REVIEWER
SCIENCE (EARTH SCIENCE)
ROCKS AND MINERALS
Minerals are naturally-occurring, solid substances
composed of chemical elements. This means that
minerals, ranging from salt to rubies, are made up
from the elements that appear on a periodic table.
They are inorganic, not living or made up of living
things. Minerals form a crystalline structure which
gives rocks their ‘rough’ texture.
Made up of billions of billions of molecule and
arranged in crystal structure
Building blocks of rocks
Common Elements Composition of Minerals:
oxygen (O), silicion (Si), aluminum (Al), iron (Fe),
calcium (Ca), sodium (Na), potassium (K),
magnesium (Mg)
Silicates
most common group of minerals, contain -SO2
groups that have a tetrahedral crystal shape
Carbonates
minerals that contain carbonate ions that exhibit
effervescence (foaming reaction to acids)
Ore
naturally occurring concentration of mineral deposits
that can be extracted economically
Rocks
consolidated mixtures of minerals
MINERALS ARE:
"Naturally occurring" means that people did not
make it. Steel is not a mineral because it is an alloy
produced by people.
"Inorganic" means that the substance is not made
by an organism. Wood and pearls are made by
organisms and thus are not minerals.
"Solid" means that it is not a liquid or a gas at
standard temperature and pressure. Water is not a
mineral because it is a liquid.
"Definite chemical composition" means that all
occurrences of that mineral have a chemical
composition that varies within a specific limited
range. For example: the mineral halite (known as
"rock salt" when it is mined) has a chemical
composition of NaCl. It is made up of an equal
number of atoms of sodium and chlorine.
"Ordered internal structure" means that the
atoms in a mineral are arranged in a systematic and
repeating pattern. The structure of the mineral halite
is shown in the illustration on this page. Halite is
composed of an equal ratio of sodium and chlorine
atoms arranged in a cubic pattern.
PROPERTIES:
Color- Most minerals have a distinctive color that
can be used for identification.
Streak- Streak is the color of the mineral in
powdered form. Streak shows the true color of the
mineral.
Hardness- Hardness is a measure of the mineral’s
resistance to scratching. The Mohs scale is a set of
10 minerals whose hardness is known.
Mohs scale and their rating:
1. Talc 6. Orthoclase Feldspar
2. Gypsum 7. Quartz
3. Calcite 8. Topaz
4. Fluorite 9. Corundum
5. Apatite 10. Diamond
Cleavage & Fracture- Minerals tend to break along
lines or smooth surfaces when hit sharply. Different
minerals break in different ways showing different
types of cleavage.
Cleavage is defined using two sets of criteria:
The first set of criteria describes how easily the
cleavage is obtained.
The second set of criteria is the direction of the
cleavage surfaces.
Fracture- describes the quality of the cleavage
surface. Most minerals display either uneven or
grainy fracture, conchoidal (curved, shell-like lines)
fracture, or hackly (rough, jagged) fracture.
Crystalline Structure- Mineral crystals occur in
various shapes and sizes. The particular shape is
determined by the arrangement of the atoms,
molecules or ions that make up the crystal and how
they are joined. This is called the crystal lattice. If
there is no crystalline structure, it is called
amorphous.
Transparency or Diaphaneity- Diaphaneity is a
mineral’s degree of transparency or ability to allow
light to pass through it. The degree of transparency
may also depend on the thickness of the mineral.
Tenacity- Tenacity is the characteristic that
describes how the particles of a mineral hold
together or resist separation.
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Magnetism- Magnetism is the characteristic that
allows a mineral to attract or repel other magnetic
materials.
Luster- the property of minerals that indicates how
much the surface of a mineral reflects light. The
luster of a mineral is affected by the brilliance of the
light used to observe the mineral surface. Luster of a
mineral is described in the following terms:
Metallic The mineral is opaque and reflects light as a metal would.
Submettalic the mineral is opaque and dull. The mineral is dark
colored. Nonmettalic the mineral does not reflect light like a metal.
Nonmetallic minerals are described using modifiers that refer to
commonly known qualities.
Waxy The mineral looks like paraffin or wax. Vitreous The mineral
looks like broken glass. Pearly the mineral appears iridescent, like
a pearl. Silky the mineral looks fibrous, like silk. Greasy the
mineral looks like oil on water. Resinous the mineral looks like
