Mukjlr Pystlk

b ,j Í Z 9 b 3 j
m rbtghmbc mh jltwllm gmtlalr Mukjlr Pystlk
(m 2) (m 2)
b; b ´ & j ; j  ´
(m   2) (m   2)
Zbtghmbc mh jltwllm : gmtlarbc mh. Zlbc Mh. Gkbagmbry Mh.
(Zlprlslmtld hm mh. cgml) (Mht rlprlslmtld hm mukjlr cgml)
p
x;
q ·  > Gmslrtghm he grrbtghmbc
q gs mht gm :
k
´
m
< jltwllm : rlbc mh.
l.a6- < b,j Í Zlbc
Zbtghmbc Mh.(Z) Grrbtghmbc Mh. Grrbtghmbc ; b ´ j
22
p p
_ ; q 9 q · > 9 p, q Í G @bmmht jl q ! > 9 l.a . :  , p
p Grrbtghmbc he ehrk m b
x; b; Zbdg`bmd
q ·  > Purds m gs rbdg`bc sgam
q gs gm ehrk :k ´ <m m ; hrdlr
0 0
l.a6- ; Mhm-tlrkgmbtgma Cbws he Purds
:> :: # <2 Gmtlalrs (G hr V) Mhm-Gmtlalrs
& mhm-rl`urgma m b  ´ m   m
{la. -0,-:,-2,>,2,:,...} 2 0 (g) m bm ; b 9 (gg) j ;  bj
{la. , } (la. 0.24:?<150)
: : (ggg) m b ¿ m j ; m b
j
Dl`gkbc Mh (gv) m k
b ; mk b
  Mlabtgvl la. 0.5<, 4.51
^hsgtgvl (v) m b
; m´  p p
b
Tlrkgmbtgma Mhm-tlrkgmbtgma jut m bk
Qohcl Mh.(Q) (vg) ; m´p bk p ´

la. 0.5< rl`urrgma

{la6- >,2,:,0.....}
@hmvlrsghm 6 Dl`gkbc Erb`tghm (b) Bddgtghm & sujtrb`tghm
Mbturbc Mh. (M) (g) x ; >. 5   ‐  <>
la.   0: +  2?
{la6- 2,:,0.....} ; >.555..
(gg) Kuctgpcy jy 2> (j) Kuctgpcy & dgvgdl
2>x ; 5.555..... la. 0 : ´ 4 0   ¿  < 2>
^rgkl Mh. @hkphsgtl Mh. (ggg) Pujtrb`t (gg),(g)
{Lxb`tcy obvl : dgstgm`t eb`thrs {Khrl tobm : dgstgm`t eb`thrs 7x ; 5 (`) @hkpbrgshm
2 & gtslce. l.a. :,0,<,1,22....} l.a. 4,7,2<....} la. 0 5 = hr 3< ?
:
>. 5
Hml (Lx`lptghm) (gv) x ; 0 ; (d) Zbtghmbcgzbtghm
2 1 <
Mlgtolr ^rgkl mhr @hkphsgtl la. #
1  < 1  <
 

^hcymhkgbcs

(g) Vlrh dlarll 9 e(x) ; bx¾, b · >

(g) Khmhkgbc ; 2 tlrk9l a6- bx: , <x0
2
(g) ^(x) ; x 9 dlarll 2 (gg) Cgmlbr 9 e(x) ; bx + j 9 b · >
:
(gg) Jgmhkgbc ; : tlrks9l a 6- :x: + 0x
0 :
(gg) ^(x) ; x - <x 9 dlarll 0 (ggg) Rubdrbtg` 9 e(x) ; bx + jx + ` 9 b · >
4 : 0 :
(ggg) Trgmhkgbc ; 0 tlrks9l a 6- :x: + 0x + < (ggg) ^(x) ; x + 4x 9 dlarll 4 (gv) @ujg` 9 e(x) ; bx + jx + `x + d 9 b · >
4 0 :

Ogaolst phwlr he x gm phcymhkgbc (v) Jgqubdrbtg` 9 e(x) ; bx + jx + `x + dx + l9 b · >

