BV[DBG EKXK\BSB^BG M@SB XBNB ^G ‑X‚ NKGCBG CBGCC[BG VKGVO\@

XK\VKXV@ DBA[V@GBV@ XKGNKGCB\BG N@ S@ABPBD EK\MB XEJ LB\OV

B. XKGC
XKGCEB
EBM@
M@BG
BG

^bgccba Xkgcebm`bg = 83 ‖ 28- <8<8  GO \kc`stkr =

\ubgc \bwbt = Ebjbr ekabs < N`bcgosb Jkn`s = Dbaus`gbs`
^bgccba \bwbt = 8<- 28 - <8<8

@. @NKG^@
@NKG^@^BV
^BV EA@K
EA@KG
G
 Gbjb = ^g —‐X‐‐ Vueuu Lbgc
Vue Lbgcsb
sb = @gno
@gnogks
gks`b
`b
[jur = 64 tbdug Xkgn`n`ebg = VJX
Vtbt
Vtbtus
us Xkre
Xkrebw
bw`g
`gbg
bg = Eb
Ebw`
w`gg Babjbt = Ep. F`euaur Nksb F`euaur 
Bcbjb = @sabj
Vujl
Vujlkr
kr @gior
@giorjb
jbs`
s` = Xb
Xbs`
s`kg
kg,, pkrb
pkrbwb
wbtt
nbg ^`j

@@. BAB
BABVBG
VBG JB
JBV[E 
Ea`kg n`lbwb ek XEJ Lbros oakd pbjbg nbg < orbgc sbgtr`gyb, pbnb tbgccba 8<
Bcustus <8<8 jbabj dbr`, ebrkgb ea`kg cka`sbd, l`fbrb skgn`r`, jbrbd- jbrbd nbg
gcbjue.

@@
@@@.
@. IBE^
IBE^O\
O\ XK\@
XK\@ON
ONKV
KVBV
BV@@

2. Xkrgbd jkgcbabj`
jkgcbabj` cbgccubg
cbgccubg m`wb n`jbs
n`jbsbb abau = ( ) Pb (  ) ^`nbe 
<. Xkgcolbtbg
Xkgcolbtbg sklka
sklkaujgy
ujgybb = ( ) Lkrdbs
Lkrdbs`a`a ( ) Eurbgc
Eurbgc Lkrdbs`a
Lkrdbs`a ( ) t`nbe lkrdbs`a
lkrdbs`a
Ea`kg lkauj pkrgbd jkgcbabj` pkgcolbtbg cbgccubg m`wb
Jbsbabd ekpkrbwbtbg = -
6. Xkabeu/[s`b Eorlbg / [s`b Vbes` [s`b
 Bg`byb i`s`e ( )( ) ( ∝ ) ( 29 ) ( )
( )
 Bg`byb skesuba ( )( ) ( )( ) ( )
( )
 

 Xkgoabebg
Xkgoabebg ( )( ) ( )( ) ( )
( )
 Ekekrbsbg
Ekekrbsbg nbabj ekaub
ekaubrcb(
rcb( )( ) ( )( ) ( )
( )
 ^`gnbebg
^`gnbebg er`j`gba
er`j`gba ( )( ) ( )( ) ( )
( )
Mkabse
Mkabsebg
bg = Ea`
Ea`kg
kg lka
lkauj
uj pkr
pkrgbd
gbd jkg
jkgcba
cbabj`
bj` cbgccu
cbgccubg
bg m`w
m`wbb nbg lka
lkauj
uj pkrgbd
pkrgbd
jkgnbpbtebg pkgcolbtbg sklkaujgyb. Ea`kg pkrgbd jkgcbabj` ekekrbsbg i`s`e 
yb`tu n`pueua`g oakd ebebe ekabsgyb skwbetu nunue n` ekabs < VJX n` Xksbgtrkg
Jonkrg. Ea`kg jkgnkr`tb aueb pbrbd n`ekpbab sbjpb` n`rbwbt n` \ujbd Vbe`t.
Jbsbabd ekpkrbwbtbg = \XE
>. Bnbebd
Bnbebd ekaub
ekaubrcb
rcb ybgc jkgc
jkgcbabj`
babj` cbgcc
cbgccubg
ubg m`wb ? ( ) Pb ( ∝ ) ^`nbe 
Dulugcbg Ekaubrcb Ckmbab \`wbybt Xkgcolbtbg / Xkrbwbtbg

.......................... ...................... ..................................

;. Xkgcba
Xkgcbabjb bjbgg jbsb abau abau ybgc
ybgc t`nb
t`nbee jkgy
jkgykgb kgbgce
gcebg
bg =
Ea`kg pkrgbd n`pueua oakd ebebe ekabsgyb skwbetu nunue n` lbgceu ekabs < VJX
n` Xksbgtrkg Jonkrg.
Jbsbabd Ekpkrbwbtbg = \ks`eo Xkr`abeu Ekekrbsbg

@Y.. XKJK
@Y XKJK\@
\@EV
EVBB
BBG
G I@V
I@V@E
@E
2. ^bgnb-tbgn
^bgnb-tbgnbb v`tba ^N = 288/3
288/38jjD
8jjDcc G=48x
G=48x/j
/j V = 69,<F X= <8x/j
<. [eur ^L = 29; fj LL = ;8Ec
6. Ekau
Ekaudd
ddbg
bg I`s`
I`s`ee ( ) Pb (∝ ) ^`nb
^`nbe 
e 
Mkabsebg = ea`kg pkrgbd jkgcbabj`
jkgcbabj` lbnbg nbg ebe` tkrbsb sbe`t ppbnb
bnb jbabj dbr`,
sktkabd n`bgmurebg pos`s` t`nur ebe`gyb n` gb`ebg, skebrbgc t`nbe pkrgbd bnb
ekaudbg abc`.
Jbsbabd Ekpkrbwbtbg = ^`nbe bnb jbsbabd ekpkrbwbtbg

Y. XV@E
XV@EOV
OVOV
OV@@BA
 

Mkabsebg =
Ea`kg bgbe ek < nbr` < lkrsbunbrb, ea`kg t`gccba skrujbd nkgcbg eknub orbgc tub
nbg ebebgyb. Xoab bsud n`ekaubrcb lb`e, poab eoju`ebs` eurbgc tkrlueb, skmbe 
VJX ea`
ea`kg
kg sun
sunbd
bd t`g
t`gccb
ccbaa n`p
n`pksb
ksbgtr
gtrkg,
kg, byb
bybdd ea`kg
ea`kg pkgn`b
pkgn`bj,
j, `lu ea`kg
ea`kg s`lue 
s`lue 
 lkrmubabg, pkgcbjl`a ekputusbg nbabj ekaubrcb bnbabd `lugyb, ekaubrcb ea`kg

t`nbe bnb ybgc jkgnkr`tb cbgccubg m`wb.

2. Eogskp N`r`
b. Cbjlbrb
rbgg N
N``r`
Ea`kg jkgcbtbebg
jkgcbtbebg nbr` skaurud bgccotb tuludgy
tuludgybb ybgc pba`gc n`sueb` bnbabd
 lkwoegyb, n`b lkrusbdb jkgujludebggyb
jkgujludebggyb skabjb > tbdug.
 l. @nkgt`tbs n`r`
Ea`kg
Ea`kg jkg
jkgcbt
cbtbeb
bebgg bgb
bgbee ek < nbr
nbr`` < lkrsbu
lkrsbunbr
nbrb,
b, ea`kg
ea`kg jkg
jkgcbt
cbtbeb
bebgg n`r`gy
n`r`gybb
skorbgc jbdbs`swb ibeuatbs Dueuj nbg skebrbgc fut` eua`bd.
f. Xkrbg

Ea`kg jkgcbtbebg lkrpkrbg sklbcb` bgbe lugcsu ybgc jbgn`r`.

n. @nkba N
N``r`
Ea`kg jkgcbtbebg `gc`g fkpbt skjlud, `gc`g fkpbt puabgc nbg jkgykaksb`ebg
eua`bdgyb.
k. Dbrcb N`r`
Ea`kg jkgnbpbtebg nueugcbg nbr` ekaubrcb nbg sbunbrb- sbunbrbgyb ugtue 
fkpbt skjlud nbg ekaubr nbr` ea`g`e.
Jbsbabd Ekpkrbwbtbg = ^`nbe bnb jbsbabd ekpkrbwbtbg
<. Dulu
Dulugc
gcbg
bg sos`
sos`ba
ba

b. Or
Orbg
bgcc yybg
bgcc llkr
krbr
brt`
t` =
Ea`kg jkgcbtbebg orbgc ybgc pba`gc lkrbrt` lbc` n`r`gyb bnbabd `lugyb.
 l. Xkrbg skrtb ekc`btbg ekaojpoe / jbsbybrbebt =
Ea`kg jkgcbtbebg bet`i jkgc`eut` pkgcbm`bg
Ea`kg rbm`g jkgc`eut` ekrmb lbet`
f. Dbj
Dbjlbt
lbtbg
bg Lk
Lkrdu
rdulug
lugcbg
cbg nnkgc
kgcbg
bg oorbg
rbgcc ab`g
ab`g =
Ea`kg
Ea`kg jkg
jkgcbt
cbtbeb
bebgg t`n
t`nbe
be bnb dbj
dbjlbt
lbtbg
bg nba
nbabj
bj lkrdul
lkrdulugc
ugcbg
bg nkg
nkgcbg
cbg tkj
tkjbg-
bg-
tkjbggyb.
Jbsbabd Ekpkrbwbtbg = t`nbe bnb jbsbabd ekpkrbwbtbg

6. Vp`r`tuba
 

b. G`
G`ab
ab`` nbg
nbg ekyb
ekybe`
e`gb
gbgg
Ea`kg jkgcbtbebg nbg rbm`g jkabesbgbebg soabt
 l. Ekc`btbg @lbnbd
Ea`kg jkgcbtbebg jkgc`eut` pkgcbm`bg skt`bp sork n` n`pognoe

Y@.. V^B^
Y@ V^B^[V
[V JKG^
JKG^BA
BA
2. ( ) ^`n
^`nbe
be \bp
\bp`` ( ) Xkg
Xkgcc
ccugb
ugbbg
bg Xbe
Xbeb`bg
b`bg ^`nbe
^`nbe Vks
Vksub`
ub`
( ) Fbrb lkrpbeb`bg t`nbe skpkrt` l`bsbgyb
Mkabsebg =
Ea`kg lkrpkgbjp`abg rbp`, rbjlut tkrs`s`r rbp`, pbeb`bg lkrsk`d, c`c` lkrs`d, juaut
t`nbe lkrlbu, eua`t lkrs`d, ea`kg skabau jkjbeb` skgnba m`eb ekaubr.
Jbsbabd ekpkrbwbtbg = t`nbe bnb jbsbabd
<. Xkj
kjll`fbrbbg
( ) Fkpbt ( ) Ekrbs ( ) Cbcbp ( ) `geodkrbg

( ) Bpbt`s ( ) Abjlbt ( ) Jkjl`su ( ) t`nbe jbjpu jkjuab` l`fbrb

Mkabsebg =
Ea`kg lkrl`fbrb gybjlugc, ea`kg jkmbwbl skjub pkrtbgybbg nkgcbg lb`e.
Jbsbabd Ekpkrbwbtbg = t`nbe bnb jbsbabd
6. Bet`
Bet`v`
v`tb
tbss Joto
Jotor`
r`e=
e=
( ) Aksu ( ) ^kcbgc ( ) Cka`sbd ( ) Bc`tbs`

( ) ^`e ( ) Cr`jbskg ( ) ^rkjor ( ) Eojpuas`i  

Mkabsebg =

Ea`kg tbjpbe skjbgcbt/ skgbgc sbbt n`bmbe gcolroa, jkgc`eut` ekc`btbg n`p`gt`
skpkrt` lkroabdrbcb, lkrgybgy`, sbjpb` bfbrb skaksb`.
Jbsbabd Ekpkrbwbtbg = t`nbe bnb jbsbabd
>. Babj
Babj pkr
krbs
bsbb
bbbg
bg
( ) Vkn`d ( ) Ektbeutbg ( ) Xutus bsb ( ) Edbwbt`r
( ) Ckjl`rb lkrakl`dbg
Mkabsebg = ea`kg jkgcbtbebg skn`d ebrkgb `gc`g lkrtkju `lugyb, `gc`g fkpbt
 puabgc nbg jkj`gtb jbbi pbnb `lugyb, tktbp` ea`kg t`nbe tbjpbe skn`d ybgc
 lkrakl`dbg.

