NETWORK TOPOLOGIES AND CONFIGURATIONS

NETWORK TOPOLOGY. describes the layout or appearance of a network-that is, how the computers, cables, and
other components within a data communications network are interconnected, both physically and logically.

PHYSICAL TOPOLOGY. describes how the network LOGICAL TOPOLOGY. describes how data actually
is actually laid out. flow through the network.
Star, Ring, Bus, Mesh, Hybrid Broadcast, Token Ring
TYPES OF NETWORKS ACCORDING TO GEOGRAPHICAL AREA
Local Area Network. Interconnects computer users within a department, company, or group.
Wide Area Network. Interconnects computers in and around an entire country
Metropolitan Area Network. Interconnects computers in and around a large city
Campus Area Network. Interconnects building LANs
Home Area Network.
Personal Area Network.
TYPES OF NETWORKS ACCORDING TO PURPOSE
Storage Area Network. Specialized high speed network joining servers and storage.
Enterprise Private Network. Build for sharing computer resources for a certain company/enterprise.
Virtual Private Network. Network technology that creates secure connection over public network like internet or a
private network owned by service provider.
Remote Access VPN . Establish secure connection with a remote computer network using laptop connected
to internet.
Site to Site VPN . Establish secure connection with each other over a public network such as internet

NETWORK CHARACTERISTICS
Unique Addresses
Interface
Topology
Protocol

CRITICAL FACTORS IN NETWORKING

Network Speed
Delay
Availability

DATA TRANSMISSION TECHNIQUES

Data transmission refers to the process of transferring data between two or more digital devices. Data is transmitted
from one device to another in analog or digital format. Basically, data transmission enables devices or components
within devices to speak to each other.

Data is transferred in the form of bits between two or more digital devices.

WHAT IS SERIAL TRANSMISSION?

SERIAL BY BIT
When data is sent or received using serial data transmission, the data bits are organized in a specific order, since they
can only be sent one after another. The order of the data bits is important as it dictates how the transmission is
organized when it is received. It is viewed as a reliable data transmission.
 TYPES OF SERIAL TRANSMISSION
Asynchronous Serial Transmission
Data bits can be sent at any point in time. Stop bits and start bits are used between data bytes to synchronize the
transmitter and receiver and to ensure that the data is transmitted correctly. The time between sending and receiving
data bits is not constant, so gaps are used to provide time between transmissions.
The advantage of using the asynchronous method is that no synchronization is required between the transmitter and
receiver devices. It is also a more cost effective method. A disadvantage is that data transmission can be slower, but
this is not always the case.
Synchronous Serial Transmission
Data bits are transmitted as a continuous stream in time with a master clock. The data transmitter and receiver both
operate using a synchronized clock frequency; therefore, start bits, stop bits, and gaps are not used. This means that
data moves faster and timing errors are less frequent because the transmitter and receiver time is synced. However,
data accuracy is highly dependent on timing being synced correctly between devices. In comparison with
asynchronous serial transmission, this method is usually more expensive.

WHAT IS PARALLEL TRANSMISSION?

PARALLEL BY BIT OR SERIAL BY CHARACTER
When data is sent using parallel data transmission, multiple data bits are transmitted over multiple channels at the
same time. This means that data can be sent much faster than using serial transmission methods.

Although parallel transmission can transfer data faster, it requires more transmission channels than serial transmission.
This means that data bits can be out of sync, depending on transfer distance and how fast each bit loads.

TRANSMISSION MODES
data transmission is unidirectional; information can be sent in only one direction. Simplex lines are also
Simplex
called receive-only, transmit-only, or one-way-only lines.
Half data transmission is possible in both directions but not at the same time. Half-duplex communications lines
duplex are also called two-way-alternate or either-way lines
Full transmissions are possible in both directions simultaneously, but they must be between the same two
duplex stations. Full-duplex lines are also called two-way simultaneous, duplex, or both-way lines.
Full/full transmission is possible in both directions at the same time but not between the same two stations .
duplex Full/full duplex is possible only on multipoint circuits.

CROSSTALK
Any disturbance created in a communications channel by signals in other communications channels.
It is a subdivision of the general subject of interference.
The term crosstalk was originally coined to indicate the presence of unwanted speech sounds in a telephone receiver
caused by conversations on another telephone circuit.
NATURE OF CROSSTALK
Intelligible crosstalk is particularly annoying and objectionable because the listener senses a real or fancied loss of
privacy.
Unintelligible crosstalk does not violate privacy, although it can still be annoying.
PRIMARY TYPES OF CROSSTALK IN TELEPHONE SYSTEMS

Nonlinear Crosstalk is a direct result of nonlinear amplification (hence the name) in analog communications systems.
Nonlinear amplification produces harmonics and cross products (sum and difference frequencies).
Transmittance Crosstalk. This type of crosstalk is most prevalent when filters do not adequately reject undesired
products from other channels. Because this type of interference is caused by inadequate control of the transfer
characteristics or transmittance of networks, it is called transmittance crosstalk.
Coupling Crosstalk. Electromagnetic coupling between two or more physically isolated transmission media is called
coupling crosstalk. The most common coupling is due to the effects of near-field mutual induction between cables
from physically isolated circuits.

Standard telephone cable pairs have 20 twists per foot, whereas data circuits generally require more twists per foot.
TWO TYPES OF COUPLING CROSSTALK
Near-end crosstalk (NEXT) is crosstalk that occurs at the transmit end of a circuit and travels in the opposite direction
as the signal in the disturbing channel.
Far-end crosstalk (FEXT) occurs at the far-end receiver and is energy that travels in the same direction as the signal in
the disturbing channel.
UNIT OF MEASUREMENT
Crosstalk interference is often expressed in its own special decibel unit of measurement, dBx.Unlike dBm, where the
reference is a fixed power level, dBx is referenced to the level on the cable that is being interfered with (whatever the
level may be). Mathematically, dBx is
dBx=90-(crosstalk loss in decibels)
where 90 dB is considered the ideal isolation between adjacent lines.

TWO WIRE AND FOUR WIRE CIRCUITS

A two-wire circuit has two insulated electrical conductors. One wire is used for transmission of the information. The
other wire acts as the return path to complete the electrical circuit. Two-wire circuits are generally deployed in the
analog local loop, which is the last mile between the subscriber and the subscriber's first point of access into the
network.

A four-wire circuit has two pairs of conductors. That is, it has two sets of one-way transmission paths: one path for
each direction and a complementary path to complete the electrical circuit. Four-wire circuits are used where there is
distance between the termination points which requires that the signal be strengthened periodically.

TWO TYPES OF FOUR-WIRE CIRCUITS

Physical four-wire. You can actually count four wires.

Logical four-wire. Physically there are only two wires, but you derive the four individual paths by splitting the
frequency. Half of the frequency band carries the transmit signal, and the other half carries the receive signal.