosion, either by
intrinsic concrete alkalinity or by external corrosive fluids that might penetrate the concrete.
These structures can be significantly lighter and usually have a longer service life. The cost of
these materials has dropped dramatically since their widespread adoption in the aerospace
industry and by the military.

In particular FRP rods are useful for structures where the presence of steel would not be
acceptable. For example, MRI machines have huge magnets, and accordingly require non-
magnetic buildings. Again, toll booths that read radio tags need reinforced concrete that is
transparent to radio waves. Also, where the design life of the concrete structure is more
important than its initial costs, non-steel reinforcing often has its advantages where corrosion of
reinforcing steel is a major cause of failure. In such situations corrosion-proof reinforcing can
extend a structure's life substantially, for example in the intertidal zone. FRP rods may also be
useful in situations where it is likely that the concrete structure may be compromised in future
years, for example the edges of balconies when balustrades are replaced, and bathroom floors in
multi-story construction where the service life of the floor structure is likely to be many times the
service life of the waterproofing building membrane.
Plastic reinforcement often is stronger, or at least has a better strength to weight ratio than
reinforcing steels. Also, because it resists corrosion, it does not need a protective concrete cover
as thick as steel reinforcement does (typically 30 to 50 mm or more). FRP-reinforced structures
therefore can be lighter and last longer. Accordingly, for some applications the whole-life cost
will be price-competitive with steel-reinforced concrete.

The material properties of FRP or GRP bars differ markedly from steel, so there are differences
in the design considerations. FRP or GRP bars have relatively higher tensile strength but lower
stiffness, so that deflections are likely to be higher than for equivalent steel-reinforced units.
Structures with internal FRP reinforcement typically have an elastic deformability comparable to
the plastic deformability (ductility) of steel reinforced structures. Failure in either case is more
likely to occur by compression of the concrete than by rupture of the reinforcement. Deflection is
always a major design consideration for reinforced concrete. Deflection limits are set to ensure
that crack widths in steel-reinforced concrete are controlled to prevent water, air or other
aggressive substances reaching the steel and causing corrosion. For FRP-reinforced concrete,
aesthetics and possibly water-tightness will be the limiting criteria for crack width control. FRP
rods also have relatively lower compressive strengths than steel rebar, and accordingly require
different design approaches for reinforced concrete columns.

One drawback to the use of FRP reinforcement is their limited fire resistance. Where fire safety
is a consideration, structures employing FRP have to maintain their strength and the anchoring of
the forces at temperatures to be expected in the event of fire. For purposes of fireproofing an
adequate thickness of cement concrete cover or protective cladding is necessary. The addition of
1 kg/m3 of polypropylene fibers to concrete has been shown to reduce spalling during a simulated
fire.[23] (The improvement is thought to be due to the formation of pathways out of the bulk of the
concrete, allowing steam pressure to dissipate.[23])

Another problem is the effectiveness of shear reinforcement. FRP rebar stirrups formed by
bending before hardening generally perform relatively poorly in comparison to steel stirrups or
to structures with straight fibres. When strained, the zone between the straight and curved
regions are subject to strong bending, shear, and longitudinal stresses. Special design techniques
are necessary to deal with such problems.

There is growing interest in applying external reinforcement to existing structures using

advanced materials such as composite (fiberglass, basalt, carbon) rebar, which can impart
exceptional strength. Worldwide there are a number of brands of composite rebar recognized by
different countries, such as Aslan, DACOT, V-rod, and ComBar. The number of projects using
composite rebar increases day by day around the world, in countries ranging from USA, Russia,
and South Korea to Germany.
Advantages and Disadvantages of
Reinforced Concrete
Reinforced concrete, as a structural material, is widely used in many types of structures. It is competitive
with steel if economically designed and executed.

The advantages of reinforced concrete can be summarized as follows:

1. It has a relatively high compressive strength;

2. It has better resistance to fire than steel;
3. It has a long service life with low maintenance cost;
4. In some types of structures, such as dams, piers, and footings, it is the most economical structural
material;
5. It can be cast to take the shape required, making it widely used in precast structural components.
It yields rigid members with minimum apparent deflection.

The disadvantages of reinforced concrete can be summarized as follows:

1. It has a low tensile strength of about one-tenth of its compressive strength;

2. It needs mixing, casting, and curing, all of which affect the final strength of concrete;
3. The cost of the forms used to cast of concrete placed in the forms;
4. It has a low compressive strength as compared to steel (the ratio is about 1:10, depending on
materials), which leads to large sections in columns of multistory buildings;
5. Cracks develop in concrete due to shrinkage and the application of live loads.