Jbsld hm mukjlr he tlrks
Dlarll he ^hcymhkgbc   Jbsld hm dlarll

Typls he phcymhkgbc
Typls he phcymhkgbc
Zlkbgmdlr Tolhrlk
Ubcul he phcymhkgbc
{Ge ^(x) ¿ (x - b) 9 Zlk ; ^(b)} . :
^hcymhkgbcs la. e(x) ; x - 0x + 4, vbcul bt x ; :
:
: m e(:) ; : - 0 ´ : + 4 ; :
E(x) ; b> + b2 x + b: x + ..... +bm x

Eb`thr Tolhrlk Vlrh hr rhht he phcymhkgbc

. : :
{Ge ^(x) ¿ (x - b) 9 Zlk ; ^(b) ; >} l a. e(x) ; :x + x + 1x - 5, vbcul bt x ; :
e(:) ; >, x ; : gs b rhht hr zlrh

Eb`thrs he ^hcymhkgbcs Bcaljrbg` Gdlmtgtgls

(g) (b + j): ; b + :bj + j:

(g) Jy tbigma `hkkhm eb`thr : : :
(gg) (b - j) ; b - :bj + j
la. ; :b(x + y) - 0j(x + y) : :
(ggg) b - j ; (b + j) (b - j)
: : : :

(gg) Jy arhupgma (gv) (b + j + `) ; b + j + ` + :bj + :j` + :`b

0 0 : :
la. (x: + 0x): - <(x: + 0x) - y(x: + 0x) + <y (v) b + j ; (b + j) (b - bj + j )
: : :
; (x + 0x) (x + 0x - <) - y (x + 0x -<) (vg) b + j ; (b - j) (b + bj + j: )
0 0 :

0 0 0
(vgg) (b + j) ; b + j + 0bj(b + j)
(ggg) Jy kbigma plrel`t squbrl (vggg) (b - j)0 ; b0 - j0 - 0bj(b + j)
0 0 0 : : :
:
la. 4b + 2:bj + 7j
: (gx) b + j + ` - 0bj` ; (b + j + `) (b + j + ` - bj - j` - `b)
Ppl`gbc `bsl 6 Ge b + j + ` ; >, tolm
0 0 0
(gv) Dgeelrlm`l he : squbrls b + j + ` ; 0bj`
? ?
la. x - y (b : j : )0 (j : ` : )0 (` : b : )0
4 : 4 :
; (x ) - (y ) l.a. 0 0 0
(b j ) (j ` ) (`   b)
(v) Jy spcgtgma kgddcl tlrk O lr l, ( b: ‐ j: ) + ( j: ‐ `: ) + ( `: ‐ b: ) ; >
:
la. x + 5 :x + 2> & (b  ‐  j) + (j ‐  `) + (` ‐   b) ; >
:
; x + < :x + :x + 2>
 

Cgmls & Bmacls

(vg) Ulrtg`bccy hpp. bmacls 6-
J D
ÞBH@ ; ÞJHD
(vgg) Vlrh Þ 6- q ; >¶ ÞBHD ; ÞJH@
(vg) @hkpcltl Þ 6- q ; 05>¶ @   B
(v) Zleclx Þ 6 - 2?>¶ q 3 05>¶
(v) Cgmlbr ^bgr 6- q2 + q: ; 2?>¶ (q2 & q : brl bdfb`lmt)
(gv) Ptrbgaot Þ 6 - q ; 2?>¶
(b)  toly obvl tol sbkl vlrtlx,
(ggg) Hjtusl Þ 6 - 7>¶ 3 q 3 2?>¶ toly obvl b `hkkhm brk,
(gv) Bdfb`lmt bmacls 6- (`) mhm `hkkhm brks brl hm lgtolr
{
(gg) B`utl Þ 6 - > 3 q 3 7>¶ (j)
sgdl he tol `hkkhm brk.
(g) Zgao t Þ 6 - q ; 7>¶ J
_
Typls he Bmacls
(ggg) Bmacl Jgsl`thr 6- H
  B ÞBH_ ; ÞJH_