Jbsbabd Ekpkrbwbtbg = t`nbe bnb jbsbabd

 

;. Bike  
( ) Nbtbr ( ) ^ujpua ( ) Abl`a ( ) ^`nbe sksub`
Mkabsebg
Mkabsebg = skabjb lkrl`gf
lkrl`gfbgc-
bgc- l`gfbgc ea`kg sksub`
sksub` yb`tu tbjpbe skn`d m`eb `gcbt
`lugyb nbg tbjpbe skgbgc m`eb fkr`tb pbfbrgyb.
Jbsbabd Ekpkrbwbtbg = t`nbe bnb jbsbabd

9. ag
agtk
tkrbe
rbes`
s` skab
skabjb
jb wb
wbwb
wbgf
gfbr
brbb
( ) lkrjusudbg ( ) ^`nbe eoopkrbt`i ( ) Junbd tkrs`gccugc
( ) Eogtbe jbtb eurbgc ( ) Nkikgs`i ( ) Fur`cb
Mkabsebg = ea`kg sbgcbt eoopkrbt`i, ea`kg jkgmbwbl skjub pkrtbgybbg nkgcbg lb`e,
ea`kg t`nbe gbjpbe ebeu sbbt lkrfkr`tb.
Jbsbabd Ekpkrbwbtbg = t`nbe bnb jbsbabd
3. Xkrs
Xkrskp
kps`
s` / D
Dba
baus
us`g
`gbs
bs``
( ∝ ) Xkgnkgcbrbg ( ) Xkgca`dbtbg ( ) Xkrblbbg
( ) Xk
Xkgc
gckf
kfbp
bpbg
bg ( ) Xk
Xkggcd`n
cd`nuu

Mkabsebg = ea`kg jkgcbtbebg sbbt sbebu jkgnkgcbr l`s`ebg ‑jbt` aud, jbt` aud‚,
 l`s`ebg `g` tkrnkgcbr lkreba`-eba` eurbgc akl`d 2; jkg`t nbg tkrmbn` sbbt ea`kg t`nbe 
jkgceogsujs` gbreolb( sdblu) abau ea`kg jkrbsb cka`sbd, jbrbd- jbrbd nbg
jkgcbjue sbbt `g` subrb l`s`ebg jbs`d skr`gc tkrnkgcbr pbnb jbabj dbr` sklkauj
t`nur.
Jbsbabd Ekpkrbwbtbg = cbgccubg skgsor` pkrskps` dbaus`gbs` pkgnkgcbrbg
4. Xrosk
roskss X`e
X`e`r 
( ) s`reujtbgs`ba ( ) tbgckgs`ba ( ) ekd`abgcbg bsos`bs`
( ) ia`cdt oi `nkb ( ) laofe`gc ( ) pkgcuabgcbg

 pkjl`fbrbbg/pkrskvbrbs`
Mkabse
Mkabsebg
bg = ea`
ea`kg
kg jbjpu
jbjpu jkg
jkgfkr`
fkr`tbe
tbebg
bg nkgcbg
nkgcbg lb`e
lb`e sbb
sbbtt n`tbgy
n`tbgybb btbu n`bmbe 
n`bmbe 
 lkrl`gfbgc-l`gfbgc.
Jbsbabd Ekpkrbwbtbg = t`nbe bnb jbsbabd
0. @s` XX``e`r
( ) Olsks` ( ) Iol`b ( ) D`poeognr`b
( ) Nkpkrsogba`sbs` ( ) `nk ybgc tkreb`t ( ) p`e`rbg jbc`s
Sbdbj
( ) Bcbjb ( ) Vojbt`e ( )Eklksbrbg ( ) Fur`cb

( ) g`d`a`st`f ( ) s`s`p p`e`r ( ) V`br p`e`r ( ) Eogtroa p`e`r  

 

Mkabsebg = Ea`kg jkgcbtbebg jkgnkgcbr l`s`ebg sbbt sbebu ‑jbt` aud, jbt` aud‚.
Jbsbabd Ekpkrbwbtbg = cbgccubg skgsor` pkrskps` dbaus`gbs` pkgnkgcbrbg.
28. ^`gcebt
^`gcebt eksbnbr
eksbnbrbg
bg
( ) L`gcugc ( ) sknbs` ( ) stupor  
N`sor`kgtbs`

( ) wbetu ( ) tkjpbt ( ) orbgc

Mkabsebg
Mkabsebg = ea`kg t`nbe jkgc
jkgcbabj`
babj` n`sor`
n`sor`kgtbs`
kgtbs`,, ea`kg jbjpu jkgckg
jkgckgba
ba pkrbwbt,
tkjpbt nbg wbetu.
Jbsbabd Ekpkrbwbtbg = t`nbe bnb jbsbabd
22
22.. Jkjo
Jkjor`
r`
( ) Cbgccubg nbyb `gcbt mbgceb pbgmbgc
( ) Cbgccubg nbyb `gcbt mbgc
mbgceb
eb pkgnke 
( ) cbgccubg nbyb `gcbt sbbt `g`
( ) eogibluabs`

Mkabsebg = ea`kg nbpbt jkgc`gcbt nkgcbg lb`e, ea`kg n`lbwb ek ea`g`e oakd pbjbg
nbg eknub
eknub sbgtr`
sbgtr`gyb
gyb,, ea`
ea`kg
kg mucb
mucb nbp
nbpbt
bt jkgc`g
jkgc`gcbt
cbt tbg
tbgcc
ccba,
ba, luabg,
luabg, nbg tbdug
tbdug
ekabd`rbggyb.
Jbsbabd Ekpkrbwbtbg = t`nbe bnb jbsbabd
2<. ^`gcebt eogskgtrbs` nbg lkrd`tugc
( ) junbd lkrba`d ( ) t`nbe jbjpu eogskgtrbs`
( ) ^`nbe jbjpu lkrd`tugc sknkrdbgb
Mkabsebg = ea`kg jbjpu lkrd`tugc sknkrdbgb nkgcbg fkpbt
<8-; : ;, 2;-; : 28, 28+68: >8

Jbsbabd Ekpkrbwbtbg = t`nbe bnb jbsbabd

26. Ekjbjpubg
Ekjbjpubg pkg`ab`b
pkg`ab`bgg
( ) Cbgccubg r`gcbg ( ) cbgccubg lkrjbegb
Mkabsebg
Mkabsebg = ea`kg jbjpu jkgcbjl
jkgcbjl`a`a ekput
ekputusbg
usbg sbbt n`lkr`
n`lkr` p`a`dbg,
p`a`dbg, lbgcug t`nur 
jbgn` nuau btbu jbebg nuau?, ea`kg jkgmbwbl jbgn` nuau lbru jbebg.
Jbsbabd Ekpkrbwbtbg = t`nbe bnb jbsbabd
2>. Nbyb t`a`e n`r`
( ) jkgc`gcebr` pkgybe`t ybgc n`nkr`tb
( ) jkgybabdebg dba-dba n`aubr n`r`gyb

Mkabsebg = ea`kg t`nbe jkrbsb sbe`t m`wb, ea`kg lkrbnb n`ea`g`e `g` ugtue rkdbl`a`tbs`
gbreolb.
 

Jbsbabd Ekpkrbwbtbg = t`nbe bnb jbsbabd

Y@@.. EKL[^[
Y@@ EKL[^[DBG
DBG XK\V@B
XK\V@BXB
XBG
G X[AB
X[ABGC
GC
2. Jbebg
( ∝ ) Lbgtubg j`g`jba ( ) Lbgtubg totba

<. LBL/LBE 
(  ) Lbgtubg j`g`jba ( ) Lbgtuba totba
6. Jbgn`
( ∝ ) Lbgtubg j`g`jba ( ) Lbgtubg totba
>. Lkrp
Lkrpbe
beb`
b`bg
bg/l
/lkr
krd`
d`bs
bs
( ∝ ) Lbgtubg j`g`jba ( ) Lbgtuba totba
;. @s
@st`
t`rb
rbdb
dbtt nbg
nbg t`
t`nu
nur 
r 
( ) ^`nu
`nur s`bg
s`bgcc abj
abjb = 26.88
6.88 s/n
s/n 2>.88
>.88
( ) ^`nur jbabj abjb = 29.88 s/n 8<.88

( ) Ekc`btbg sklkauj / sksunbd t`nur =

9. Xk
Xkgc
gccu
cugb
gbbg
bg olbt
olbt
( ∝ ) Lbgtubg j`g`jba ( ) Lbgtubg totba
3. Xkjk
Xkjka`
a`db
dbrbb
rbbgg E
Eks
kskd
kdbt
btbg
bg
Xkrbwbtbg abgmutbg ( ∝ ) Pb ( ) t`nbe  
Xkrbwbtbg pkgnueugc ( ∝ ) Pb ( ) t`nbe  
4. Ekc`
Ekc`bt
btbg
bg n` nbab
nbabj
j rruj
ujbd
bd
Jkjpkrs`bpebg jbebgbg ( ∝ ) Pb ( ) t`nbe  
Jkgmbcb ekrbp`dbg rujbd ( ∝ ) Pb ( ) t`nbe  

Jkgfuf` pbeb`bg ( ∝ ) Pb ( ) t`nbe  

Xkgcbturbg ekubgcbg ( ∝ ) Pb ( ) t`nbe  
0. Ekc`
Ekc`bt
btbg
bg n` aubr
aubr rujb
rujbdd
Lkabgmb ( ∝ ) Pb ( ) t`nbe  
^rbgsportbs` ( ∝ ) Pb ( ) t`nbe  
Ab`g-ab`g ( ) Pb ( ) t`nbe  
Mkabsebg = ea`kg jbu jbebg skgn`r`, sklkauj jbebg ea`kg jkgfuf` tbgcbg nbg
 lkrnob, ea`kg nbpbt LBL nbg LBE skfbrb jbgn`r`, ea`kg jbgn` skdbr` <x,
jkjbeb` sblug nbg jkgccosoe c`c`, ea`kg jbjpu jkjbeb` pbeb`bg skgn`r`

nkgcbg lb`e, ea`kg jkgcbtbebg skr`gc t`nur skmbe sork ebao t`nur sktkabd soabt `syb
ea`kg susbd t`nur sueb cka`sbd nbg jognbr- jbgn`r, ea`kg mbrbgc t`nur s`bgc, ea`kg
 

j`guj olbt ybgc n`l`s`ebg oakd pkrbwbt, ea`kg jkjbgibbtebg pbgt` ugtue lkrolbt
nbr`` ektkrc
nbr ektkrcbgt
bgtugc
ugcbg
bg gbreo
gbreolb
lb n`bgtb
n`bgtbrr oak
oakdpb
dpbjbg
jbggyb
gyb,, ea`kg
ea`kg jbjpu
jbjpu jkg
jkgfuf
fuf``
 pbeb`bg skgn`r`, ea`kg lkauj jbjpu jkgcbtur ekubgcbg, ea`kg jkgcbtbebg
ekc`btbg n`aubr rujbd yb`tu lkreujpua nkgcbg tkjbg-tkjbggyb.
Jbsbabd Ekpkrbwbtbg = t`nbe bnb jbsbabd

