Table of Contents

UNIT III CO-ORDINATE GEOMETRY

3.1 Cartesian and Polar co-ordinates (two dimensional), Conversion from Cartesian to polar co-
ordinates and vice-versa

3.2 Slope of a line,Equation of straight line in various standards forms

3.3 Intersection of two straight lines, concurrency of lines, angle between straight lines, parallel and
perpendicular lines, perpendicular distance formula.

3.4 General equation of a circle and its characteristics.

 Book ID : HSBTE-1.2-003-2017-V1-14062018

APPLIED MATHEMATICS - I
1.2
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UNIT III

CO-ORDINATE GEOMETRY

Cartesian and Polar co-ordinates (two dimensional), conversion from Cartesian to polar co-
ordinates and vice-versa. Slope of a line, equation of straight line in various standards forms
(without proof); (slope intercept form, intercept form, one-point form, two-point form, symmetric
form, normal form, general form), intersection of two straight lines, concurrency of lines, angle
between straight lines, parallel and perpendicular lines, perpendicular distance formula, conversion
of general form of equation to the various forms.

General equation of a circle and its characteristics. To find the equation of a circle, given:

* Centre and radius

* Three points lying on it

* Coordinates of end points of a diameter

3.1 Cartesian and Polar co-ordinates (two dimensional), Conversion from

Cartesian to polar co-ordinates and vice-versa
Cartesian coordinate system:

The Cartesian coordinate system is the most commonly used coordinate system. In two dimensions,
this system consists of a pair of lines on a flat surface or plane, that intersect at right angles. The
lines are called axes and the point at which they intersect is called the origin. The axes are usually
drawn horizontally and vertically and are referred to as the x- and y-axes, respectively.
A point in the plane with coordinates (a, b) is a units to the right of the y axis and b units up from
the x axis if a and b are positive numbers. If a and b are both negative numbers, the point is a units
to the left of the y axis and b units down from the x axis. In the figure above point P 1 has
coordinates (3, 4), and point P2 has coordinates (-1, -3).

In three-dimensional Cartesian coordinates, the z axis is added so that there are three axes all
perpendicular to each other.

Polar coordinate system

In the polar coordinate system, each point in the plane is assigned coordinates (r, f) with respect to
a fixed line in the plane called the axis and a point on that line called the pole. For a point in the
plane, the r-coordinate is the distance from the point to the pole, and the f-coordinate is the
counterclockwise angle between the axis and a line joining the origin to the point, The r-coordinate
is always positive and the range of f is from 0 to 2p (3600). To be able to transform from Cartesian to
polar coordinates and vice versa, we let the axis of the polar coordinate system coincide with the x-
axis of the Cartesian coordinate system and the pole coincide with the origin.
In the figure above the Point P1 has polar coordinates (r1, f1) = (5, 53.1o), and the point P2 has polar
coordinates (r2, f2) = (3.16, 251.6o).

The transformation equations are:

x=r cos ⁡f , y=r sin ⁡f

r =(( x2 + y 2 ))/2 , f =tan (−1) ⁡〖( y / x) 〗

Cylindrical coordinates and spherical coordinates are two different extensions of polar coordinates
to three dimensions.

Problems:

1. Convert each of the following points into the given coordinate system.

(a) −4 , 2 π /3 into Cartesian coordinates.

(b) (-1,-1) into polar coordinates

Solution:
a) Convert −4 , 2 π /3 into Cartesian coordinates.

This conversion is easy enough. All we need to do is plug the points into the formulas.

■(π =−4 cos ⁡(2 π /3)=−4 (−1/ 2)=2@ y=−4 sin ⁡(2 π /3)=−4(√ 3/2)=−2 √ 3)

So, in Cartesian coordinates this point is (2-2 √ 3 )

b) Convert (-1,-1) into polar coordinates.

Let’s first get r.

r =√ ((−1)2+(−1)2)=√ 2

Now, let’s get θ.