hardened tree sap (resin).Adamantine the mineral looks brilliant,
like a diamond.
Odor- Most minerals have no odor unless they are
acted upon in one of the following ways: moistened,
heated, breathed upon, or rubbed.
Taste- Only soluble minerals have a taste, but it is
very important that minerals not be placed in the
mouth or on the tongue. You should not test for this
property in the classroom.
Specific Gravity- Specific Gravity of a mineral is a
comparison or ratio of the weight of the mineral to
the weight of an equal amount of water. The weight
of the equal amount of water is found by finding the
difference between the weight of the mineral in air
and the weight of the mineral in water.
STUDY OF MINERAL: MINERALOGY
MOHS SCALE BY FRIEDRICH MOHS- A German
mineralogist
MINERALS TRIVIA
Rocks are made of different types of minerals.
Minerals are inorganic substances that exist naturally
on Earth. Their formation begins with the melting and
cooling of magma into a solid crystal. Then water
containing dissolved minerals evaporates and leaves
behind the mineral crystals.
Interesting Minerals Facts:
Scientists have stated that there are over 3,000
different types of minerals.
When two or more minerals combine together, they
form a rock.
The most common mineral found on Earth is called
quartz.
All minerals are inorganic because they are made of
nonliving particles.
Minerals are always solid and have a distinctive
geometric shape called a crystalline structure.
Each kind of mineral has the same set of chemicals
in its make-up.
The mineral quartz always contains two oxygen
atoms for every silicon atom.
Mineral crystals are so small that they can only be
viewed under a microscope.
The cooling process of magma determines the size of
the crystals that form in a mineral.
When magma cools at a slow rate, large mineral
crystals are produced.
When magma cools at a fast rate, small mineral
crystals are produced.
Olivine is a mineral often used to cast objects in
aluminum.
The minerals our bodies need are different from the
minerals found on Earth. Our body actually needs the
elements found within the minerals.
The mineral feldspar covers about 60% of the Earth's
crust and is used in the making of ceramics.
Plagioclase is a mineral within the same family as the
mineral feldspar and is used to identify the origin of
igneous rocks.
Gold is an elemental mineral which is also considered
a precious metal. In pure form, it is so soft that it can
be shaped by hand. In fact, an ounce of pure gold
(roughly the size of a matchbox) can be flattened
into a sheet the size of a tennis court, or stretched to
create a wire 50 miles long. The largest pure nugget
of gold was discovered in 1869, in Australia, and
weighed in at approximately 156 pounds – enough to
create a gold sheet larger than four football fields, or
a wire which could wrap the circumference of earth
approximately 5 times!
The color blue has long been associated with royalty,
which historically created a high demand for blue
stones and gems, such as lapis lazul and turquoise.
The use of these stones in jewelry has dated back as
far as 5000BC – but did you know that lapis lazul was
also ground into powder, for use as eyeshadow by
the ancient Egyptians?
Jade is not just a beautiful precious stone – it is also
extremely strong, which made it ideal for it's most
common historical use: creating tools such as knives,
hooks, axes, and hammers.
Many of the colorful gemstones we know and prize
are actually related minerals – for example, watery
blue Aquamarines and deep green Emeralds are both
beryls. And blood red Rubies and brilliant blue
Sapphires are actually both corundum, a crystalline
form of aluminum oxide. Variation in color between
crystals of the same species is actually very
common, is caused by either impurities within the
crystals themselves, or exposure to other mineral
substances during their formation.The beryl species
involves many different minerals - aquamarine,
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emerald, morganite, red emerald, and more are all
from the same family.
Mercury is liquid at room temperature, and has the
lowest boiling point of any other metal. It can also be
used to dissolve other metals, such as gold or silver.
Diamond-MirPipe-Russia-5cm-22Though they are
both made from carbon, graphite is one of the softest
minerals, while diamond is the hardest. In fact,
diamonds have long been used to cut and drill other
materials – in 300 BCE, they were already being used
In India to engrave other precious gemstones.
Diamond crystal are so durable, they will not even
dissolve in acid – they can only be ground down by