Y@@@
Y@@@.. JKEB
JKEBG@
G@VJ
VJK
K EOX
EOX@G
@GC
C
  Bnbpt`i Jbabnbpt`i  
( ) L`fbrb nkgcbg orbgc ab`g ( ) J`guj baeodoa
( ) Jbjpu jkgykaksb`ebg jbsbabd ( ) rkbes` abjlbt/lkrakl`d
( ) ^keg`e rkabesbs` ( ) lkekrmb lkrakl`dbg
( ) Bet`v`tbs eogstruet`i ( ) jkgcd`gnbr  
( ) Oabdrbcb ( ) jkgfknkrb` n`r`/Orbgc ab`g/lbrbgc
( ) Ab`ggyb ( ) ab`ggyb

Mkabsebg =
Ea`kg jkgcbtbebg l`ab bnb jbsbabd t`nbe jkgfkr`tbebg ekpbnb orbgc ab`g btbupug
ekaubrcb sknbgcebg eop`gc bnbpt`i l`ab jkrbsbebg ckmbab sbebu ea`kg abgcsugc jbgn`
ekjun`bg lbnbg bebg jkrbsb irksd abc`.
Jbsbabd ekpkrbwbtbg = `soabs` sos`ba
 
@T.. JBVBA
@T JBVBABD
BD XV@EOV
XV@EOVOV@
OV@BA
BA NBG A@GCE
A@GCE[GC
[GCBG
BG
 Jbsbab
Jbsbabdd nkg
nkgcbg
cbg nue
nueugc
ugcbg
bg eka
ekaojp
ojpoe,
oe, spk
spks`i
s`i`e
`e = ea`kg
ea`kg jkgcbt
jkgcbtbeb
bebgg jkgnbp
jkgnbpbt
bt
nueugcbg nbr` ekaubrcb nbg sbunbrbgyb ugtue fkpbt skjlud.
 Jbsbabd lkrdulugc
Jbsbabd lkrdulugcbg
bg nkgcb
nkgcbgg a`gce
a`gceugcbg
ugcbg,, I`s`e = ea`kg jkgcbtbebg
jkgcbtbebg a`gceugcbg
a`gceugcbg
ske`tbr lb`e nbg jbu jkgkr`jb ekbnbbggyb.
 Jbsbabd nkgcbg pkgn`n`ebg, spks`i`e = ea`kg jkgcbtbebg eua`bd n` [GBV ibeuatbs
dueuj skjkstkr Y@@@.
 Jbsbab
Jbsbabdd nkg
nkgcbg
cbg pke
pkekrmb
krmbbg,
bg, spks`
spks`i`e
i`e = ea`
ea`kg
kg jkgcbt
jkgcbtbeb
bebgg lka
lkauj
uj lke
lkekrm
krmbb tkt
tktbp`
bp`
ebnbgc -ebnbgc ea`kg `eut lkrmubabg oga`gk.
 Jbsbabd nkgcbg pkrujbdbg, spks`i`e = ea`kg jkgcbtebbg t`gccba Lkrsbjb bybd,
`lu nbg ebebgyb.
 Jbsbab
Jbsbabdd keo
keogoj
goj`,`, spks`
spks`i`e
i`e = byb
bybdd ea`kg
ea`kg pkgs`
pkgs`ug
ugbg
bg nbg `lu ea`kg pkgc
pkgcusb
usbdb
db
skjlbeo, ea`kg n`lkr` ubgc oakd `lugyb skt`bp dbr` ugtue eklutudbg eua`bd.
 

 Jbsbab
Jbsbabdd nkgcbg
nkgcbg pka
pkabyb
bybgbg
gbg eks
ekskdb
kdbtbg
tbg,, spks`
spks`i`e
i`e = ea`kg
ea`kg mbrb
mbrbgc
gc sbe`t
sbe`t nbg mbr
mbrbgc
bgc
 lkrolbt.
 Jbsbabd ab`ggyb, spks`i`e = t`nbe bnb jbsbabd
 Jbsbabdd nkgcb
Jbsbab nkgcbgg nueu
nueugcbg
gcbg a`gceugc
a`gceugcbg,
bg, spks
spks`i`e
`i`e = ea`kg jkgnbpbt nueugcbg nbr`
ekaubrcb nbg sbunbrbgyb
Jbsbabd Ekpkrbwbtbg = t`nbe bnb jbsbabd

T. XKGCK^
XKGCK^BD[
BD[BG
BG E[\BGC
E[\BGC ^KG^BG
^KG^BGC=
C=
(∝ ) Xkgybe`t m`wb (∝ ) systkj pkgnueugc
(∝ ) Ibetor prks`p`tbs` ( ) pkgybe`t i`s`e  
( ∝ ) Eop`gc (∝ ) olbt-olbtbg
( ) ab`ggyb =
Jbsbabd Ekpkrbwbtbg = t`nbe bnb jbsbabd ekpkrbwbtbg

T@. BVX
BVXKE JKN@E 
N@E 
  N`bcgosb Jkn`e = Dbaus`gbs`
  ^krbp` Jkn`e =
Dbaao Xkgnoa < x <,; jc
^DX < x < jc
FX ] 2 x 288 jc
Mbebrtb, Vkptkjlkr <820
Jbdbs`swb

(…………………)
 

T@@@. NB^
T@ NB^B IOE[
IOE[V
V
@g`s`ba Gbjb = ^g ‑ N‚ \ubgcbg = Ebjbr < G8 \J = <820889><

GO ^CA/MBJ NB^B IOE[V JBVBABD

EKXK\BSB^BG
2 2;-0-<820 NV = Ea
Ea`k
`kgg jkg
jkgcb
cbtb
tbeb
ebgg jkgn
jkgnkg
kgcb
cbrr subr
subrbb Cbgccubg skgsor`
Mbj 28.68  l`s`ebg  pkrskps` dbaus`gbs`
NO = Ea`kg cka`sbd,
bd, jbrbd-j
bd-jbbrbd,
gcbjue, lkrl`fbrb skgn`r`
< 2;-0- <820 NV = ea`kg jkgcbtbebg pkrgbd \ks`eo Xkr`abeu
jkgc
jkgcba
babj
bj`` ekek
ekekrb
rbsb
sbgg i`
i`s`
s`ee yb`t
yb`tuu Ekekrbsbg
n`pueua oakd ebebe ekabsg
bsgyb
skwbetu n`pksbgtrkg
NO = wb
wbmb
mbdd ea`k
ea`kgg ttbj
bjppbe eksba
ksba

> 2;-0-<820 NV = ea`kg jjkkgcbtbebg ll``ab bbnnb jb

jbsbabd @soabs` sof`ba
t`nb
t`nbee pkrg
pkrgbd
bd jk
jkgf
gfkr`kr`tb
tbeb
ebgg pbnb
pbnb
orbgc ab`g btbupug ekaubrcb
NO = ea`k
ea`kgg sueb
sueb jk
jkgy
gykg
kgn`
n`r`
r`

T@@@
T@@@.. XODO
XODOG
G JBVB
JBVBAB
ABD
D
\ks`eo Xkr`abeu Ekekrbsbg

Cbgccubg skgsor` pkrskps` dbaus`gbs` pkgnkgcbrbg

  @soabs` Vos`ba

T@Y.. NBI^B\
T@Y NBI^B\ N@BCG
N@BCGOVB
OVB EKXK\B
EKXK\BSB^
SB^BG
BG
2. Cbgcc
Cbgccubg
ubg Vkgs
Vkgsor`
or` Xkrskp
Xkrskps`
s` Dbaus
Dbaus`gbs`
`gbs` Xkgnk
Xkgnkgcbrbg
gcbrbg
<. @s
@soa
oabs
bs`` Vos`
Vos`ba
ba

6. \ks`
\ks`eo
eo Xkr
Xkr`a
`abe
beuu Ek
Ekek
ekrb
rbsb
sbgg
TY. @G^K\Y
@G^K\YKGV
KGV@@ / \KGF
\KGFBGB
BGB ^@GNBE
^@GNBEBG
BG
 

@g`s`ba Ea`kg = ^g ‑N‚ \ubgcbg = Ebjbr < Go \J = <820889><

Go Nx Xkrkgfbgbbg
^umubg Er`tkr`b Kvbaubs` @gtkrvkgs`
Nx Ekpkrbwbtbg
2 Cbgccubg ^[J= Ea`kg nbpbt Vktkabd 2x `gtkrb es` ea`kg 2. L`gb dulugcbg
`gtkrbes` dulugcbg sba`gsba`gcc pkrfbyb
pkrfbyb
jkgcogtroa jkgugmueebg tbgnb ‖ tbgnb nkgcbg jkgccugbebg pr`gs`p
skgsor` pkrskps`=
dbaus`gbs` ybgc  pkrfbyb ekpbnb pkrbwbt = eojug`ebs` tkrbpkut`e =
dbaus`gbs` n`babj`gyb 2. Kesprks` wbmbd 

nkgcbr ^[E 2 =  lkrsbdblbt.  lb`eVbpb ea`kg

vkrlba nkgcbggog
jbupug rbjbd
<. Jkgugmueebg rbsb vkrlba
Ea`kg nbpbt
skgbgc.  Xkrekgbaebg gbjb, gbjb
jkjl`gb dulugcbg 6. Bnb eogtbe jbtb.  pbgcc`abg nbg tumubg
>. Jbu lkrmblbt tbgcbg.  pkrbwbt lkrekgbabg
sba`gc pkrfbyb
;. Jbu jkgyklutebg  ^bgybebg gbjb akgcebp
gbjb. nbg gbjb pbgcc`abg ybgc
9. Jbu jkgmbwbl n`sueb` ea`kg
sbabj.  Lubt eogtrbe ybgc mkabs
3. Jbu nunue  ^ugmueebg s`ebp mumur
 lkrnbjp`gcbg nkgcbg nbg jkgkpbt` mbgm` skt`bp eba`
 pkrbwbt. `gtkrbes`
4. Lkrskn`b  ^ugmuebg s`ebp kjpbt`
jkgcugcebpebg
ybgc n`dbnbp`. jbsbabd nbg jkgkr`jb bpb bnbgyb
 Lkr` pkrdbt`bg ekpbnb
ea`kg nbg pkrdbt`ebg
eklutudbg nbsbr ea`kg
 ^bgybebg pkrbsbbg ea`kg
nbg jbsbabd ybgc n`dbnbp`
ea`kg
 Nkgcbrebg nkgcbg pkgud
 pkrdbt`bg kesprks` pkrbsbbg
ea`kg
^[E < = Vktkabd
Vkt kabd 2x `gt`gtkrb
krbes` ea`kg <.2. Bnbebg eogtbe skr`gc
es` ea`kg
Ea`kg nbpbt jkgyklutebg = nbg s`gcebt skfbrb
2. @s`  lkrtbdbp
jkgckgba <. Sbetu <.
<.<.
<. Ol Olskskrv
rvbs
bs`` t`
t`gc
gceb
ebdd ab
abeu
eu
dbaus`gbs`gyb 6. Irkeugs` ea`kg tkreb`t nkgcbg
>. V`tubs` nbg eogn`s` dbaus`gbs`gyb (* nkgcbr
ybgc jkg`jluaebg /a`dbt /pkgcd`nu /rblb
dbaus`gbs` /ekfbp), m`eb jkgkjuebg
ea`kg ybgc sknbgc
dbaus`gbs`=
2. ^bgy
^bgybebebg
bg bpbe
bpbebd
bd ea
ea`k
`kgg
jkgcbabj` sksubtu
( dbaus`gbs` nkgcbr/
a`dbt/ pkgcd`nu /rblb/
ekfbp )
<. M`eb
M`eb ea`
ea`kg
kg jk
jkgmgmbw
bwbl
bl yb,
yb,
tbgybebg
sknbgc bpb ybgc
n`babj`gyb
 