(gg) Puppclklmtbry bmacls 6- q2 + q: ; 2?>¶

Cgmls & Bmacls
(g) @hkpclklmtbry bmacls 6- q2 + q: ; 7>¶

^bgr he Þ's (q2 & q:)

Typls he Trgbmacls

Bmacls kbdl jy Trbmsvlrbc ^rhplrtgls

R Jbsgs he Pgdls Jbsgs he bmacls (g) Puk he gmtlrghr bmacls he D ; 2?>¶
5 < 2
@ D (g) P`bclml (bcc sgdls dgee.) (gg) ÞJH@ ; 7> + ÞB
1 ? (g) Zgaot (q ; 7>¶) :
:   2 (gg) Gsh`lcls (: sgdls lqubc)
B J (gg) B`utl (> 3 q 3 7>¶) (ggg) Lxt. Þ ; Puk he : gmtl rghr hpp. Þ's .
0 4
(ggg) Lqugcbtlrbc (bcc sgdls lqubc) (ggg) Hjtusl (7>¶ 3 q 3 2?>¶) 2
^ (ggg) ÞJH@ ; 7> ‐   ÞB
(g) @hrrlsphmdgma bmacls :
(Þ2 & Þ<, Þ: & Þ 5 , Þ 0 & Þ 1, Þ 4 & Þ ?)
(gg) Bctlrmbtl gmtlrghr bmacls
(Þ 2 & Þ1, Þ: & Þ?)

(ggg) @h-gmtlrghr bmacls

(Þ2 + Þ? ; 2?>¾; Þ: + Þ1)
(gv) Bctlrmbtl lxtlrghr bmacl
(Þ4 & Þ5, Þ0 &Þ<)
  @hmarulmt Trgbmacls

@rgtlrghm   ^rhplrtgls

(g) PBP (Pgdl Bmacl Pgdl)

(g) Bmacl hpphsgtl th lqubc sgdls he bm gshs`lcls
(gg) BPB (Bmacl Pgdl Bmacl) bmacl brl lqubc.

(ggg) BBP (Bmacl Bmacl Pgdl) (gg) Trgbmacl gs gshs`lcls, ge jgsl`thr he vlrtg`bc bmacl
jgsl`ts tol jbsl he trgbmacl.
(gv) PPP (Pgdl Pgdl Pgdl) @hmarulmt Trgbmacls
(v) ZOP (Zgaot Oyphclmulsl Pgdl)

Gmlqubcgtgls

(g) b + j = `, j + ` = b, ` + b = j
B
(gg) b  ‐  j 3 `, j  ‐  ` 3 b, ` ‐  b 3 j
` j
(ggg) Ge b = j, tolm ÞB = ÞJ & vg`l vlrsb

J l.a. Bmy : sgdl he D brl arlbtlr tobm twg`l tol kldgbm drbwm th
  @
b togrd sgdl. Gm DBJ@ bmd BD gs kldgbm sh, BJ + B@ = :BD.
 

^lrgkltlr & Brlb he D

Brlb he D ; P ( P b )( P
  j )( P `)
`   j b  j `
P(slkg-plrgkltlr) ;
:
J b  @

Olrhm's Ehrkucb

^lrgkltlr & Brlb he D

(`) Lqugcbtlrbc D
(b) Zgaot bmacld D (j) Gshs`lcls rgaot bmacld D
  B
B B
(j: ; b: + `:)
:   : b b
j j (j ; :b )
` b

J b/: b @
J @ J @
b b 0
^ ; 0b o;   b
^;b+j+` ^ ; :b + j :
2 2 : 2
Brlb ; b´o
Brlb ; b ´ ` Brlb ; b :
: :
0 :
; b
4
 

Bppcg`btghm he ^brbcclcharbk
Trbplzguk Gshs`lcls Trbplzguk
(g) Hml pbgr he hpphsgtl
sgdl gs pbrbcclc. {
(g) mhm-pbrbcclc sgdls brl lqubc

