Prof.

dr Slavica Perović

Lado, Robert. 1964. Linguistics across Cultures. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan
Press, pp. 51-74.

CHAPTER 3: How to compare two grammatical structures

Introduction: What Does Grammatical Structure Mean?

1.1 Overemphasis on memorisation; negation of grammatical study; the necessity to

clarify what grammatical structure is

1.2 Not grammar as definitions or as grammatical terms in the older sense. Grammar
is not identifying or defining S, V, or DO.

1.3. Not absolute rules of correctness. Grammar sometimes means „correctness“,

found in many textbooks. That implies that grammar is a set of absolute rules to which
language has to adjust – set by an authority. That sets a problem when learning a foreign
language. Exemplification: mastering shall and will in English by a foreign student.

1.4 Not usage as merely usage. A logical question that follows from 1.3: Does a
grammatical structure mean only usage then? Grammatical structure deals with things people
say, but it means more than mere recording examples of usage. Usage does not give rules, the
usage point of view results in “problems” that require students to decide if this or that phrase
is the best one for his/her communicative intention. A watch pocket is wrong if the intention is
a pocket watch.

1.5 Grammatical structure as matters of form that correlate with matters of meaning.

Grammatical structure – the systematic formal devices to convey certain meanings and
relationships.

Is he there? Word order with the falling high-law intonation – a question in English.

If a foreign speaker does not react to that sentence as a question he may be missing the
structural significance of the word order arrangement.

2. Illustrative Discussion of Elements of Grammatical Structure and Types of Structural

items.
 2.1 Form and meaning. Any structure or pattern is assumed to consist of form and
meaning, for example book : books, idea : ideas. The meaning of the contrast is ‘one’ versus
‘more than one’.

2.2 Elements of form used in grammatical structures. A variety of formal devices may
signal grammatical meanings. This variety causes the problem. Among the most frequent
elements used in various languages to signal grammatical structure are: word order, inflection,
correlation of forms, function words, intonation, stress, and pauses.

2.2.1 Word order as a grammatical signal.

Can he come? vs. He can come. Question vs. Statement

Guantes de lana para niños – Wool gloves for children

Guantes de para niños de lana – Gloves for wool children

de – modifier of the noun in Spanish

a watch pocket vs. a pocket watch – modifier – head relationship in English

2.2.2 Inflection as a grammatical signal.

book : books; speak : speaks; nice : nicer – English

amo – amar; salto : saltar – in Spanish

2.2.3 Correlation of form as a grammatical signal. That is congruence or

concordance:

I know; He knows

The list of books which is good

The list of books which are good

2.2.4 Function words as grammatical signals.

John came. He came. The boy came. Who came – high – low falling intonation

Juan vino. ¿Quién vino?

Many other languages signal this particular type of question by means of a function word
which can be equated with who in this context.

2.2.5 Intonation as a grammatical signal.

Question: He’s a student? Statement: He’s a student.

h- -h h- -l

Do they have a car?

What? – rising intonation – I haven’t heard

I said do they have a car.

2.2.6 Stress as a grammatical signal. Sentence stress and the accompanying difference
in meaning:

ConSIDer it – give the matter some thought

Consider IT – give some thought to the word it not something else

Consider the PROBlem – give the problem, not something else, some thought

a present vs. to present

etc.

2.2.7 Pause as a grammatical signal.

A red wine, barrel – the wine is red

A red, wine barrel – the barrel is red

(Remember Immediate construction analysis )

3. Grammatical Structure, a System of Habits.

3.1 System. The examples above look like they are independent items with no relation
to one another. The items above contrast to many others. It is a complex net of rhese contrasts
which constitutes a system for each language.

He showed us the light house.

He showed us the house light.

He showed us a light house.

He showed us the light houses.

She showed us the light house.

etc. (p. 57)

In all these examples, in addition to potential changes and expansions there are things which
cannot change in English but might normally change in another language.

3.2 Habit. We speak. We mastered the system. We think about what we want to say.

4. Problems in Learning a Foreign Grammatical Structure.

 4.1 Transfer. The grammatical structure of the native language tends to be transferred
to the foreign language: the sentence forms, modification devices, the number, gender and
case patters. (Your own examples from English) The point in bringing up this matter of
distribution is that in transferring a native language structure the learner transfers its
distribution as well as its form and meaning (our italics).

4. 2 Similarity and difference as determiners of ease and difficulty.

Ease and difficulty: English and German are similar languages

- differ: form, meaning, and distribution

- are similar: lexicon

We can say that the degree of control of these structures that are different is an index to how
much of the language a person has learned (our italics).

4.3 Production versus recognition. The effect of the native language transfer is not
identical when a student is listening (recognition) and speaking (production). Speaking is the
problem. He/She chooses what to say (meaning), and then produces the forms.

Can he speak English?

Can he speaks English?

4.4 What constitutes “difference” and therefore difficulty as to the form.

Grammatical meaning is the “same” in two languages – the form that signals it may be
different in two languages:

a piece of bread – parče hleba Partitivity expressed periphrastically in English and by means
of case in Serbian

4.4.1 Same medium, different item: Function words.

Who came?

Quién vino?

The same structure – new item quién

A Japanese speaker learning English: Difficulty in the function word signalling a question, the
position of ka, word order, new item, do,a different medium, i.e. word order.

4.4.2 same medium different item. Word order.

A garden flower

A flower garden

(=>Supply the categories that constitute the difference.)

 4.4.3 same medium, different item: Correlation of forms.

“-s”inflection in the verb in English:

The car runs – The cars run

“-n” inflection in the verb in Spanish

El coche corre – Los coches corren

4.4.4 Different media: Word order in one language versus intonation in another.

Are you a student? English

¿Es usted un estudiante?

(=>State the categories of each sentences and identify the differences in grammatical
structure. What is the significance of intonation?)

4.4.5 Different media: Word order in one language versus function word in the other.

Thai: the same word order in statement and question – function word signal /rȳ./

English: He is a student. vs. Is he a student? The signal in English is the word order of the
words he and is.

4.4.6 Different media: word order in one language versus inflection in the other.

The indirect object, which is signalled in English by word order, is signalled in Latin by
inflection.

English: The mother gives her daughter a coat.

a.Latin: Matri filia vestern dat. NO

b.Latin: Mater filiae vestem dat. YES

(=> Why so?)

4.4.7 Different media: Function word in one language versus inflection in the other.

Spanish: iré; iría

English: will go; would go

5. Procedures in comparing two grammatical structures.

5.1 General procedure. For each structure we need to know if there is a structure in
the native language:

1. signalled in the same way, by the same formal device

2. having the same meaning

3. similarly distributed in the system of that language

English: Do you know where the church is?

possible translation into English by a German speaker:

*Know you where the church is?

TRANSFER

German: Wissen Sie wo die Kirche ist?

5.2 More specific procedures (for comparison of two systems).

First step: Locate the best structural description of the language involved.

Both descriptions should contain the form, meaning and distribution of the structures.

Second step: Summarise in compact outline form all the structures.

Sentence type: statement, question, command

Question: Yes-no or Wh-questions; intonation to form questions; the function of wh-word in

questions etc.

Third step: Actual comparison of the two language structures, pattern by pattern

Regrouping single problem patterns into larger patterns of difficulty.

Exemplification: pp. 73-74.