other diamonds, or destroyed in intense heat.
The gemstone Garnet gained its name because it
resembled the juicy red seeds of a pomegranate.
Pumice is a very light rock – in fact, its name is
derived from the Latin word pumex, meaning foam.
Pumice is the only rock that floats – though its
sponge-like texture will absorb water until it
eventually becomes saturated with liquid, and sinks.
Geology is the study of the Earth – how it works and
its 4.5 billion-year history. Geologists study some of
society's most important problems, such as energy,
water, and mineral resources; the environment;
climate change; and natural hazards like landslides,
volcanoes, earthquakes, and floods.
Rocks are mixtures, or aggregates, of different
minerals. They are divided into three categories
based on how different rocks are formed: igneous,
sedimentary, and metamorphic.
Igneous rocks are formed when hot magma
from volcanoes is rapidly cooled, either by hitting
underground air pockets or by flowing from the
mouth of a volcano as lava. Granite, obsidian, and
pumice are all common examples of igneous rocks.
-volcanic and form from molten material. They
include not only lava spewed from volcanoes, but
also rocks like granite, which are formed by magma
that solidifies far underground.
Typically, granite makes up large parts of all the
continents. The seafloor is formed of a dark lava
called basalt, the most common volcanic rock. Basalt
is also found in volcanic lava flows, such as those in
Hawaii, Iceland, and large parts of the U.S.
Northwest.
Granite rocks can be very old. Some granite, in
Australia, is believed to be more than four billion
years old, although when rocks get that old, they've
been altered enough by geological forces that it's
hard to classify them.
Intrusive igneous rocks crystallize below Earth's surface,
and the slow cooling that occurs there allows large crystals
to form. Examples of intrusive igneous rocks are diorite,
gabbro, granite, pegmatite, and peridotite.
Extrusive igneous rocks erupt onto the surface, where
they cool quickly to form small crystals. Some cool so
quickly that they form an amorphous glass or bubbles
called vesicular. These rocks include andesite, basalt,
dacite, obsidian, pumice, rhyolite, scoria, and tuff.
 The longer the cooling time the larger the
crystals
Sedimentary rocks are formed by layers of
earth being mixed and compressed together for
extended periods of time. Common examples of
these rocks are limestone, sandstone, and shale.
-formed from eroded fragments of other rocks or
even from the remains of plants or animals. The
fragments accumulate in low-lying areas—lakes,
oceans, and deserts—and then are compressed back
into rock by the weight of overlying materials.
Sandstone is formed from sand, mudstone from mud,
and limestone from seashells, diatoms, or bonelike
minerals precipitating out of calcium-rich water.
Fossils are most frequently found in sedimentary
rock, which comes in layers, called strata.
TYPES:
Clastic sedimentary rocks such as breccia,
conglomerate, sandstone, siltstone, and shale are formed
from mechanical weathering debris.
Rounded fragments- conglomerate
Angular fragments- Breccia
Fine to course- Sandstone
Very fine grain- Siltstone
Compact, may split easily- Shale
Chemical sedimentary rocks, such as rock salt, iron ore,
chert, flint, some dolomites, and some limestones, form
when dissolved materials precipitate from solution.
 Crystalline- crystals from chemical precipitates or
evaporates
HALITE TO ROCKSALT
GYPSUM TO ROCK GYPSUM
DOLOMITE TO DOLOSTONE
 Crystalline or Bioclastic- precipitates of biologic
origin or cemented shell fragments
CALCITE TO LIMESTONE
 Bioclastic- compacted plant remains
 CARBON TO BITUMINOUS
Organic sedimentary rocks such as coal, some
dolomites, and some limestones, form from the
accumulation of plant or animal debris.
Detrital Sedimentary Rocks originate as solid particles
derived from weathering and are transported (e.g., shale,
sandstone)
Metamorphic rocks are a combination of rock
types, usually compressed together by high
pressure, which tends to give them a more hard,
grainy texture than the other two types. Schist, slate,
and gneiss (pronounced like ‘nice’) are metamorphic
rocks.
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METAMORPHISM- rocks are subjected to high heat  A sedimentary rock SANDSTONE, if comes into
and pressure. contact like magma it wil metamorphose intoa
rock called QUARTZITE
Effects: increased density, recrystallization  YOU WILL ONLY SEE BANDING IN METAMORPHIC
(formation of larger crystals), reorientation of mineral ROCKS
gains (foliation), formation of new minerals

