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y - y1 = [ ]·(x - x1),
or even as
(x2 - x1)·(y - y1) = (y2 - y1)·(x - x1),
where one does not have to worry whether x1 = x2 or
not. However, the simplest for me to remember is this
(y - y1)/(y2 - y1) = (x - x1)/(x2 - x1)
which is not as universal is the one before.
Intercept-intercept
Assume a straight line intersects x-axis at (a, 0) and y-
axis at (0, b). Then it is defined by the equation
x/a + y/b = 1,
which also can be written as
xb + ya = ab.
The latter form is somewhat more general as it allows
either a or b to be 0. a and b are defined as x-
intercept and y-intercept of the linear function. These
are signed distances from the points of intersection of
the line with the axes.
Point-slope
The equation of a straight line through point (a, b) with
a given slope of m is
y = m(x - a) + b, or y - b = m(x - a).
As a particular case, we have
Slope-intercept equation
The equation of a line with a given slope m and the y-
intercept b is
y = mx + b.
This is obtained from the point-slope equation by
setting a = 0. It must be understood that
the point-slope equation can be written for any point
on the line, meaning that the equation in this
form is not unique. The slope-intercept equation is
unique because if the uniqueness for the line of
the two parameters: slope and y-intercept.
.
POINT-SLOPE FORM
Suppose that we want to find the equation of a straight line
that passes through a known point
and has a known slope. Let (x,y) represent the coordinates
of any point on the line, and let (x,,y,)
represent the coordinates of the known point. The slope is
represented by m.
Recalling the formula defining slope in terms of the
coordinates of two points, we have
EXAMPLE: Write the equation of a line parallel to 3x - y
- 2 = 0 and passing through the point (5,2).
SOLUTION: The coefficients of x and y in the desired
equation are the same as those in the given equation.
Therefore, the equation is
3x-y+D=0.
EXAMPLE: Find the equation of a line passing through
the point (2,3) and having a slope of 3.
SOLUTION:
SLOPE-INTERCEPT FORM
Any line that is not parallel to the Y axis intersects the Y
axis at some point.
The x coordinate of the point of intersection is 0, because
the Y axis is vertical
and passes through the origin. Let the y coordinate of the
point of intersection be
represented by b. Then the point of intersection is (0,b), as
shown in figure. The y coordinate, b, is called the
y intercept.
PRACTICE PROBLEMS:
Write equations for lines having points and slopes as follows:
General equation
A straight line is defined by a linear equation whose
general form is
Ax + By + C = 0,
where A, B are not both 0.
Different forms of General form:
Normal form:
The general equation and the normal form represent the same
straight line.
Therefore, A (the coefficient of x in the general form) is
proportional to cos Ѳ (the coefficient of x in the normal form).
By similar reasoning, B is proportional to sin 0, and C is
proportional to -p. Recalling
that quantities proportional to each other form ratios
involving a constant of proportionality,
let k be this constant. Thus, we have
Y
OR
WE can prove perp. distance from appoint p(x1,y1) on
A line Ax+By+C=0 is
Y
R (0, -C/B)
Ax+By+C=0 P( x1,y1)
( -C/A ,0) Q X
and
Returning to the expressions for sin Ѳ , cos Ѳ, and p in terms
of A, B, and C (the coefficients in the general equation), we
have
and
PRACTICE PROBLEMS:
In each of the following problems point to the line:
find the distance from the
1. (5,2), 3x - y + 6 = 0
2. (-2,5), 3x + 4y - 9 = 0
ANSWERS:
y=
PRACTICE PROBLEMS:
1. Find the equation of the line whose perpendicular
forms an angle of 135' from the positive side of the X
axis and whose perpendicular distance is V-2-units
from the origin.
Find the equations of the following lines:
2. Through (1,1) and parallel to 5x - 3y = 9.
3. Through (- 3,2) and perpendicular to x + y = 5.
ANSWERS:
SUMMARY (STRAIGHT LINES)
The following are the major topics covered in this chapter:
1. Distance between two points:
where p is the line's perpendicular distance from the origin and Ѳ is the
angle
between the perpendicular and the X- axis.
13. Parallel lines:
In any two linear equations, if the coefficients of the x and y terms are
identical in value and sign,
then the lines represented by these equations are parallel; that is,
Ax+By+C=0 and Ax+By+D=0
are parallel lines.
Perp. distant b/w two ii lines.
14. Perpendicular lines:
If a line is to be perpendicular to a given line, the coefficients of x and y
in the
required equations are found by interchanging the coefficients of x and y
in the given
equation and changing the sign of one of them; that is,
Ax+By+C=0 and Bx-Ay+D=0
are perpendicular lines.
15. Distance from a point to a line:
EXAMPLE: If the straight line drawn through the point P( ,2) and
making an angle п/6 with the x-axis meets the line
.