(gg) : pbgr he bdfb`lmt bmacls brl lqubc. }

Zohkjus
(g) Dgbahmbcs jgsl`t lb`o
htolr bt 7>¾
(gg) Bcc sgdls brl lqubc

{ Lb`o bmacl clss

  tobm 2?>¾}
@hmvlx qubdrgcbtlrbcs
Bppcg`btghm he ^brbcclcharbk
Ppl`gbc   (b) Kgd phgmt tolhrlk
Rubdrgcbtlrbcs ^brbcclcharbk   Zl`tbmacl

  }
Rubdrgcbtlrbcs

{
B (g) DL || J@

  }
Jhto pbgr he hpphsgtl

{
@hm`bvl qubdrgcbtlrbcs (g) Dgbahmbcs brl lqubc &
sgdls brl cclc 2
D L (gg) DL ; J@
{ Hml bmacl gs khvl
tobm 2?>¾ } l.a. BJ||@D, BD||J@
^rhplrtgls
(gg) Lb`o bmacl gs lqubc th 7>¾
@
:
(g) Dgbahmbc dgvgdl gt gmth : `hma.  D J

(gg) Hpphsgtl sgdls brl lqubc (j) @hmvlrsl he kgd phgmt tolhrlk

{   }
B
^R||J@
(ggg) Hpphsgtl bmacls brl lqubc
(g) R gs kgd
2 phgmt he B@ g.lBR ; @R
^ R
(vg) Dgbahmbcs jgsl`t lb`o htolr :
(gg) ^R ; J@
J @

Pqubrl
B
L.a6-.
(g) Bcc sgdls brl lqubc JL gs kldgbm
Igtl L JL || DE
(gg) Lb`o bmacl gs lqubc E BL ; @L
gs 7>¾ @
Twh pbgr he bdfb`lmt J D
sgdl brl lqubc 2
(ggg) Dgbahmbcs brl lqubc Ph, @E ;   B@
& jgsl`ts lb`o htolr bt 7>¾ 4
  Brlb he pbrbccharbk & Trgbmacl

Brlb he GGak Brlb he   D

^rhplrtgls ^rhplrtgls

(g) B dgbahmbc he GG ak dgvgdls gt gmth : D 's he lqubc brlb (g) Twh D's hm tol sbkl jbsl bmd jltwllm
sbkl pbrbcclcs brl lqubc gm brlb.
Brlb he GGak & Trgbmacl
D   @ D R
^ B
Ogmt 6 DBJD DJ D@ br(DBJ@) ; br (D^J@)
(g) Brlb he trbplzguk gs obce tol prhdu`t
B J he gts olgaot & suk he Gclc sgdls. J @

j
C D   @
(gg) ^brbcclcharbk hm sbkl jbsl bmd jltwllm br.(trbp BD@D) (gg) Kldgbm he trgbmacl dgvgdls gt gmth
sbkl pbrbcclc brl lqubc gm brlb. 2 : trgbmacls he lqubc brlb.
o % o (b   j)
: B
B M J
E D   L @ b

Ogmt 6 DBED D J@L

br (D BJD) ; br. (D B@D )

B J J  
D @

La 6 - BJ@ gs D gm wog`o D gs kgd-pt he J@

bmd L gs kgd-^hgmt he BD.
(ggg) Brlb he GGak gs prhdu`t he gts jbsl & `hrrlsphmdgma bct. ^T. hr D JLD ; 2/4 br. D BJ@

D   K B
C @
Br. (GGak BJ@D) ;
Br(rl`t. BJKC) Ogmt 6 BD gs kldgbm he D BD@
L & JL gs kldgbm he D BJD
B J
J   D @
 

@gr`cls

  Zlaghm ^R
@GZ@CLP
Kbfhr H
gs slaklmt Plaklmt @ohrd ^R gs `ohrd
^ R
^ R
kgmhr (g) @hccl`tghm he bcc
phgmts gmb pcbml.
(gg) Bt egxld dgstbm`l erhk
Kbfhr b egxld pt gm pcbml kbfhr
H Zlaghm ^HR ^R gs br`
gs sl`thr Br`
Pl`thr
^ R ^ R
kgmhr
kgmhr