Are sedimentary or igneous rocks that have been

transformed by pressure, heat, or the intrusion of
fluids. The heat may come from nearby magma or
hot water intruding via hot springs. It can also come
from subduction, when tectonic forces draw rocks
deep beneath the Earth's surface.

Marble is metamorphosed limestone, quartzite is

metamorphosed sandstone, and gneiss, another
common metamorphic rock, sometimes begins as
granite.

There are two basic types of metamorphic rocks:

Foliated metamorphic rocks such as gneiss, phyllite,

schist, and slate have a layered or banded appearance that
is produced by exposure to heat and directed pressure.

MINERAL ALIGNMENT- minerals line up as a result of

intense heat and pressure

BANDING- under eve greater pressure minerals separate

into dark and light stripes called bands.

SHALE a sedimentary rock when forced down by tectonic

plates and exposed to jntense heat and pressure will be
morph into a SLATE, when force deeper down it will
metamorphose into PHYLLITE, more heat and pressure
we’ll get schist, even more and we will get GNEISS, when
it gets pushed it will melt and become intrusive igneous
rock.

Non-foliated metamorphic rocks such as hornfels,

marble, quartzite, and novaculite do not have a layered or
banded appearance. Pictures and brief descriptions of
some common types of metamorphic rocks are shown on
this page.

REGIONAL- intense pressure

CONTACT- intense heat

REGIONAL/ CONTACT- combination

 BITUMINOUS COAL a sedimentary rock if it is

exposed in intense pressure it will metamorphose
into new rock call ANTHRACITE COAL

Continental Drift
Hypothesis proposed by ALFRED WEGENER of the
breaking apart of a supercontinent (pangaea) into
smaller continents, then drifting into their current
positions; no scientific explanation for the drifting
mechanism was proposed

Plate Tectonics
Provides the mechanism for the continental drift
hypothesis; proposes that the earth is divided into
a solid and liquid layer
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Lithosphere
Outer solid layer of the earth, divided
segments called plates
Plates
Move uniformly and are deformed across their
boundaries
Asthenosphere
Weaker inner liquid layer of the eartg
Earthquake
Rapid vibration of earth due to the release of
energy from rocks that were subjected to extreme
pressure; happens in faults, which are associated
with plate boundaries
Divergent Boundary
 Plates move apart from each other
 Results in upwelling of magma
 Associated with seafloor spreading (e.g., mid-
atlantic ridge)
 Also associated with continental rifts
Transform Boundary
 Plates grind against each other
 No lithosphere is created nor destroyed
 Can be sites for earthquakes
Convergent Boundary
 Plates move towards each other
 Results in subduction of oceanic lithosphere
 Associated with the formation of volcanic arcs
 Also associated with the formation of mountain
ranges (e.g., himalayas)
Evidence of Plate Tectonics
 Jigsaw fit of the coastlines of south america and
africa, similar fossils found on continents
separated by water, similar fragments of mountain
belts found on continental separated by water,
similar glacial deposits found on antartica, africa,
south america, india, and australia and sediments
closer to plate boundaries have ages that are
different from those of farther sediments
Have steep slopes composed of pyroclastic
material
into
Shield Volcano
Broad, doomed volcanoes composed of basaltic
lava
Weathering
External process of the lithosphere / disintegration
and decomposition of rock near the surface
Mass-wasting
External process of the lithosphere / transfer of
rock material downslope incorporation and
transportation of material by a mobile agent
Movement of tectonic plates
Internal process of the lithosphere / can result in
earthquakes and the formation of volcanoes,
mountains, rift valleys, trenches, mid-oceanic
ridges, and islands
The Hydrosphere
Continental shelf, continental slope, continental
rise, deep-ocean basin, deep-ocean trenches,
abyssal plains, seamounts and guyots, oceanic
plateaus, atolls, oceanic ridge, ocean currents,
coriolis effect, upwelling, shore, beach, tides,
hydrologic cycle, drainage basin, groundwater,
spring, geyser
Continental Shelf
Underwater landmass that extends from the
coastline to the shelf break, then towards the
deep-ocean basin
Continental Slope
Steep sloping from the continental shelf into deep
ocean floor
Continental Rise
Found where trenches do not exist, less steep and
has a gradual incline after the continental slope
Deep-ocean Basin
Lies between continental margin and oceanic
ridge system