ASSIGNMENT
Question 1 In what ratio is the line joining the points A(4,4)
and B(7,7) divide by P(-1,-1)?
[Hint: use section formula after assuming ratio k:1 , k= -5/8]
Question 2 Determine the ratio in which the line 3x+y – 9 =
0 divides the segment joining the points (1,3) and (2,7).
[ Hint: use section formula , k=3/4]
**Question 3 The area of a triangle is 5. Two of its vertices
are (2,1) and (3,-2). Third vertex is (x,y) where y = x+3. Find
The co-ordinates of the third vertex.
[Let the vertices are A(x,y), B(2,1), C(3,-2) , Area of triangle
ABC = ½ |3x+y – 7|=5 , in case (i) x=7/2,y=13/2
In case (ii) x=-3/2 , y=3/2]
Question 4 Find the equation of the straight lines which pass
through the origin and trisect
the intercept of line 3x+4y=12 b/w the axes.
[ Hint: Let the line AB be trisected at P and Q, then AP : PB =
1:2 , A(4,0) , B(0,3) BY using section formula we get P(8/3 , 1)
AQ : QB = 2 : 1 ⇨ Q=(4/3 ,2) then equation of line OP and
OQ passing through (0,0) is 3x – 8y =0 and 3x – 2y =0 resp.]
Question 5 If the straight line drawn through the point P(2
,3) and making an angleп/4 with the x-axis meets the line
x + y + 1=0 at Q, find the length of PQ. [ answer is r =
3 ]
** Question 6 Find the distant of the point (2,5) from the line
3x+4y+4=0 measured parallel to a line having slope ¾.
[Hint: tanѲ= ¾ ⇨ sinѲ =3/5 , cosѲ=4/5 , equation passing
through A(2,5) by symmetric form is
X= 2+(4/5)r , y= 5+(3/5)r they lie on a given line ⇨ r = -
5
Question 7 The line segment joining A(2,3), B(-3,5) is
extended through each end by a length equal to its original
length.
Find the co-ordinates of the new ends.
[ Hint: answer is x= 7, y= 1 and α = -8 , =7
( ) (-3,5) (2,3) (x,y)
C B A D ]
Question 8 The line segment joining A (6,3) to B (-1,-4) is
doubled in length by having added to each end. Find the co-
ordinates
Of the new ends.
[ Hint : given CB = ½ BA , AD = ½ BA ∴ B divides CA
internally in 1:2 and A divides BD internally in 2:1
C( -9/2 ,-15/2) , D( 19/2 , 13/2)]
Question 9 Two opposite vertices of a square are (3,4) and
(1,-1). Find the co-ordinates of other vertices.
[ Let A(3,4) , C(1,-1) then slope of AC = 5/2 , M mid
point of AC & BD =(2, 3/2)
Let m is the slope of a line making an angle of 450 with
AC i.e., m is slope of lines AD or CD.
USE formula of angle b/w two lines ⇨ m= -7/3, 3/7
then equations of AD , CD are
7x+3y – 33=0 , 3x – 7y – 10 =0 and D(9/2 ,1/2) ,M is
mid point of BD ⇨ B(-1/2 , 5/2)]
Question 10 (i) Find the co-ordinates of the orthocenter of
the whose angular points are (1,2), (2,3), (4,3).
(ii) Find the co-ordinates of the circumcenter
of the whose angular points are (1,2), (3,-4), (5,-6).
[ answer (i) (1,6) (ii) (11,2)]
Question 11 Find the equation of the line through the
intersection of the lines x -3y+1=0 and 2x+5y -9=0 and whose
D( C(5,1)
y=2x+c
M (3,2)
A(1,3) B(X,2X-4)
Slope=7/4 slope=7/4
A(-3,1) 4x+7y+5=0 B
Equation of BC is 7x – 4y -3=0 , equation of AD & CD are
7x – 4y +25=0 & 4x+7y=11=0 resp.]
[ Hint:
y
B(0,a)
x+2y-2a=0
o A(2a,0) X
B(h,k)
(-4sinα, 4cosα)
C 4 4 A(4cosα, 4sinα)
M O L
[HINT:
( , )D line (iii) C ( , )
Slope=1
Line(iv)
Slope=-1 line(ii)
( , )A line(i) B( , )
Y C
D(4,3)
(0,1)B 45 P(2,2)
X+3y-3=0
A(3,0)
angle ABD=450 , use formula tan 450 =| |
(1,2) A B
m1 8x-15y=0
450 m2 =8/15
D C
General equation
A straight line is defined by a linear equation whose
general form is
Ax + By + C = 0,
where A, B are not both 0.
The coefficients A and B in the general equation are the
components of vector
n = (A, B) normal to the line. The pair r = (x, y) can be
looked at in two ways: as a point or as a
radius-vector joining the origin to that point. The latter
interpretation shows that a straight line
is the locus of points r with the property
r·n = const.