9=tan (−1) ⁡( (−1)/(−1))=tan (−1) ⁡(1)=π /4

This is not the correct angle however. This value of θ is in the first quadrant and the point we’ve
been given is in the third quadrant. As noted above we can get the correct angle by adding π onto
this. Therefore, the actual angle is,

θ=π /4+ π =5 π / 4
So, in polar coordinates the point is (√ 2,5 π /4). Note as well that we could have used the first θ
that we got by using a negative r. In this case the point could also be written in polar coordinates as
(−√ 2 , π / 4).

3.2 Slope of a line,Equation of straight line in various standards forms

Point-Slope Form

If the slope of a line is given, then the line can take infinitely many positions on a coordinate plane.
All these lines will be parallel to each other in below figure(i).

Similarly, a line is not fixed just by identifying only one point on a line. There are infinitely many
lines passing through a given point, say, A(x 1, y1) shown in below figure(ii). But there will be one and
only one line passing through a given point and having given slope.

Now we shall find the equation of line passing through a given point and having given slope.

To find the equation of the straight line having given one point on the line and its slope.

Let a non-vertical line passes through point A(x1, y1) and having slope m.

Let P(x, y) be a general point on the line. Since the line passes through A(x1, y1) and P(x, y), so the
slope of the line is equal to ( y− y i)/(x −xi ),(x - x1 because the point A and P are distinct and the
line is non-vertical).

Also, the slope of the line is given to be m.

( y− y i)/(x −xi )=m

y− y1 =m( x−x i)

This is the required equation of the line. This represents the equation of a line in point-slope form.

Problem:

1. Let us find the equation of the straight line passing through (1, 7) and having slope 4.
Solution:
Given point = (1, 7), slope = 4.

Using y− y1 =m( x−x i), the equation of the line is y−7=4( x−1)

or y - 7 = 4x - 4 or 4x - y + 3 = O.

2. Let us find the equation of the line passing through (- 4, - 5) and perpendicular to the line
joining (1, 2) and (5, 6).

Solution:

Let the given points be A (- 4, - 5), B(1, 2) and C(5, 6).

Slope of BC =(6−2)/(5−1)=4 /4 =1

Let m be the slope of the required line. Since the required line is perpendicular to BC,

so m x 1=−1.

m=−1

The required line also pass through A(- 4, - 5).

∴The equation of the required line is

y−(−5)=−1.(x −(−4))[Using y − y 1=m(x−x 1)1]

or

y +5=−x−4

or

x + y +9=0.
3. Given the triangle with vertices are A(10, 4), B(- 4, 9), C(- 2, - 1). Let us Find the equation of the
altitude through B.

Solution:

The given vertices are A (10, 4), B(- 4, 9), C(- 2, - 1).

Slope of AC = (−1−4)/(−2−10)=(−5)/(−12) = 5/12

The altitude through B is perpendicular to AC.

Let m be the slope of the altitude through B.

m∗5 /12=−1 i.e, m=(−12)/5

The equation of the altitude through B(- 4, 9) is,

y−9=(−12)/5( x−(−4)).

5 y−45=−12 x−48

12 x+6 y +3=0.

4. Let us find the equation of the line joining the points (3, -1) and (2, 3). Let us also find the
equation of the other line which is perpendicular to this line and passing through the point (5, 2).

Solution:
Let the given points be A(3, - 1), B(2, 3) and C(5, 2).

Equation of AB

Slope of AB = (3−(−1))/(2−3)=4 /(−1)=−4

The equation of AB is y - y1 = (Slope of AB)(x -x1)

y−(−1)=−4( x−3)[Taking( x 1, y 1)=(3 ,−1)]

Y +1=−4 x +12

4 x+ y−11=0

Equation of the line to AB

Let slope = in

∴m x(-4) = -1 i.e., m = 1/4

y−2=1/4 ( x−5)

The equation of required line is y− y 1=m( x−x 1).

4 y−8=x−5

X −4 y+ 3=0.