6. Ebtb
Ebtbeb
ebgg llbd
bdwb
wb pkrbw
pkrbwbt
bt
 pkrfbyb ea`kg
jkgcbabj` dba tkrsklut,
gbjug pkrbwbt skgn`r`
t`nbe jkgcbabj`gyb
( nkgcbg gbnb
 lkrsbdblbt tbgpb
jkgunud btbu
jkgcdbe`j`)
>. Ebtb
Ebtbeb
ebgg llbd
bdwb
wb bnb
bnb
ea`kg ab`g ybgc
jkgcbabj` dba ybgc
sbjb.
;. Ebtb
Ebtbeb
ebgg llbd
bdwb
wb pkrbw
pkrbwbt
bt
bebg jkjlbgtu ea`kg
<.
<.66 M`
M`eb
eb ea`k
ea`kgg t`nbe
t`nbe sknb
sknbgc
gc
 lkrdbaus`gbs` eabr`i`ebs`
tkgtbgc bnbgyb pkgcbabjbg
dbaus`gbs`, n`seus`ebg

nkgcbg ea`kg =
2. @s`
@s`,, wbet
wbetuu nbg irkeu
irkeukgs
kgs``
tkrmbn`gyb dbaus`gbs`
( pbc`, s`bgc, sork,
jbabj btbu skr`gc nbg
ebnbgc ‖ ebnbgc )
<. V`t
V`tubs
ubs`` nbg eo
eogn`
gn`s`
s` ybgc
ybgc
jkg`jluaebg btbu t`nbe
jkg`jluaebg dbaus`gbs`
<. Vk
Vktk
tkab
abdd 2x `g
`gtk
tkrb
rbes
es`` ea`kgg <.>N`seus`ebg nkgcbg ea`kg bpb
ea`k
jkgybtbebg
jkgyb tbebg pkrbsb
pkrbsbbg
bg nbg ybgcc n`r
ybg n`rbsb
bsbebg
ebg m`e
m`ebb tkrmbn`
tkrmbn`
rkspoggyb sbbt dbaus`gbs` nbg lkr`
jkgcbabj` dbaus`gbs` = ekskjpbtbg ugtue  


Jbrbd
^beut jkgcugcebpebg
 pkrbsbbggyb.
 Vkn`d <.
<.6.
6. N`
N`se
seus
us`e
`ebg
bg nkgc
nkgcbg
bg ea
ea`k
`kgg
 Vkgbgc bpb ybgc n`abeuebg ugtue 
 Fkjbs jkgcbtbs` pkrbsbbg
 Mkgceka tkrsklut.
<.>. N`seus`ebg tkgtbgc
nbjpbe ybgc bebg
n`babj`gyb l`ab ea`kg
jkg`ejbt` dbaus`gbs`gyb.

^[E 6 = 2. Vktk
Vktkabd
abd 22xx `g
`gtk
tkrbe
rbes`
s` ea`
ea`kg
kg 6.2. @nkgt`i`ebs` lkrsbjb ea`kg
Ea`kg nbpbt jkgyklutebg t`gnbebg fbrb btbu t`gnbebg ybgc
jkgcogtroa ybgc l`bsbgyb n`abeuebg n`abeuebg m`eb tkrmbn`
dbaus`gbs`gyb ugtue jkgckgnba`ebg dbaus`gbs` (t`nur, jbrbd,
 

dbaus`gbs`gyb jkgy`luebg n`r` naa)

<. Vktk
Vktkab
abdd 2x `g
`gtk
tkrbe
rbes`
s` ea
ea`k
`kgg 6.<. N`seus`ebg fbrb ybgc
jkgyklutebg fbrb lbru n`cugbebg ea`kg,
jkgcogtroa dbaus`gbs`  M`eb fbrb ybgc
n`cugbebg bnbpt`i lkr`
6. Vktk
Vktkabd
abd 22xx `g
`gtkr
tkrbe
bes`
s` ea
ea`k
`kgg  pum`bg.
nbpbt jkj`a`d nbg  M`eb fbrb ybgc
jkjpkrbcbebg fbrb n`cugbebg jbabnbpt`i
jkgcbtbs` dbaus`gbs` n`seus`ebg ekruc`bg
(nkgcbr/a`dbt/pkgcd`nu/rb fbrb tkrsklut
 lb/ekfbp ) 6.
6.6.
6. N`
N`seseus
us`e
`ebg
bg fbrb
fbrb llbr
bruu
ugtue jkjutus/
>. Vktk
Vktkab
abdd 2x `g
`gtkr
tkrbe
bes`
s` ea
ea`k
`kgg jkgcogtroa t`jluagyb
jkabesbgbebg fbrb ybgc dbaus`gbs` =
tkabd n`p`a`d ugtue  Ebtbebg pbnb n`r` skgn`r`
jkgckgnba`ebg  lbdwb `g` t`nbe gybtb
dbaus`gbs`gyb ( ‑sbyb t`nbe jbu
;. Vktk
Vktkab
abdd 2x pkrt
pkrtkj
kjub
ubgg nkgcbr/ a`dbt/ pkgcd`nu/
ea`kg jkgc`eut` tkrbp` rblb /ekfbp pbnb sbbt
bet`v`tbs ekaojpoe  dbaus`gbs` tkrmbn`)
 Jkgkju` orbgc ab`g
(pkrbwbt/tkjbg/bgccotb
ekaubrcb) ugtue
jkgfkr`tbebg tkgtbgc
dbaus`gbs`gyb.
 Jkjlubt nbg
jkabesbgbebg mbnwba
ekc`btbg skdbr` dbr` ybgc
tkabd n` susug.
 Jkj`gtb ekaubrcb/tkjbg/
 pkrbwbt jkgybpb m`eb
sknbgc lkrdbaus`gbs`.
6.> Lbgtu ea`kg
ea`kg jkj`a`d
jkj`a`d fbrb
ybgc sunbd n`bgmurebg nbg
abt`d ugtue jkgfolbgyb.
6.; Lkr` ekskjpbtb
ekskjpbtbgg ugtue
jkabeuebg fbrb ybgc n`p`a`d
nbg n`abt`d.
6.9 Xbgtbu pkabesbgbbg ybgc
tkabd n`p`a`d nbg n`abt`d , m`eb
 lkrdbs`a lkr` pum`bg
6.3Bgmurebg ea`kg jkgc`eut`
tkrbp` bet`v`tbs ekaojpoe,
or`kgtbs` rkba`tb, st`juabs`
 pkrskps`

^[E > = 2. Vktk

Vktkabd
abd 2x pkrt
pkrtkj
kjub
ubgg >.
>.22 Lubt
Lubt eog
eogtr
trbe
be nkgc
nkgcbg
bg
Ea`kg nbpbt ekaubrcb, ekaubrcb ekaubrcb ugtue pkrtkjubg (
nueugcbg nbr` jkgybtbebg sktumu ugtue wbetu, tkjpbt nbg top`e )
 

ekaubrcb nbabj jkgc`eut` pkrtkjubg >.

>.<< N`N`se
seus
us`e
`ebg
bg nkgc
nkgcbg
bg
jkgcogtroa nkgcbg pkrbwbt ekaubrcb ( pbnb sbbt
dbaus`gbs`gyb <. Vktk
Vktkabd
abd 2x `g
`gtk
tkrb
rbes
es``  pkrtkjubg ekaubrcb/
ekaubrcb jkgyklutebg eugmugcbg rujbd)
 pkgckrt`bg, tbgnb nbg  Xkgckrt`bg dbaus`gbs`
ckmbab, prosks tkrmbn`gyb  ^bgnb nbg ckmbab
dbaus`gbs` nbg t`gnbebg dbaus`gbs`
ugtue jkgckgnba` ebg 
dbaus`gbs` Xrosks tkrmbn`gyb
dbaus`gbs`
 Fbrb ybgc nbpbt
n`abeuebg ea`kg nbg
ekaubrcb ugtue jkjutus
dbaus`gbs`
 Olbt- olbtbg dbaus`gbs`
 Fbrb jkrbwbt bgccotb
ekaubrcb ybgc dbaus`gbs`
n` rujbd ( lkr` ekc`btbg,
 mbgcbg l`brebg skgn`r`,
jbebg lkrsbjb,
 lkpkrc`bg lkrsbjb,
jkjbgtbu olbt ‖ olbtbg
nbg fbrb pkjlkr`bggyb
ugtue jkgcbtbs`
dbaus`gbs` )
 Lkr` `giorjbs` wbetu
eogtroa ek rujbd sbe`t
nbg lbcb`jbgb fbrb
jkgfbr` lbgtubg m`eb
dbaus`gbs` t`nbe t`nbe
nbpbt n`btbs` n` rujbd
 

^[E ; = 2. Vktk
Vktkabd
abd 2x ``gt
gtkr
krbe
bes`
s` ea`kg ;.
ea`kg ;.22 N`
N`se
seus
us`e
`ebg
bg nkgc
nkgcbg
bg ea
ea`kg
`kg
Ea`kg nbpbt jkgyklutebg5 tkgtbgc jbgibbt nbg
jkjbgibbtebg olbt  Jbgibbt j`guj olbt ekruc`bg t`nbe j`guj olbt,
nkgcbg lb`e   Ekruc`bg t`nbe j`guj gbjb , wbrgb, nos`s, fbrb ,
olbt kike tkrbp` nbg kike
  Gbjb,wbrgb,nos`s, kike  sbjp`gc pkgccugbg olbt
tkrbp` nbg kike

Vksbjp`gc
<. Vktk abdd 2x olbt
tkab `g
`gtk
tkrbe
rbes`
s` ea`
ea`kg
kg ;.< Xbgtbu ea`kg sbbt
jkgnkjogtrbs`ebg  pkgccugbbg olbt
 pkgccugbbg olbt ncg ;.6 Lkr` pum`bg
pum`bg m`eb ea`kg
 lkgbr  jkgccugbebg olbt nkgcbg
6. Vktk
Vktkab
abdd 2x `g
`gtk
tkrbe
rbes`
s` ea`
ea`kg
kg  lkgbr 
jkgyklutebg be`lbt ;.> N`seus`eb
N`seus`ebgg be`lbt lkrdk
lkrdkgt`
gt`
 lkrdkgt` j`guj olbt j`guj olbt tbgpb eogsuatbs`
tbgpb eogsuatbs` noetkr  nkgcbg noetkr 
;.; Bgmurebg
Bgmurebg ea`k
ea`kgg ugtue
eogsuatbs` ekpbnb
noetkr/pkrbwbt m`eb tkrmbn`
dba ‖ dba ybgc t`nbe n`
`gc`gebg .