Island Hotspots Deep-ocean Trenches

Moving lithosphere creates new several islands Crustal plates descending into mantle
even if there is only one magma source (e.g.,
hawaii) Abyssal Plains
Level area, contains thick accumulations of
Paleomagnetism sediment
Evidences of the changing location of the
magnetic north pole; different paths of the change Seamounts and Guyouts
of the magnetic north pole imply that the plates Isolated volcanic peaks
move
Oceanic Plateaus
Accumulations of basaltic lava flows
Composition of a volcanic eruption
Lava flow, gases, pyroclastic material Atolls
Reef-building of corals and other organisms on the
Types of Pyroclastic Material by size flanks of sinking volcano islands
(smallest to largest)
Ash/dust -> lapilli/cinder -> block -> bomb Oceanic Ridge
Found in the middle of ocean basins, site of
Composite Volcano divergent plate boundaries where seafloor
Symmetrical cones with structures of interbedded spreading occurs
lava and pyroclastic material
Ocean Currrents
Cinder Cone Volcano
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Masses of ocean water that flow from one place to
another, follow a circular movement across the Air Pressure
ocean (gyres) Downward force exerted by air molecules

Coriolis Effect Anticyclone

Movement of particles opposite that of the Center of high-pressure regions, fair and clear
rotation of the earth, causes gyres in the northern weather is expected
hemisphere to turn clockwise and gyres in the
southern hemisphere to turn counterclockwise Climate
Generalization of weather conditions of a place
Upwelling over a long period of time
Upward movement of cold water from deeper
layers Clouds
Condensed visible aggregates of water droplets or
Shore ice crystals
Area extending between the lowest tide level and
the highest elevation on land that is affected by Cirrus
storm waves Type of clouds / high, white, and thin

Beach Cumulus
Accumulation of sediment along the landward Type of clouds / consist of globular individual
margin of the ocean masses

Tides
Daily rise and fall in the elevation of ocean surface
at a specific location; caused by gravitational
attraction of the moon and the sun
Hydrological Cycle
Continuous interchange of water among oceans,
the atmosphere, and continents
Drainage Basin
The land area that contributes water to a stream
Groundwater
Water that occupies spaces in the bedrock (water
table), largest reservoir of freshwater available to
humans
Stratus
Type of clouds / low lying, sheet-like
Cyclone
Air mass rotating around a low-pressure center;
cloudy conditions and precipitation are expected
El Niño
Periodic warming of the central and eastern parts
of the pacific ocean
Fog
Cloud with a base at or near the ground
Front
Separates air masses of different densities

Spring Humidity
Intersection of a water table to the surface Describes the amount of water vapor in the air

Geyser Hurricanes
Heated groundwater that expands and changes to Tropical cyclones with wind speeds exceeding 119
steam, causing a water eruption kph

Thermosphere
Where space shuttles orbit, gases here are not
distributed uniformly, temperature increases as
altitude increases
La Niña
Periodic cooling of the central and eastern parts of
the pacific ocean
Precipitation
Joining of several small cloud droplets, may be in
the form of rain, snow, sleet, glaze, hail, or rime

Mesosphere Thunderstorms
Where meteors burn up, temperature decreases Caused by the upwards movement of warm, moist
as altitude increases air, associated with cumulonimbus clouds