That is a straight line is a locus of points whose radius-
vector has a fixed scalar product
with a given vector n, normal to the line. To see why
the line is normal to n, take two distinct
but otherwise arbitrary points r1 and r2 on the line, so
that
r1·n = r2·n.
But then we conclude that
(r1 - r2)·n = 0.
In other words the vector r1 - r2 that joins the two
points and thus lies on the line is perpendicular to n.
Normalized equation
The norm ||n|| of a vector n = (A, B) is defined
via ||n||2 = A2 + B2 and has the property that, for any
non-trivial vector n, n/||n|| is a unit vector,
i.e., || n/||n|| || = 1.
Note that the line defined by a general equation would
not change if the equation
were to be multiplied by a non-zero coefficient. This
property can be used to keep
the coefficient A non-negative. It can also be used to
normalize the equation by dividing it by ||n||.
As a result, in a normalized equation
Ax + By + C = 0,
A2 + B2 = 1.
(In the applet, the coefficients of the normalized
equation are rounded to up to 6 digits, for which reason
the above identity may only hold approximately.)
The normalized equation is conveniently used in
determining the distance from a point to a line
Parametric equation
A line through point r0 = (a, b) parallel to vector u = (u,
v) is given by
(x, y) = (a, b) + t·(u, v),
where t is any real number. In the vector form, we have
r = r0 + t·u,
where r = (x, y).
Implicit equation
A line through point r0 = (a, b) perpendicular to
vector n = (m, n) is given by
m(x - a) + n(y - b) = 0,
or if we take r = (x, y), a generic point on the line, we
see that
n·(r - r0) = 0,
where dots indicates the scalar product of two vectors.
(*) For every two real x1 and x2, f(x1 + x2) = f(x1) + f(x2)
Proof
The proof proceeds in several steps.
1. x is 0.
f(0) = f(0 + 0) = f(0) + f(0) = 2f(0).
Therefore f(0) = 2f(0) and finally f(0) = 0.
2. x is negative.
Let x be negative, e.g., let x + y = 0, where y is
positive; so that -x = y. Then
0 = f(0) = f(x + y) = f(x) + f(y).
Therefore f(-x) = f(y) = -f(x).
3. x is an integer.
We have f(2) = f(1 + 1) = f(1) + f(1) = 2f(1).
By induction, assume f(k - 1) = (k - 1)f(1). Then
f(k) = f(1 + (k-1)) = f(1) + (k-1)f(1) = kf(1).
Let's denote a = f(1). We have shown that for all
integers n, f(n) = an.
4. x is rational
First of all, for any integer n≠0, we have 1 =
n/n. Then, as before, a = f(1) = f(n/n) =
nf(1/n).Hence, f(1/n) = a/n = a(1/n). For p =
m/n we similarly have
f(p) = f(m/n) = mf(1/n) = m·a/n = a(m/n) = ap.
5. x is irrational
Any irrational number r can be approximated by a
sequence of rational numbers pi.
The closerpi is to r, the closer api is to ar.
However, since api = f(pi) and
assuming f continuous we must necessarily get f(r)
= ar.
Continuity of the function is quite essential as it's
possible to show [Ref. 1, 2] that the graph
of any discontinuous solution to (*) is dense in the
plane R2. For the sake of reference,
the graph of a function f: R R is defined as a set of
pairs (x, y), i.e. elements of R2 such that y = f(x).
Formally,graph(f) = {(x, y)∈R2: y = f(x)}.
Remark
Generally speaking, a function that satisfies (*) is
called additive. The function that
satisfies f(x) = axfor some a is said to be homogeneous.
A function is said to be linear
if it's both additive and homogeneous. We have just
shown that a continuous additive
function is necessarily linear.
The graph of a linear function is a straight line whose
(linear) equation may be obtained
in different forms depending on the manner in which
the line is defined.
HOT SKILLS QUESTIONS **
Question 1 Show that the lines 4x+y-9=0 , x-2y+3=0, 5x-y-
6=0 make equal intercepts on any line of gradient 2.
Question 3 The line 2x-y=5 turns about the point on it, where
the ordinate is equal to the abscissa through an angle of 450 in
the anticlockwise direction. Find the equation of the line in
the new position.
Answer 1 B A C
Eqn. of line with gradient 2 is y = 2x +c , solve it with given
eqns.
4X+Y-1=0
α α
B 3x-4y+1=0 C
BY using angle b/w two lines formula ,we
Eqn. of AC is 52x+89y+519=0.
Answer 6
L A 3x-2y-5=0 M
α Ѳ Ѳ β
x – 2y-3=0
P N Q
A(1,-1) by solving LM & PA and
Tanα = tanβ ⇨ = ⇨ m= 29/2 ∴
eqn. of AQ is 29x-2y-31=0.
N M
3x-2y+6=0 H 4x+5y=20
B L C