< @soabs` Vos`ba ^[J= Ea Ea`kg nnbbpbt 2. Vktkabd 2T `gtkrbes` ea`kg L`gb dulugcbg sba`gc pkrfbyb
 lkr`gtkrbes` nkgcbg jk jkgu
gugm
gmue
ueeb
ebgg tb
tbgn
gnb-t
b-tbg
bgnb
nb nkgcbg=
orbgc ab`g  pkrfbyb ekpbnb / tkrdbnbp • Lkr` sbabj skt`bp
 pkrbwbt=  lkr`gtkrbes`.
^[E 2=  Sbmbd fkrbd, • Xkrekgbaebg gbjb, gbjb
Ea`kg nbpbt tkrskgyuj  pbgcc`abg pkrbwbt nbg
jkjl`gb dulugcbg  Jbu lkrekgbabg tumubg pkrbwbt lkrekgbabg
sba`gc pkrfbyb  Bnb eogtbe jbtb • ^bgybebg nbg pbgcc`a
 Lkrskn`b gbjb eksuebbg ea`kg
jkgfkr`tbebg • ^ugmueebg s`e s`ebp mu
mummur nbg
nbg
 pkrbsbbg jkgkpb
jkg kpbt`
t` mbgm`
mbgm` skt`bp
skt`bp eba
eba``
 Lkrskn`b  lkr`gtkrbes`
jkgcugcebpebg • ^bgybebg pkrbsbbg ea`kg
jbsbabdgyb nbg jbsbabd ybgc n`dbnbp`
 Lkrskn`b eaa`kg
jkgcugcebpebg • Lubt eogtrbe `gtkrbes`
jbsbabdgyb ybgc mkabs
• Nkgcbrebg nkgcbg pkgud
 pkrdbt`bg kesprks` pkrbsbbg
ea`kg
 

^[E < 2. Vk
Vktk
tkab
abdd 2 x `g
`gtk
tkrb
rbes
es`` ea`kg
ea`kg <.2 ^bgybebg pbnb ea`kg
Ea`kg jbjpu nbpbt jkgyklutebg tkgtbgc=
jkgyklutebg j`g`
j` g`jb
jbaa sbtu
sbtu pkgy
pkgyklklbl
bl • Orbgc ybgc t`gccba
 pkgyklbl jkgbr`e  jkgbr`e n`r` nbr`= skrujbd / tkjbg skebjbr 
n`r`  n`r` skgn`r` ea`kg
 orbgc ab`g • Orbgc ybgc pba`gc nkebt
 a`gceugcbg nkgcbg ea`kg n` rujbd/ n`
rubgc pkrbwbtbg
• Bpb ybg ybgc jkjkjjlubt ea`kg
nkebt nkgcbg orbgc
tkrsklut
• Orbgc ybgc t`nbe nkebt
nkgcbg
nkg cbg ea`kg
ea`kg n` rujbd/
rujbd/n`n`
rubgc pkrbwbtbg
• Bpb ybg ybgc jkjkjjlubt ea`kg
t`nbe nkebt nkgcbg
nkgcbg orbgc
tkrsklut
• [pbyb ybgc sunbd
n`abeuebg bcbr nkebt
nkgcbg orbgc ab`g
<.
<.<< N`
N`se
seus
us`e
`ebg
bg nkgc
nkgcbg
bg eaea`k
`kgg
 pkgyklbl jkgbr`e n`r` btbu
t`nbe jbu lkrcbua nkgcbg
orbgc ab`g.
<.6 Lkr` pum`bg tkrdbnbp
ekjbjpubg ea`kg
jkgcugcebpebg
 pkrbsbbggyb
 

^[E 6 2. Vktk
Vktkab
abdd 2x `g `gtk
tkrbe
rbes`
s`6.2. ^bgybebg pbnb ea`kg
Ea`kg jbjpu nkgcbg ea`kg nbpbt tkgtbgc =
jkgyklutebg jkgyklute
jkgy klutebg
bg ekugt
ekugtugcb
ugcbgg • Jbgi
Jbgibbbbtt du
dulu
lugc
gcbg
bg sos`
sos`baba..
ekugtugcbg  lkrdulugcbg sos`ba, • Ekru
Ekruc`c`bg
bg jk
jkgb
gbr`e
r`e n`
n`r`
r`..
 lkrdulugcbg sos`ba j`sbagyb 6.<.. N`s
6.< N`seus
eus`eb
`ebgg lkr
lkrsbj
sbjbb ea`
ea`kgkg
nbg ekruc`bg   lbgybe tkjbg tkgtbgc jbgibbt
jkgbr`e n`r`.  t`nbe ekskp`bg  lkrdulugcbg sos`ba nbg
 ekruc`bg jkgbr`e n`r`.

 l`sb
sba`gcn`seus`
jkgoaogc, 6.
6.6.
6. Lk Lkr`
r` pum`
pum`bg
bg tk tkrd
rdbn
bnbp bp
 nbg ekruc`bg jkgbr`e  ekjbjpubg ea`kg
n`r`, j`sbagyb= jkgcugcebpebg
 skgn`r`  pkrbsbbggyb.
 ekskp`bg
 t`nbe l`sb n`seus`

^[E >
Ea`kg nbpbt 2. Vktk
Vktkab
abdd 2x ``gt
gtkr
krbe
bes`
s` ea`
ea`kg
kg >.
>.22 Olsk
Olskrv
rvbs
bs`` pkr`
pkr`ab
abeu
eu eaea`k
`kgg
jkabesbgbebg nbpbt jkabesbgbebg sbbt lkrdulugcbg sos`ba .
dulug
ulugccbg sos`b
os`baa dulu
dulugc
gcbg
bg sos`b
os`baa skfb
skfbrb
rb >.
>.<< Lkr`
Lkr` jot`
jot`vb
vbs`
s` nbg
nbg lbgt
lbgtuu
skfbrb lkrtbdbp  lkrtbdbp nkgcbg= ea
ea`k
`kgg ugtu
ugtuee lkre
lkrekg
kgba
babg
bg /


 Xkrbwbt ab`g  lkreojug`ebs` nkgcbg =

• Xkrbrbw
wbt ab`g
 Ea`kg ab`g • Ea`kg ab`g
• Ekaojpoe
>.6 A`lbtebg ea`kg nbabj
>.> N`seus`ebg
N`seus`ebg mbnwba dbr`bg
ybgc nbpbt n`abeuebg
ugtue jkg`gcebtebg
ekjbjpubg ea`kg
 lkrsos`ba`sbs`
>.; Lkr` jot`vbs`
jot`vbs` eea`kg
a`kg uugtue 
gtue 
jkabeuebg ekc`btbg sksub`
nkgcbg mbnwba ybgc tkabd
n`lubt.
>.
>.99 Lkr
kr`` pu
pum`
m`bg
bg tkr tkrdb
dbnnbp
ekjbjpubg ea`kg
jkjpkraubs
jkjp kraubs pkrcbuabgg
pkrcbuabggyb yb
jka
kaba
bau`
u` bet`
bet`vv`t
`tbs
bs ybgcybgc
n`abesbgbebg.

^[E ; 2. Vk
Vktk
tkab
abdd 2x `gtk
`gtkrb
rbees` ea`
a`kg
kg
Ea`kg jbjpu nbpbt jkgmkabsebg N`seus`ebg nkgcbg ea`kg
jkgmkabsebg  pkrbsbbggyb sktkabd tk
tkgt
gtbg
bgcc pkrb
pkrbsb
sbbg
bggy
gybb sktka
sktkabd
bd
 pkrbsbbggyb sktkabd  lkrdulugcbg sos`ba  lkrdulugcbg sos`ba nkgcbg=
nkgcbg=
 lkrdulugcbg sos`ba.
sos`ba. nkgcbg= • Orbgc ab`g
 Orbgc ab`g • Ekaojpoe 
 

^[E 9 2. Vk
Vktk
tkab
abdd 2T pkrt kjuubg 9.
pkrtkj 9.2.
2. N` N`se
seus
us`e
`ebg
bg pkgt
pkgt`g`gcg
cgyb
yb
Ea`kg jkgnbpbt ekaubrcb nbpbt  pkrbg skrtb ekaubrcb
nueugcbg
nueu gcbg ekaubr
ekaubrcb
cb jkgmkabsebg tkgtbgc = sklbcb
skl bcb`` pkgnu
pkgnueug
eugcc ugtue 
ugtue 
nbabj
nbabj jkj
jkjpkr
pkraubs
aubs  Xkgc
Xkgckr
krt`
t`bg
bg jkgb
jkgbr`r`e 
e  jkgcbtbs` pr`abeu jkgbr`e 
dulugcbg sos`ba n`r` n`r`.
 ^bgnb nbg ckmbab 9.<. N`seus`ebg potkgs`
jkgbr`e n`r` ekaubrcb
ekaub rcb ugtue
ugtue jkjlbgtu
jkjlbgtu
 ea
ea`k
`kgg jkgc
jkgcbtbbtbs`
s` pkr`
pkr`ab
abeu
eu
Xkgyklbl
jkgbr`e n`r`nbg be`lbt jkgbr`e n`r`
 Fbrb
Fb rb jkrb
jkrbwb
wbtt ea`kgg 9.
ea`k 9.6.
6. Mkab
Mkabse
sebg
bg pbnb
pbnb ekau ekaubr
brcb
cb
jkgbr`e n`r` tkgtbgc =
• Xkgc
Xkgckrtkrt`b
`bgg jkgb
jkgbr`r`ee n`
n`r`
r`
• ^bgnb
bgnb nbnbgg ckmb
ckmbab
ab jkg
jkgbrbr`e 
`e 
n`r`
• Xkgyklbl nbg be`lbt
jkgbr`e n`r`
• Fbrb jkrbwbt ea`kg
jkgbr`e n`r`
9.>. Abt`d ekaubrcb fbrb
jkr
krbw
bwbt
bt ea` a`kg
kg jkg jkgbr br`e 
`e 
n`r`.
9.;. ^bgybebg pkrbsbbg
ekaubrcb
ekaubr cb skt
sktkab
kabdd jkgfol
jkgfolbb
fbrb ybgc n`abt`debg
9.9. Lkr` jot`vbs` ekaubrcb bcbr 
jkjl
kjlbgtu
bgtu ea`kea`kgg ugtu
ugtue 
e 
 lkrsos`ba`sbs`.
9.3. Lkr` pum`bg ekpbnb
ekaubrcb btbs
ektkr
ektkra`
a`lb
lbtb
tbgg
ggyb
yb jk jkrb
rbwb
wbtt
ea`kg n` rujbd sbe`t.

^[E 3 2. Vk
Vktk
tkab
abdd 2x `g`gtk
tkrb
rbes
es`` ea
ea`k
`kgg
Ea`kg nbpbt 3.
3.2.
2. N`
N`se
seus
us`e
`ebg
bg nkgc
nkgcbg
bg eaea`kg
`kg
ibbtebg olbt •jkgyklutebg5
jkjbgibbtebg
jkjbg Jbgi
Jbgibb bbtt j
j`g
`guj
uj olbt
olbt tkgtbgc jbgibbt nbg
nkgcbg lb`e. • Ekruc`bg t`nbe j`guj ekruc`bg t`nbe j`guj olbt,
olbt gbjb , wbrgb, nos`s, fbrb ,
• Gbjb
Gbjb,w ,wbrbrgb
gb,n
,nos
os`s
`s,, ki
kike 
ke  kike tkrbp` nbg kike 
tkrbp` nbg kike sbjp`gc sbjp`gc pkgccugbg olbt
olbt 3.<. Xbgt
bgtbu ea`kg sbbt
<. Vk
Vktk
tkab
abdd 2x `g`gtk
tkrb
rbes
es`` ea
ea`k
`kgg  pkgccugbbg olbt
jkgnkjogtrbs`ebg 3.
3.6.
6. Lkr` Lkr` pum`
pum`bg
bg m`
m`eb
eb ea
ea`k
`kgg
 pkgccugbbg olbt ncg jkgccugbebg olbt nkgcbg
 lkgbr   lkgbr 
6. Vk
Vktk
tkab
abdd 2x `g`gtk
tkrb
rbes
es`` ea
ea`k
`kgg 3.>. N`seus`eb
N`seus`ebgg be`lbt lkr
lkrdkgt`
dkgt`
jkgyklutebg be`lbt j`guj olbt tbgpb
 lkrdkgt` j`guj olbt tbgpb eogsuatbs` nkgcbg noetkr 
eogsuatbs` noetkr  3.;. Bgmurebg ea`kg ugtue 
eogsuatbs` ekpbnb
noetkr/pkrbwbt m`eb tkrmbn`
 