@ydg` Rubdrgctlrbc
^rhplrtgls Bmacl sujtlmdld jy bm br`
D @ (g) Lqubc `ohrd he b `gr`cl sujtlmd
BJ@D gs `y`cg` (g) Bmacl sujtlmdld bt tol `lmtrl gs dhujcl
lqubc bmacls bt tol `lmtrl. tol sujtlmdld hm rlkbgmgma put he `gr`cl.
bs bcc vlrtg`ls
thu`ols tol `gr`cl. B
B J
  BJ ; @D
H
P h, Þ BHJ Þ^HR ;
B D ; @HD H : Þ^BR
^rhplrty
(g) Puk he lgtolr pbgr he hpphsgtl J @ ^ R
bmacls he `ydg` qubd. gs 2?>¶
D (gg) Bmacls gs tol sbkl slaklmt he b
(gg) erhk `lmtrl he b `gr`cl jgsl`tstol `ohrd.
`gr`cl brl lqubc.
@
B   ÞB + Þ@ ; 2?>¶ B   J
ÞJ + ÞD ; 2?>¶ H   HK BJ
Ph, BK;JK Þ^BR ;
J
Þ^JR
B k J
^ R
La 6- @y`cg` GGak gs rl`tbmacl
(ggg) Lqubc `ohrd lqug - dgstbmt erhk `lmtrl.
(ggg) Bmacl gm slkg-`grdl gs rgaot
B J ÞB + Þ@ ; 2?>¶ @
  B
@
ÞJ + ÞD ; 2?>¶ H   BJ ; @D BJ gs dgbkltlr
ÞB ; Þ@ &
M Ph, HK ; HM ÞB@J ; 7>¶
K
Þ Þ
D @ J; D D B H J
Ph, lb`o bmacl gs 7>¶ J
 

Pureb`l Brlb bmd Uhcukl

@.P.B ; :pro r
Clmato he dgbahmbc ; c: + j: + o:
o  :
T.P.B ; :pro + :pr

o r ; :pr(r + o)
:
j Uhcukl ; pr o :
T.P.B ; @.P.B ; 4pr
c
4 0
T.P.B ; :(cj +jo + oc) Uhcukl %  &r
@.P.B ; :o(c + j) 0
Uhcukl ; c  Ñ j Ñ o
@ycgmdlr

@ujhgd Ppolrl

P\ZEB@L BZLB
Olkg - Ppolrl
BMD UHC\KL
r

@ujl
@hml @.P.B ; :pr
:

T.P.B; :pr: + pr: ; 0pr:

x
: 0
Uhcukl %  &r
0
x   c
o @.P.B ; prc
x Ohcchw olkg-sprlrl
T.P.B ; :(x: + x: + x: ) ; 5x: r Z
@.P.B ; 4x
: @.P.B ; :p(Z: +r:)
:
Uhcukl ; x
0 T.P.B; prc + pr :
T.P.B ; :p(Z +r )
:

; pr(c + r) + p(Z   ‐  r )
: :
Clmato he dgbahmbc ; x 0
2
Uhcukl %   &r :o
0
: :

c; o +r (Pcbmt olgaot) Uhcukl % : &  (Z 0   r 0 )

0
 

y
Dlegmgtghms
(ggg) Erlqulm`y ^hcyahm 2?
Ptbtgstg`s 25
(g) Zbmal ; \. C ‐  C. C @G Erlq. 24
2:
Zbmal :> - 0> ?
(gg) @
  G % 2>
Mh. he `cbssls 0> - 4> 2: ?
(ggg) Dgs`rltl 6 Egxld kbamgtudl 4> - <> 21 4
la 6- 2>, :>, :< <> - 5> 7 :
(gv) @hmtgmuhus ; Kbamgtudl mht egxld. @cbssgeg`btghm >
la 6- 2>  ‐  :> , :>  ‐  0> 2> :> 0>   4> <>   5>   x

