CHAPTER II

LITERATURE OF REVIEW

2.1 Emphasis on Speaking and Writing

Speaking and writing are both productive skills and pictures can often be used in
similar ways to promote them. For this reason the two skills are discussed together in this
part of the book. The word “Emphasis” is included in the heading because the other skills
of listening and reading are also integrated in many of the activities described. Indeed, in
some activities described in this part, the receptive skills are equally important.
Pictures in speaking and writing have some roles such as :
1. Pictures can motivate the student and make them want to pay attention and to take part.
2. Pictures contribute to the context in which the language is being used. They bring the
world into the classroom (a street scene or a particular object, for example, a train).
3. The pictures can be described in an objective way (“This is a train”) or interpreted (“It’s
probably a local train.”) or responded to subjectively (“ I like travelling by train.”).
4. Pictures can cue responses to questions or cue substitutions through controlled practice.
5. Pictures can stimulate and provide information to be referred to in conversation,
discussion, and storytelling.
Traditionally, teachers have assumed that students learn how to use “new” language
most efficiently if they are allowed to use it in a controlled or guided way first of all. At a
later stage the students are given the opportunity to make freer, more open use of the
language. Controlled practice can be very tightly controlled, or loosely guided. Open
speaking and writing refers to general conversation, discussion, explanation, or personal
expression, in which the teacher does not determine the language used by the student.
These ways of referring to language activities may be useful for a book of this kind, but in
practice are not so clear cut and are often integrated one with another. In most activities
suggested, pictures used in controlled practice are as simple and unambiguous as possible
and pictures used to promote general conversation, debate or expression are often more
open to a variety of interpretations.
1. Mechanical Practice and Communicative Practice
A. Mechanical Practice
In mechanical practice, the student concentrate on grammatical or phonology
accuracy. Pictures provide motivation and give a non-verbal stimulus for what is
said or written. Meaning is given little or no significance. In any case, the teacher
usually knows exactly what the student should say. For example :

Teacher : ( showing a picture of a woman jumping ) What’s she doing?

Student : She is jumping.
Teacher : Is she climbing ?
Student : No, she isn’t. She’s jumping.

a) Repetition
In this term the teacher wants the student to concentrate primarily on
imitating the sound of the language and is less concerned with meaning.
Pictures can be used to motivate the learner and to remind them what to say.
The teacher might hold up picture card as a signal for the stundent to repeat, or
point at part of a composite picture. A more demanding activity is when the
student tries to remember a number of lines of text and is promped by a series
of pictures.
b) Recombination
In this term practice, question and answer work the student must adapt the
basic sentence pattern. Pictures cue the answers or substitutions. Essentially,
these activities challenge the student to remember and to manipulate the
language forms correctly but there is little or no cognitive or communicative
challenge. There is, however, a minor role for such mechanical activities even
when the overall aim is for the students to learn to use the language
communicatively. Such activities can be seen as the equivalent of finger pull-up
exercise for rock climbers.
 B. Communicative Practice
In communicative practice, the student make use the patterns chosen by the
teacher but, nevertheless, they and the teacher give value to the meaning of what
they are saying. The teacher does not always know exactly what the student wants
to say. For example :

Teacher : ( showing the picture of a woman jumping but covering up most

of it with another card ) What’s she doing ?
Student A : She’s walking.
Teacher : Is she walking ?
Student B : She’s running.
Teacher : ( showing down the card so that more can be seen ) Is she
Running ?
Student C : No, she isn’t. She’s jumping!

2. Simulated and Real

a. Simulated Activities
This term is used to describe a situation acted out in the classroom which might
occur in the future. This is very necessary way of preparing student for their future
use of English. The only danger with it is that it depends largerly on long term
motivation and the students may not have much of this.
b. Real Activities
This term refers to the activities which the stundents wants to take part in
because the activities seem to be interesting in themselves. The advantage is
interest; the disadvantages are that it is not always easy to find interesting activities
and also that the students may, if very enthusiastic, want to use their mother tongue.
Real activities can be used as a base for controlled activities. However, by their
nature, they tend to lead to a more loosely or open use of language.
3. Communication and Challenge
a. Challenge to describe
In most of the activities which follow, the student is challenged to describe
something so well that another student can identify it by pointing, drawing,
commeting, etc.
b. Challenge to group
An extension of Challenge to match. In these activities the students must find a
relationship betweem more than two bits of information. This relationship might
be objective; for example, if the students are asked to group foods under headings
such as meat, fruit, etc.
c. Challenge to sequence
The student can be challenged to put various bits of information into a
sequence. This sequence may be objective. Alternatively, the sequence can be
subjectivel as in storytelling. Some teacher are firmly of the opinion that student
should be given the time and encouragement to speak and write extensively
without too much control and stress on accuracy.