6 \ks`eo XXkkr`abeu ^[J

^[J== Ea`
Ea`kg
kg nbpbt
nbpbt
Ekekrbsbg jkgcogtroa
 pkr`abeu ekekrbsbg
^[E 2=
Ea`kg nbpbt 2. Vktkabd 2 x pkrtkjubg 2. L`gb
L`gb dulu
dulugcb
gcbgg sba`
sba`gc
gc

jkjl`gb dulugcbg
sba`gc pkrfbyb tea`kg
bgnb jkgugmueebg
fbyb etbgnb-
pkrfby kpbnb  pkrfbyb
 Lkr` nkgcbg=
sbabj skt`bp
 pkrbwbt=  lkr`gtkrbes`.
 Sbmbd fkrbd,  Xkrekgbaebg gbjb, gbjb
tkrskgyuj  pbgcc`abg pkrbwbt nbg
 Jbu lkrekgbabg tumubg pkrbwbt
 Bnb eogtbe jbtb  lkr`gtkrbes`
 Lkrskn`b  ^bgybebg nbg pbgcc`a
jkgfkr`tbebg gbjb eksuebbg ea`kg
 pkrbsbbg  ^ugmueebg s`ebp kjpbt`,
 mumur nbg jkgkpbt` mbgm`
skt`bp eba` lkr`gtkrbes`
 ^bgybebg pkrbsbbg ea`kg
nbg jbsbabd ybgc
n`dbnbp` ea`kg
 Lubt eogtrbe `gtkrbes`
ybgc mkabs
Nkgcbrebg nkgcbg pkgud
 pkrdbt`bg ugcebpbg pkrbsbbg
ea`kg
^[E <
<. Vktk
Vktkab
abdd 22xx ppkr
krtkj
tkjub
ubgg <. Lbgtu ea`kg jkgcugce
jkgcugcebpebg
bpebg
Ea`kg nbpbt  pkrbsbbg jbrbdgyb=
ea`kg jkgfkr`tbebg
jkgc`nkgt`i`ebs` Jot`vbs` ea`kg ugtue
 pkgyklbl pkr`abeu 
 pkgyklbl pkr`abeu jkgfkr`tbebg pkgyklbl
ekekrbsbg ybgc
ekekrbsbg ybgc rbsb eksba btbu mkgcekagyb
n`abeuebggyb=
n`abeuebggyb  Nkgcbrebg tbgpb jkgykab
 Jkgfkr`tbebg btbu jkjlkr` pkg`ab`bg
 pkgyklbl pkrbsbbg skt`bp ugcebpbg pkrbsbbg
ea`kg
 mkgceka/eksba lb`e
nbr` n`r` skgn`r`
jbupug
a`gceugcbggyb

^[E 6
6. Lbgtu ea`kg jkgcugcebpebg
Ea`kg nbpbt 6. Vktk
Vktkab
abdd 22xx ppkr
krtkj
tkjub
ubgg tbgnb-tbgnb pkr`abeu
jkgc`nkgt`i`ebs` ea`kg jkgfkr`tbebg tbgnb-
tbgnb sbbt tkrmbn` pkr`abeu ekekrbsbg ybgc n`babj`gyb=
tbgnb-tbgnb
 pkr`abeu ekekrbsbg ekekrbsbg  Jot`vbs` ea`kg
jkgfkr`tbebg eogn`s`
 

 ^bgnb i`s`e = jbtb i`s`e (tbgnb-tbgnb i`s`e)

jkrbd, tbgcbg sbbt pkr`abeu ekekrbsbg
jkgckpba, kesprks` tkrmbn`
tkcbgc, nbg ab`g-ab`g.  Jot`vbs` ea`kg
 ^bgnb kjos`ogba = jkgfkr`tbebg eogn`s`
 pkrbsbbg jbrbd, kjos`gyb (tbgnb-tbgnb
 mkgceka, l`fbrb ebsbr. kjos`ogba) sbbt tkrmbn`

^bgnb sos`ba ybgc
 lkrjusudbg =   pkr`abeu
Jot`vbs`ekekrbsbg
ea`kg
n`babj` sbbt tkrmbn` jkgfkr`tbebg eogn`s`
 pkr`abeu ekekrbsbg. dulugcbg nkgcbg orbgc
ab`g (tbgnb-tbgnb sos`ba)
sbbt tkrmbn` pkr`abeu
^[E > ekekrbsbg
Ea`kg nbpbt >. Vktk
Vktkab
abdd 22xx ppkr
krtkj
tkjub
ubgg >.2 N`seus
N`seus`eb
`ebgg nkg
nkgcbg
cbg ea`
ea`kg
kg
jkgc`nkgt`i`ebs` ea`kg jkgmkabsebg=  pkr`abeu ekekrbsbg ybgc
 mkg`s pkr`abeu
ekekrbsbg ybgc  Mkg`s-mkg`s kesprks` n`abeuebggyb skabjb `g`=
 pkrgbd ekjbrbdbg ybgc  Jot`vbs` ea`kg
skabjb `g` tkabd
n`abeuebggyb n`abeuebggyb jkgfkr`tbebg mkg`s-mkg`s
t`gnbe ekekrbsbg ybgc
 Xkrbsbbggyb sbbt skabjb `g` pkrgbd
jkabeuebg ekekrbsbg n`abeuebggyb.
 Kiket`v`tbs fbrb ybgc  Jot`vbs` ea`kg
n`pbeb` nbabj jkgfkr`tbebg pkrbsbbg
jkgykaksb`ebg ea`kg sktkabd t`gnbe
jbsbabd ekekrbsbg tkrsklut tkrmbn`
>.< N`seus`ebg bpbebd nkgcbg
t`gnbe ekekrbsbg ybgc
n`abeuebggyb jbsbabd ybgc
n`babj` tkrbtbs`

^[E ;
Ea`kg nbpbt ;. Vktk
Vktkab
abdd 22xx ppkr
krtkj
tkjub
ubgg ;. N`
N`se
seus
us`e
`ebg
bg nkgc
nkgcbg
bg ea
ea`k
`kgg
jkgc`nkgt`i`ebs` ea`kg jkgmkabsebg be`lbt be`lbt gkcbt`i (ekruc`bg) fbrb
be`lbt pkr`abeu t`gnbe ekekrbsbg ybgc
ekekrbsbg ybgc n`abeuebg pbnb=
n`abeuebggyb
 N`r` skgn`r`
 N`r` skgn`r` = aueb,  Orbgc ab`g/ekaubrcb
n`mbud` tkjbg, naa  A`gceugcbg

 Orbgc ab`g/ekaubrcb =
aueb, tkrs`gccugc,
 

^[E 9
Ea`kg nbpbt
jkgc`nkgt`i`ebs` 9. N`seus`ebg nkgcbg ea`kg=
fbrb eogstruet`i 9. Vktk
Vktkab
abdd 22xx ppkr
krtkj
tkjub
ubgg
ea`kg =  Bpbebd ea`kg jbu
nbabj jkjpkabmbr` fbrb lbru
jkgcugcebpebg  Jkgmkabsebg fbrb- jkgcugcebpebg jbrbd
ekjbrbdbg fbrb skdbt ybgc skdbt
 Mkabsebg lkrlbcb`
jkgcugcebpebg
batkrgbt`i p`a`dbg ugtue
jbrbd jkgcugcebpebg jbrbd
skab`g pkr`abeu ekekrbsbg
ybgc n`ektbdu` ea`kg.
 Mkabsebg fbrb-fbrb skdbt
ugtue jkgcugcebpebg
jbrbd=
 Fbrb i`s`e= gbibs
nbabj, pueua lbgtba
btbu ebsur, oabd rbcb.
 Ykrlba=

jkgcugcebpebg
 lbdwb n`r`gyb sknbgc
eksba ekpbnb orbgc
ab`g.
 Vos`ba= abt`dbg bskrt`i
nkgcbg orbgc ab`g.
 Vp`r`tuba=
skjlbdybgc/nob,
z`e`r, jkn`tbs`, nsl
sksub` ekybe`gbg
bcbjbgyb jbs`gc-
jbs`gc

^[E 3
Ea`kg nbpbt 3. 2. N`
N`se
seuus`
s`eebg fbrb
fbrb ybgc
bgc
jkgnkjogstrbs`ebg 2. Vktkabd 2x pkrtkjubg
jugce`g n`p`a`d nbg
fbrb jkgcogtroa ea`kg jkjpkrbcbebg
 pkr`abeu ekekrbsbg fbrb jkgcogtroa bgmurebg ea`kg jkj`a`d fbrb
 pkr`abeu ekekrbsbg= ybgc jugce`g ugtue 
 I`s`e= tbr`e gbibs jkgcugcebpebg
nbabj, jkjueua ekjbrbdbg.
 lbgtba/ebsur 
3.<. Abt`d ea`kg jkjpkrbcbebg
 Ykrlba= fbrb ybgc n`p`a`d=
jkgcugcebpebg

 pkrbsbbg Xkrbcbebg fbrbfbrb ybgc
jkabesbgbebg
eksba/mkgceka pbnb
 

orbgc ab`g tbgpb n`p`a`d.

jkgybe`t`  Mkabsebg jbgibbt fbrb
 Vp`r`tuba= z`e`r/nob, tkrsklut
jkn`tbs` sksub`  Bgmurebg ea`kg
bcbjbgyb jkg`ruebg pkrbcbbg ybgc
sunbd n`abeuebg.
 Lkr` pkgcubtbg pbnb
ea`kg,
jbs`d pkrlb`e` fbrb ybgc
lkauj skjpurgb
3.6. Bgmurebg ea`kg
jkgccugbebg fbrb ybgc
sunbd n`abt`d sbbt
jbrbd/mkgceka
^[E 4
Ea`kg jkgnbpbt 4.2. N`seus`ebg pkgt`gcgyb
2. Vktk
Vktkab
abdd 22xx ``gt
gtkr
krbe
bes`
s`
nueugcbg ekaubrcb ekaubrcb=  pkrbg skrtb ekaubrcb sklbcb`
ugtue jkgcogtroa  fbrb jkrbwbt ea`kg  pkgnueugc ea`kg ugtue
ugtue
 pkr`abeu ekekrbsbg nkgcbg pkr`abeu  pkr`abeu ekekrbsbg.
ekekrbsbg 4.<. N`seus`ebg potkgs` ekaubrcb

Jkgcugcebpebg
 pubs rbsb
nbabj jkrbwbt ugtue jkjlkjlbgt
bgtu ea`kg
jkgcbtbs` pkr`abeu
ea`kg Jkgmkabsebg
ekekrbsbg
4.6. Mkabsebg pkgckrt`bg,
 pkgyklbl, be`lbt nbg fbrb
jkrb
jkrbwb
wbtt ea`k
ea`kgg pkr`
pkr`ab
abeu
eu
ekekrbsbg ybgc nbpbt
n`abesbgbebg oakd ekaubrcb.
4.
4.>.
>. Xkrb
Xkrbcb
cbeb
ebgg fbrb
fbrb jk
jkrbw
rbwbt
bt

ea`kg
ea`kg (jk
(jkgbg
gbgcbg
cbg`` pkr`ab
pkr`abeu
eu
ekekrbsbg)
4.;.Lkr`
4.;.Lkr` ekskjpbtbg
ekskjpbtbg ekaubrcb
ekaubrcb
ugtue jkjpkrbcbebg uabgc
4.9. Lkr` pum`bg ekpbnb ekaubrcb
sktkabd pkrbcbbg
4.3. ^bgybebg pkrbsbbg
ekaubrcb sktkabd jkgfolb
fbrb ybgc n`abt`debg
 