@hccl`tghm he Dbtb Erlqulm`y @ukucbtgvl Arbpog`bc

Dgstrgjutghm Erlqulm`y Zlprlslmtbtghm
(g) ^rgkbry Dbtb 6 y
Dbtb `hccl`tld ogkslce (g) Dgs`rltl erlq.   (g)Dgs`rltl erlq. (g) Jbr arbpo
1
(gg) Pl`hmdbry Dbtb 6 Qbals   Mh. Qbals   Mh. @E Olbds   Lrplmdgtul 5
Dbtb `lccl`tld jy 4>>> 2> 4>>> 2> 2> Arb`lry 4 <
^lrshm hr sh`glty.
5>>> ? 5>>> ? 2? Zlmt < 4
?>>> < ?>>> < :0 Kldg`gml : 0
Klbsurl he
@lmtrl Tlmdlm`y 22>>> 1 22>>> 1 0> Eulc : :
2

Puk he hjslrvbtghm H   A Z   K   E x
(g) Klbm
  % Mh. he hjslrvbtgh m (gg) @hmtgmuhus erlq. (gg) @hmtgmuhus erlq.
@G Mh. (b) Clss tobm
  Clss
(gg) Kldgbm ; kgddcl hjslrvbtghm @G Tobm
@E y
>- < 1: (gg) Ogstharbk
< - 2> 2>0 >- < < 1: 2:<
m ; hdd m ; lvlm @G Mh.
2> - 2< <> < - 2> 2> 21<
to to to 2>>
,m  2) , m) ,m  2) 2> - 2< ::< >- < 1:
Kldgbm %*   ' * * ' 2< - :> :< 2<
+ : ( +: ( + : ( 2< - :> :<>
< - 2> 2>0 1<
Kldgbm % :>
: 2> - 2< <>
<>
(j) Khrl tobm 2< - :> :<
:<
  Khrl
(ggg) Khdl ; hjslrvbtghm wgto kbx. erlq. @G @E
Tobm

Lkpgrg`bc Zlcbtghm j/w khdl, kldgbm, klbm >- < > :<> >   <   2> 2<   :> x
Khdl ; 0 kldgbm ‐  : klbm 21?
< - 2> <
2> - 2< 2> 1<
2< - :> 2< :<
 

^rhjbjgcgty

Lxplrgklmt Lxbkpcls

(g) Dltlrkgmgstg` Lxp 6 ^rhjbjgcgty he bmy (g) : `hgms thssld <>> tgkls, wl alt
^rhdu`l sbkl hut`hkl. lvlmt B, g.l :O ; 2>< tgkls
> - ^ (B) - 2 2 O ; :1< tgkls
(gg) Zbmdhk Lxp 6-
Dhm't prhdu`l Ge, ^(B) ; >, Gkphssgjcl lvlmt > O ; 2:> tgkls
Ge, ^(B) ; 2, Purl lvlmt 2><
sbkl hut`hkl.
^ ( :O
  ) %
& ^(B) + ^(B) ; 2 <>>
:1<
^ (2 O
  ) %
<>>
2:>
^(> O
  ) %
<> >
Pbkpcl Ppb`l
^rhjbjgcgty
Plt he bcc phssgjcl hut`hkls.
la 6- Dg`l gs thssld
P ; {2,:,0,4,<,5}

^rhjbjgcgty he obpplmgma bm lvlmt B, g.l

Thtbc Ebvhrbjcl . hut`hkl (gg) 2<>> ebkgcgls wgto : `ogcdrlm
^( B  ) %
Thtbc phssgjcl hut`hkl. slcl`tld rbmdhkcy

Mh. he agrcs : 2 >

la 6- ^rhjbjgcgty he altgma lvlm
mh. hm thssgma b dg`l Mh. he ebkgcy 41< ?24 :22
Lvlmt
0 2 41<
^(Lvlm)  % % ^( : agrcs
  )%
Pujslt he Pbkpcl Ppb`l 5 : 2<>>
la 6- Lvlm mh. wolm dg`l gs thssld ?24
L ; {:,4, 5} ^(2 agrc
  )%
2<>>

  ?24 41<
^ ( b t clbst 2 agrc) %
2<>>