3.2.1 Slope intercept form, intercept form, one-point form, two-point form

Slope-Intercept Form

To find the equation of the straight line having given its slope and its intercept on the y-axis. Let a
non-vertical line has slope m and intercept on y-axis equal to c.
Let P(x, y) be a general point on the line. Let the line intercept they-axis at A.

∴ The coordinates of A are (0, c).

∴ Slope of line =( y−c)/( x−0) (Assuming, P is not at A.)

Also, the slope of the line is given to be m.

∴( y−c)/ x=m

y=mx+c

This is required equation of the line.

If a line passes through origin and has slope tn, then its equation is y = mx + 0 i.e., y = mx.

Example:

Find the equation of the straight line which makes angle 30° with positive direction of x-axis and
cuts intercepts + 5 on the y-axis.

We have □( )m=tan ⁡〖 30 〗° =1/√ 3 and c=5.

The equation of the line is y=mx+c .

y=1 /√ 3 x+5 ⇒ x−√ 3 y +5 √ 3=0

Intercept Form:

To find the equation of the straight line having given the intercepts which the line makes on the
axes.
Let a line makes intercepts a and b on x-axis and y-axis respectively, where a ≠ 0.

The line is non-vertical, because b is finite. Let P(x, y) be a general point on the line.

Let the line intersects x-axis and y-axis at A and B respectively.

A = (a, 0) and B = (0, b).

Since the line passes through A, B and P, we have Slope of AB = slope of AP.

■((b−0)/( 0−a)=( y −0)/( x−a) @bx−ab=−ay □ () ⇒bx +ay=ab @bx /ab+ ay /ab=ab/ab □( ) ⇒ x /a+ y /b=1)

This is the required equation of the line.

Example:

Find the equation of the straight lines which passes through the origin and trisect the portion of
the straight line x /a+ y /b=1 , which is intercepted between the axes.

Solution:
The given line x /a+ y /b=1 makes intercepts a and b on the axes. Let this line cut the axes at A(a,0)
and B(0,b).

Let P ,Q be the points of trisection of AB.

P divides AB in the ratie 1 ı 2 intereally. A.

□( )P=((1(0)+2(a))/(1+2),( 1(b)+ 1(0))/(1+ 2))=(2 a/3 ,b /3)

Q divides AB in the ratio 2: 1 internally.

Q=(( 2(0)+ 1(a))/ (2+ 1) ,(2(b)+1(0))/(2+1))=(a/3,2b /3)The equation of the line joining origin
and P(2 a/3 , b /3) is

■( y−0∧¿( b/3−0) /(2 a/3−0)(x−0). @⇒ □ () y∧¿ b / 2a x ⇒bx−2 ay=0)

The equation of the line joining origin and Q(a/3,2b/3) is

y – 0 = (2 b/3−0)/(a /3−0)( x−0)

y=2b /a x ⇒ 2 bx−ay =0
Two-Point Form

To find the equation of the straight line having given two distinct
points on the line.

Let a non-vertical line passes through two distinct points A(x1, y1) and
B(x2, y2).

Let P(x, y) be a general point on the line.

Since the line passes through A, B and P, we have

( y 2− y 1 )/(x 2−x 1)=( y − y 1)/( x −x1 )

Slope of AB = slope of AP.

y− y 2=( y − y 1)/( x −x1 )( x 2−x 1)

This is the required equation of the line.

y− y 2=( y 2− y 1)/( x 2−x 1)( x −x2 )

The equation of the line passing through the points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) can also be expressed as

The equations y− y 2=( y − y 1)/( x −x1 )( x 2−x 1) and y− y 2=( y 2− y 1)/( x 2−x 1)( x −x2 ) appears to
be distinct, but these equations become identical, when expressed in the form ax + by + c = 0.

3.2.2 Symmetric form, normal form, general form

Symmetric form:

To find the equation of a straight line having given one point on the line and its inclination.
Let a non-vertical line passes through the point A(x1, y1) and having inclination θ i.e., making an
angle θ with the positive direction of x-axis.