^[E 0 2. Vktkabd 6x `gtkrbes` 0.2. Mkabsebg jbgibbt

Ea`kg  pkrtkjubg ea`kg nbpbt jkgccu
jkgccugbe
gbebg
bg olb
olbtt skfbrb
skfbrb
jkgccugbebg olbt jkgmkabsebg= tk
tkrbt
rbtur
ur nbg
nbg ekru
ekruc`
c`bg
bg m`
m`eb
eb
sksub` procrbj  Jbgibbt j`guj olbt t`nbe jkgccugbebg olbt
ybgc tkabd  Ekruc`bg t`nbe
n`tktbpebg 0.<. Mkabsebg ekpbnb ea`kg=
j`guj olbt
  Gbjb olbt  Mkg`s olbt (gbjb, wbrgb
 Lkgtue nbg wbrgb nbg lkgtue olbt)
olbt  Nos`s ybgc tkpbt ugtue
 Nos`s ybgc n`lkr`ebg ea`kg
ekpbnbgyb  Sbetu pkjbeb`bg
 Sbetu pkjbeb`bg  Fbrb pkjbeb`bg
 Fbrb pkjbeb`bg  Kike ybgc bebg n`rbsbebg
 Kike ybgc n`rbsbebg ea`kg
0.6. Bgmurebg ea`kg=
Vktkabd 2x pkrtkjubg ea`kg  J`gtb nbg jkgccugbebg
jkgccugbebg olbt sksub` olbt tkpbt wbetu
 procrbj  Abpor ek pkrbwbt/noetkr
 m`eb jkgcbabj` kike ybgc
t`nbe l`bsb
0.> Lkr` pum`bg tkrdbnbp
ekn`s`pa`gbg ea`kg
jkgccugbebg olbt.

TY@. @JXAKJKG^BV@
 Gbjb = ^g ‑N‚ \ubgcbg = Ebjbr < \J Go = <820889><
<820889><
@JXAKJKG^BV@ KYBA[BV@

^bgccba = 2;-80-<820 Mbj = 0.68 S@L

Mbj = 0.88 S@L
 

NV = Ea`kg
Ea`kg jkg
jkgcbt
cbtbebg
bebg jkgnkg
jkgnkgcbr
cbr subrb
subrb ll`s`
`s`ebg
ebg V=
NO = - Ea`kg
Ea`kg jkgcbtbe
jkgcbtbebg bg l`s`e
l`s`ebg
bg ybgc skr`gc
skr`gc
n` nkgcbr
nkgcbrgybgyb bnb
bnbabdabd ‑jbt`
‑jbt` aud,
aud, jbt`
jbt`
- Ea
Ea`k
`kgg tbj
tbjpb
pbee skr
skr`g
`gcc jk
jkgy
gykg
kgn`
n`r`
r`
aud‚
- Ea
Ea`k
`kgg tbj
tbjpb
pbee lkr
lkrl`
l`fbr
fbrbb skg
skgn`
n`r`
r` - L`
L`s`
s`eb
ebgg tktkrs
rskl
klut
ut nbtb
nbtbgcgc sbbt
sbbt jbab
jbabjj
dbr` sklkauj t`nur 
- Vubrb
Vubrb `tu lkreb
lkreba`-e
a`-eba`
ba` sbbt sbyb
sbyb sknbgc
sknbgc
N`bcgosb Ekpkrbwbtbg skgn`r`
- M`
M`eb
eb l`l`s`
s`eb
ebgg `t
`tuu nbtb
nbtbgcgc sbyb
sbyb jkrb
jkrbsbsb
CVX = Dbaus`gbs` Xkgnkgcbrbg
cka`sbd nbg jbrbd
- Ea
Ea`k
`kgg jkgc
jkgcbt btbe
bebgbg ‑fbr
‑fbrbb jkgc
jkgcogogtr
troa
oa
^`gnbebg Ekpkrbwbtbg (VX 2) dbau
dbaus`
s`gb
gbs`
s`gs
gs`` l`
l`s`
s`eb
ebgg -l`s
-l`s`e
`ebg
bg m`
m`eb
eb
2. Jk
Jkgc
gc`nk
`nkgt
gt`i
`i`e
`ebs
bs`` dbau
dbaus`
s`gb
gbs`
s` ( `s
`s`,`, irk
irkeu
eukg
kgs`
s`,, jugf
jugfua
ua nkgc
nkgcbg
bg fbrb
fbrb jkgc
jkgcbd
bdbr
brn`
n`e,
e,
wbetu tkrmbn`gyb, s`tubs` pkgfktus, rkspog) yb`tu = jkybe`gebg nbabj dbt` lbdwb
<. Jkgcbm
Jkgcbmbre
brebg
bg ea`k
ea`kgg fb
fbrb
rb jkgc
jkgcdbr
dbrn`e 
n`e  `tu t`nbe bnb, sbyb t`nbe jbu
6. Jkgcbgmurebg ea`kg jkjbsuebg nbabj jkgnkgcbr‚
ekc`btbg mbnuba dbr`bg
\kgfbgb ^`gnbe Abgmut O = ea`kg
ea`kg ^bj
^bjpbe
pbe jkj
jkjpkr
pkrbcb
bcbebg
ebg uab
uabgc
gc
fbrb jkgcdbrn`e dbaus`gbs`
2. Kvbaub
Kvbaubs`
s` mbnuba
mbnuba ekc
ekc`bt
`btbg
bg dbr
dbr`bg
`bg
<. Abt`
bt`d jkgckgn
kgnba`ebg dbaus`gbs` nkgcbg
B=
 lkrfbebp- fbebp nkgc orbgc ab`g
- Dbaus`gbs` nkgcbr lkauj
6. Bgmure
Bgmurebg
bg ea`
ea`kg
kg jbsueb
jbsuebgg ekc`
ekc`btb
btbgg ea`kg
ea`kg nbab
nbabj
j
tkrbtbs`
ekc`btbg dbr`bg
X=
- Bgmu
Bgmure
rebg
bg eea`
a`kg
kg ugt
ugtue
ue abt
abt`d
`dbg
bg
jkgcdbrn`e 
- Bgmure
Bgmurebg
bg ea`
ea`kg
kg ugt
ugtue
ue jkjbsu
jkjbsueeb
eebgg
ek mbnwba dbr`bg
 
^bgccba = <2-80-<820 Mbj = 0.68 S@L
Mbj = 0.88 S@L
NV = Ea`k
Ea`kgg jkg
kgcb
cbtb
tbeb
ebgg jbs`d
bs`d jk
jkggnkgc
nkgcbr
br subrb
ubrb V =
 l`s`ebg - Ea`kg
Ea`kg jkgc
jkgcbtb
btbebg
ebg fbrb ab`
ab`gg jkgco
jkgcogtr
gtroa
oa
NO = Ea`kg tbjpbe cka`sbd, jbrbd-jbrbd, gcbjue, dbau
dbaus`
s`gb
gbs`
s`gy
gybb nkgc
nkgcbg
bg fbr
fbrbb gcol
gcolro
roaa
 lkrl`fbrb skgn`r` nkgcbg orbgc ab`g btbu pkrbwbt

N`bcgosb Ekpkrbwbtbg O=
CVX = Dbaus`gbs` Xkgnkgcbrbg - Ea`kg tbjpbe jkjprbcbebg fbrb
 

jkgcdbrn`e dbaus`gbs`
^`gnbebg Ekpkrbwbtbg (VX <) - Ea
Ea`kg
`kg tbjp
tbjpbe
be jkgyk
jkgyklu
lute
tebg
bg fbr
fbrbb ugtue 
ugtue 
2. Jkgckv
Jkgckvbaubs`
baubs` mbnuba
mbnuba ekc`b
ekc`btbg
tbg dbr`bg jkgcogtroa dbaus`gbs`gyb m`eb jugfua
<. Jkab
kabt`d jkgckgnba`e
a`ebg dbaus`gbs` nkgcbg yb`t
yb`tuu lkrl
lkrl`g
`gfb
fbgc
gc-- l`
l`gf
gfbg
bgcc nkgc
nkgcbg
bg
 lkrfbebp- fbebp nkgc orbgc ab`g orbgc ab`g
6. Jkgcbg
Jkgcbgmurebg
murebg ea`kg
ea`kg jbsuebg ekc`
ekc`btbg
btbg ea`kg nbabj
ekc`btbg dbr`bg B=
\kgfbgb ^`gnbe Abgmut = - CVX
CVX = Dbau
Dbaus`
s`gb
gbs`
s` pkgn
pkgnkg
kgcb
cbrb
rbgg lkau
lkauj
j
2. Kvbaub
Kvbaubs`
s` ekc
ekc`bt
`btbg
bg mbnuba
mbnuba ekc
ekc`bt
`btbg
bg dbr
dbr`bg
`bg ea
ea`kg
`kg tkrbtbs`
<. Abt`d
Abt`d fbrb jkg
jkgcog
cogtro
troaa dbaus
dbaus`gb
`gbs`
s` nkg
nkgcbg
cbg ekc
ekc`bt
`btbg
bg
ybgc n`abeuebg ea`kg
X=
6. Jkjbsu
Jkjbsueeb
eebgg pbn
pbnbb mbn
mbnwba
wba ekc`
ekc`btbg
btbg ddbr`b
br`bgg
- Bgmure
Bgmurebg
bg A
Abt`
bt`dbg
dbg jkg
jkgcdb
cdbrn`
rn`ee ;x/db
;x/dbr`
r`
- Bgmure
Bgmurebg
bg eea`k
a`kgg ugtu
ugtuee abt`d
abt`dbg
bg ffbrb
brb ek
ek <
- Jbsu
Jbsueb
ebgg nba
nbabj
bj mbn
mbnwb
wbaa ekc`bt
ekc`btbg
bg dbr`b
dbr`bgg
ea`kg

^bgccba = <<-80-<820 Mbj = 0.88 S@L

Mbj = 0.88 S@L
NV = Ea`k
Ea`kgg jkg
kgcb
cbtb
tbeb
ebgg jbs`d
bs`d jk
jkggnkgc
nkgcbr ubrb V =
br subrb
 l`s`ebg - Ea`kg
Ea`kg jkgc
jkgcbtb
btbebg
ebg fbrb ab`
ab`gg jkgco
jkgcogtr
gtroa
oa
NO = Ea`kg tbjpbe tkgbgc dbaus`
dbaus`gbs
gbs`gy
`gybb nkg
nkgcbg
cbg fbrb
fbrb lkrnz`
lkrnz`e`r 
e`r 
btbu jkgcbm`
N`bcgosb Ekpkrbwbtbg
CVX = Dbaus`gbs` Xkgnkgcbrbg O=
- Ea
Ea`k
`kgg jkjl
jkjlbf
bfbb Ba qur
qur,b
,bgg
^`gnbebg Ekpkrbwbtbg (VX 6) - Ea
Ea`kg
`kg tbjp
tbjpbe
be jkgyk
jkgyklu
lute
tebg
bg fbr
fbrbb ugtue 
ugtue 
2. jkgckvbaub
jkgckvbaubs`
s` ekc`bt
ekc`btbg
bg mbnuba ekc
ekc`btbg
`btbg dbr`b
dbr`bgg ea`kg jkgcogtroa dbaus`gbs`gyb m`eb jugfua
<. Jkab
Jkabt`
t`dd fbrb
fbrb jkjkggcogt
cogtro
roaa dbau
baus`g
s`gbs`
bs` nkg
nkgcbg
cbg yb`
b`tu
tu jkab
jkabeu
eueb
ebgg ekc`b
kc`btb
tbgg skpkr
kpkrt`
t`
ekc`btbg ybgc n`abeuebg ea`kg
jkgcbm` btbu lkrnz`e`r 
6. Jkjbsueeb
Jkjbsueebgg pbnb mbnw
mbnwba
ba ekc`bt
ekc`btbg
bg dbr`bg