Stratosphere
Site of absorption of ultraviolet radiation due to
high concentration of ozone (O3), temperature
increases as altitude increases
Troposphere
Site of most weather phenomena, temperature
decreases as altitude increases
Air Mass
Large body of air with the same temperature and
moisture content
Tornadoes
Violent windstorms taking the form of a rotating
column of air that extends down a cumulonimbus
cloud
Weather
State of the atmosphere at a certain period of
time
Elements of Weather
Air temperature, relative humidity, cloudiness,
precipitation, air pressure, wind speed
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Wind Outmost portion of the sun's atmosphere, crown
Flow of air from areas of high to low pressure shaped

Geocentric Sunspots
Ptolemy / belief that the earth is the center of the Dark blemishes on the surface of the sun
solar system/universe
Prominences
Heliocentric Cloudlike structures that jut out of the
Belief that the sun is the center of the solar system chromosphere

Rotation Solar Flares

Circular motion of earth about its own axis Brief outburst of a sunspot cluster, causes aurora
borealis near the earth's north and south poles
Revolution
Movement of earth in its orbit around the sun Core
Central region of the sun where hydrogen is
Precession transformed into helium, the energy of the reaction
A slow motion of Earth's axis that traces out a cone is released as light
over a period of 26,000 years
Spicule
Solar Eclipse A jet of hot gas shooting upward in the
Occur when the moon is directly between the sun chromosphere
and the earth / moon = middle
Cosmology
Lunar Eclipse Study of the properties, structure, and evolution of
Occurs when the Earth is directly between the sun the universe
and moon
Big Bang Theory
Terrestrial Most accurate explanation of the beginning of the
Earth-like planets / mercury, venus, earth, mars / universe, with a cataclysmic explosion that
smaller, more dense, mostly rocky composition followed with the expansion and cooling of the
universe
Jovian
Gas giants / jupiter-like planets / jupiter, saturn, Hertzsprung - Russell diagram
uranus, neptune / larger, gaseous planets Plots stars according to their absolute magnitude
and spectral type; divides stars into three general
Asteroid categories (main sequence, red supergiant, and
Rrocky/metallic material more than 100m in white dwarf)
diameter
Nebula
Meteoroid Interstellar cloud consisting mostly of hydrogen
A small chunk of rocky/metallic material that and helium; birthplace of stars
travels through space
Protostar
Comet Gravitational attraction of particles in the nebula;
A loose collection of rocky material, dust, ice, and start of hydrogen fusion
frozen gases
Main-sequence Star
A star with minimal change in size or energy
Dwarf Planets output; continuous hydrogen fusion until all
Spherical celestial bodies orbiting the sun that are hydrogen is depleted
too small to remove smaller objects in their orbit
(e.g., Ceres) Red Giant
A star in which hydrogen is nearly depleted,
The Moon resulting into a helium-rich core; start of core
 Lone natural satellite of the earth contraction
 Rotation and revolution take the same time,
therefore only one side is visible on earth White Dwarf
 Lower gravitational force than earth, objects A star slow consumption of depleted hydrogen fuel
weigh lighter
 Originates from the collision of a large body into Planetary Nebula
earth, ejecting molten material which cooled into Spherical cloud of particles made up of heavy
the moon elements

Photosphere Supernova
Surface of the sun, source of solar radiation Bright explosion of a red supergiant

Chromosphere Neutron Star

Thin layer of incandescent gases above the A small, extremely dense star resulting from a
photosphere supernova implosion

Corona Black Hole

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Resulting from a supernova implosion

Constellation
Group of stars seen from the earth, forming
patterns in the sky and changing position over time
due to earth's revolution

Galaxy
Collection of interstellar matter, stars, and stellar
remnants that are gravitationally bound

Type of Galaxies
Spiral galaxy, elliptical galaxy, irregular galaxy

Galactic Cluster
Gravitationally bound-group of galaxies

Life Cycle of an Average Star

Nebula -> protostar -> main sequence star -> red
giant -> planetary nebula -> white dwarf

Life Cycle of a Massive Star

Nebula -> protostar -> massive star -> red
supergiant -> supernova -> neutron star or black
hole

Planetary Nebula
Of emission nebula consisting of an expanding,
glowing shell of ionized gas ejected from red giant
stars late in their lives. The term "planetary
nebula" is a misnomer because they are unrelated
to planets or exoplanets.

Cosmology
Study of the properties, structure, and evolution of
the universe