B=
- CVX
CVX = Dbau
Dbaus`
s`gb
gbs`
s` pkgn
pkgnkg
kgcb
cbrb
rbgg lkau
lkauj
j
\^A (pkrbwbt)=
tkrbtbs`
<2.. A
Kvba
Kvbg
baub
bgmuubs`
s`bgmbnw
mute
tebg mbVnwba
X ba
> db
dbr`
r`bg
bg ea
ea`k
`kgg
 

  X=
- Bgmu
Bgmure
rebg
bg ekc`
ekc`bt
btbg
bg tk
tkrs
rskl
klut
ut n`jb
n`jbsu
sueb
ebgg
nbabj lueu dbr`bg ;x/dbr`
- Bgmu
Bgmure
rebg
bg ea
ea`k
`kgg ugtu
ugtuee jk
jkgc
gcbm
bm`` skt`
skt`bp
bp
jbabj sklkauj t`nur 
- Bgmu
Bgmure
rebg
bg ea
ea`k
`kgg ugtue
ugtue jk
jkjb
jbsu
suee
eebg
bg ek
 mbnwba dbr`bg

@JXAKJKG^BV@ KYBA[BV@
^bgccba = <<-80-<820 Mbj = 0.68
Mbj = 0.88 S@L
NV = ea`kg jkgcbtbebg l`ab bnb jbsbabd t`nbe  V =
 pkrgbd jkgfkr`tbebg pbnb orbgc ab`g btbupug 2. Ea`kg jkgcbt
jkgcbtbebg
bebg jbu lkrekgb
lkrekgbabg
abg
ekaubrcb nkgcbg tkjbg ybgc ab`ggyb
NO = ea`kg
ea`kg sue
suebb jkg
jkgykg
ykgn`r
n`r`` <. Eak`g jkgcbtbebg
jkgcbtbebg Gbjbgy
Gbjbgybb ‑N‚
6. Ea`kg jkgcbt
jkgcbtbebg
bebg jbu lkrl`gf
lkrl`gfbgc-
bgc-
N`bcgosb Ekpkrbwbtbg  l`gfbgc nkgcbg orbgc ab`g
@soabs` Vos`ba >. Ea`kg jkgcbtbebg
jkgcbtbebg sunbd nbpbt
jkgcktbdu` pkgyklbl @soabs` Vos`ba
^`gnbebg Ekpkrbwbtbg (VX 2) btbu jkgbr`e n`r`
2. Jkjl`g
Jkjl`gbb dulug
dulugcbg
cbg sba
sba`gc
`gc pkrfby
pkrfbybb ;. Ea`kg jkgcbtbebg
jkgcbtbebg sunbd
sunbd nbpbt
<. Jkjlbg
Jkjlbgtu
tu ea`
ea`kg
kg jkg
jkgc`n
c`nkgt
kgt`ie
`iebs`
bs` pkg
pkgykl
yklbl
bl jkgcktbdu` ekugtugcbg lkr`gtkrbes`
`soabs` sos`ba nbg ekruc`bg t`nbe lkr`gtkrbes`
6. Jkgn`s
Jkgn`seus
eus`eb
`ebgg nkg
nkgcbg
cbg eea`k
a`kgg tkg
tkgtbg
tbgcc 9. Ea`kg jkgcbtbebg
jkgcbtbebg bebg
bebg jbsuebg
jbsuebg
ekugtugcbg lkr`gtkrbes` nkgcbg orbgc ab`g ekc`btbg lkrekgbabg eknbabj mbnwba
>. Jkgn`seus
Jkgn`seus`ebg
`ebg nkgcb
nkgcbgg eea`kg
a`kg tkgtbg
tkgtbgcc eekruc`
kruc`bg
bg dbr`bg
t`nbe lkr`gtkrbes` nkgcbg orbgc ab`g O=
;. Jkgcbm
Jkgcbmbre
brebg
bg ea`kg
ea`kg fbrb
fbrb lkrekgb
lkrekgbabg
abg nkgcb
nkgcbgg 2. Ea`kg tbjpbe jkjpk
jkjpkrbcbeb
rbcbebgg fbrb
sbtu orbgc  lkrekgbabg nkgcbg orbgc ab`g
9. Jkgcbg
Jkgcbgmur
murebg
ebg ea
ea`kg
`kg jk
jkjbs
jbsuee
ueebg
bg ekc
ekc`bt
`btbg
bg <. Ea`kg tbjpbe jkgfkr
jkgfkr`tb
`tb pkg
pkgyklbl
yklbl
abt`dbg lkrl`gfbgc-l`gfbgc nkgcbg orbgc ab`g `soabs` sos`ba
nbabj mbnwba ekc`btbg dbr`bg 6. Ea`bg tbjpbe jkgck
jkgcktbdu`
tbdu`
ekugtugcbg nbg ekruc`bg t`nbe
\kgfbgb ^`gnbe Abgmut  lkr`gtkrbes`
 

2. Kvbau
vbaubs
bs`` VX 2 >. Ea`kg
Ea`kg tbjpbe
tbjpbe jb
jbuu jbu
<. Abgmut VVXX < jkjbsueebggyb nbaj mbnwba
ekc`btbg dbr`bg

B=
- @s
@soa
oabs
bs`` VVoos`
s`ba
ba tk
tkrb
rbtb
tbs`
s`

X=
2. Bgmurebg
Bgmurebg ea`kg lkrabt`d
lkrabt`d fbrb
fbrb
 lkrekgbabg nkgcbg orbgc ab`g
<. Bgmurebg
Bgmurebg pb
pbs`kg
s`kg jkjbsu
jkjbsuebg
ebg nb
nbabj
abj
 mbnwba ekc`btbg dbr`bg
 

@JXAKJKG^BV@ KYBA[BV@
^bgccba = <3-80-<820 Mbj = 23.88
Mbj = 29.88
NV = eaea`k
`kgg j
jkg
kgcb
cbtb
tbeb
ebgg skr
skr`g
`gcc cka`
cka`sb
sbd,
d, jb
jbrbd
rbd-- jbrbd V =
jbrbd
NO = ea`kg tbjpbe
tbjpbe cka`s
cka`sbd
bd nbg ebnbg
ebnbgcc jbrbd- jbrbd 2. Ea`kg jkgcbt
jkgcbtbebg
bebg pkgyklbl
pkgyklbl ppkr`abe
kr`abeuu
ekekrbsbg nbtbgc sbbt bnb l`s`ebg
N`bcgosb Ekpkrbwbtbg  l`s`ebg
\ks`eo Xkr`abeu Ekekrbsbg <. Ea`kg jkgcbt
jkgcbtbebg
bebg l`sb
l`sb tkgbg
tkgbgcc sbbt
jkabeuebg abt`dbg gbibs nbabj
^`gnbebg Ekpkrbwbtbg (VX 2) 6. Ea`kg jkgcbt
jkgcbtbebg
bebg bebg
bebg jbs
jbsuebg
uebg
2. Jkgc`nkgt`
Jkgc`nkgt`i`ebs
i`ebs`` pkgyklbl
pkgyklbl,, tbgnb ckmba
ckmbabb nbg ekc`btbg lkrekgbabg eknbabj mbnwba
jkgc`nkgt`i`ebs` pkr`abeu ekekrbsbg dbr`bg
<. Jkgmkabsebg
Jkgmkabsebg be`lbt
be`lbt nbg fbrb
fbrb jkgckg
jkgckgnba`e
nba`ebg
bg O=
 pkr`abeu ekekrbsbg nkgcbg fbrb i`s`e pkrtbjb 2. Ea`kg tbjpbe
tbjpbe jk
jkgmkabs
gmkabsebg
ebg
( abt`dbg gbibs nbabj)  pkgyblblgyb jbrbd- jbrbd
6. Jkjlbgtu
Jkjlbgtu ea`kg jkgc
jkgcugce
ugcebpebg
bpebg pkrb
pkrbsbbgg
sbbggyb
yb <. Ea`kg jbjpu
jbjpu jkjpkrb
jkjpkrbcbebg
cbebg aabt`dbg
bt`dbg
gbibs nbabj
\kgfbgb ^`gnbe Abgmut B=
2. Kv
Kvba
baub
ubs`
s` abt`
abt`db
dbgg gbibs
gbibs nbab
nbabj
j
- @soab
soabss` VVoos`b
`baa ttkr
krbt
btbs
bs``
<. Abgmut
Abgmut jkgck
jkgckgnb
gnba`e
a`ebg
bg XE nk
nkgcb
gcbgg fbrb abt
abt`db
`dbgg
i`s`e ek < ( pueua lbgtba ). X=
 

6. Jbsuebg nbabj ekc`btbg mmbbnuba ddbbr`bg 2. Bgmurebg ea`kg lkrabt`d gbibs nbabj
6x/ dbr`
<. Bgmurebg
Bgmurebg pbs`kg
pbs`kg jkjbs
jkjbsuebg
uebg nbabj
 mbnwba ekc`btbg dbr`bg
 
^bgccba= <4-80-<820
Mbj 0.68
  NV=
NV= Ea
Ea`k
`kgg jk
jkgc
gcbt
btbe
bebg
bg skr`
skr`gc
gc jk
jkrbs
rbsbb fkjb
fkjbss nbg
nbg V= ea
ea`k
`kgg jkgc
jkgcbt
btbe
bebg
bg sunb
sunbdd jk
jkgc
gckr
krt`
t`
cka`sbd tkgtbgc pkgccugbbg olbt
  Ea`kg jkgcbtbebg subrb l`s`ebg jbs`d tkrnkgcbr 
NO= Ea`kg tbjpbe cka`sbd O= Ea`kg jkj`guj olbt sksub` mbnwba
  Dbaopkr`noa <,; jc. < x skdbr`
^`gnbebg Ekpkrbwbtbg (VX >)   ^DX <jc. < x skdbr`
2. Jkgckvbaub
Jkgckvbaubs`
s` mbnwba
mbnwba ekc`btbg
ekc`btbg dbr`bg
dbr`bg eea`kg
a`kg   FX] 288 jc. 2 x skdbr`
<. Jkjlkr`ebg
Jkjlkr`ebg ppkgn`n
kgn`n`ebg
`ebg ek
ekskdbt
skdbtbg
bg tkgtbgc
tkgtbgc pkg
pkgcc B= CVX Dbaus`gbs` pkgnkgcbrbg lkauj
Cugbbg olbt skfbrb tkrbtur tkrbtbs`
6. Jkgcbgmure
Jkgcbgmurebg
bg ea`kg
ea`kg jkjbs
jkjbsueebg
ueebg nnbabj
babj mbn
mbnwba
wba X=
Ekc`btbg dbr`bg 2. Bgmu
mure
rebg
bg ea
ea`k
`kgg jk
jkggcogt
cogtro
roaa
dbaus`gbs` nkgcbg fbrb ‖ fbrb ybgc
sunbd n`bmbrebg
\^A ( pkrbwbt) <. Bg
Bgmur
murebg
ebg ea`kg
ea`kg jkguj
jkguj olbt skt`
skt`bp
bp
2. Kvbaubs` tkgtbgc pkg
pkgccugbbg
ccugbbg olbt skfbrb tkrbtur  dbr` skfbrb tkrbtur 
<. Bgmurebg
Bgmurebg ea`kg
ea`kg ugt
ugtue
ue jkjbsue
jkjbsueebg
ebg ek nb
nbabj
abj
 mbnwba dbr`bg