Let P(x, y) be a general point on the line. Let AP = r.

∠ PAD=∠ PMB=θ From △ APD , we have

■(cos ⁡θ= AD / AP=BC / AP=(OC−OB) / AP=(x−x 1)/r @sin ⁡θ=PD / AP=( PC −CD)/ AP=( PC −AB)/ AP=(

■(( x−x 1 )/(cos ⁡θ)=r  and ( y − y 1)/(sin ⁡θ)=r .@(x−x 1 )/(cos ⁡θ)=( y − y 1)/( sin ⁡θ)=r  . This is the required equ

Example:

Let us find the equation of the straight line which passes through the point (2, 9) and making an
angle of 45° with x-axis. Let us aalso find the points on the line which are at the distance of (i) 2
units (ii) 5 units from (2, 9).

Here given point, ( x 1 , y 1 )=(2,9) and θ=〖 45〗 . The equation of the line in the symmetrie form is
¿

( x−x 1) /(cos ⁡θ)=( y− y1 )/(sin ⁡θ)=r n where ¿ 4 r ' is the distance between ( x , y ) and ( x 1 , y 1 ).

( x−2)/¿

(1) implies √ 2(x−2)=√ 2( y−9)⇒ x− y +7=0. This is the required equation.

(1) ⇒ x=2+1/√ 2r r , y =9+1/√ 2 r
(i) Let r =2. □( ) ∴(2)⇒ x =2+ 1/√ 2 ×2=2+ √ 2 and y=9+1/√ 2 ×2=9+√ 2.
∴ The point (2+√ 2 ,9+ √ 2) is on the line and is at a distance of 2 units from (2,9).
(ii) Let r =5. □( )∴ □()(1)⇒ x=2+1 /√ 2 ×5 and y=9+1/√ 2 ×5.
∴ The point (2+5 /√ 2,9+5/√ 2) is on the lise and is at a distance of 5 units from (2,9).

Normal Form:

To find the equation of the straight line on which the length of the perpendicular from the origin
and the angle which this perpendicular makes with the x-ails are given.

Let l be a non-vertical straight line on which the length of perpendicular from the origin is p and this
perpendicular makes an angle α (≠ 0) with the positive direction of x-axis.
∠ KAX =〖180 〗∘−∠ OAK =〖180 〗∘−(〖90 〗¿ −α )=〖90 〗∘ +α .
∴ Slope of l=tan ⁡(〖 90 〗¿ +α )=−cot ⁡α

■(  Also  ∧OM =OK ⋅OM /OK = p cos ⁡α @∧MK =OK ⋅ MK /OK = p  sin α . @∴ □()∧K =( p cos ⁡α , P sin ⁡α ))

Let P( x , y ) be a general point on the line.

∴ Slope of l=¿ slope of KP

⇒−cot ⁡α =( y− p sin ⁡α ) /( x− p cos ⁡α) ⇒−(cos ⁡α )/(sin ⁡α )=( y− p sin ⁡α )/( x− p cos ⁡α )
⇒−x cos ⁡α + p cos 2 ⁡α = y sin ⁡α −p sin 2 ⁡α ⇒ x cos ⁡α + y sin ⁡α= p( sin2 ⁡α+cos 2 ⁡α)
⇒ x cos ⁡α + y sin ⁡α =p . This is the required equation of the line.

Example:

If p be the measure of the perpendicular segment from the origin on the line whose intercepts on the
axes are a and b, show that I /D 2=1/a x +1 /b 2 .

Let the given line cuts the axes in A and B.

OA=a and OB=b .

Let ∠ AOK=α □ ()∴ ∠ KOB=〖 90 〗°−α .

ln ⁡Δ OAK , □ () OK /OA =cos ⁡α i.e., P/a=cos ⁡α .
ln ⁡Δ OBK , □ () OK /OB =cos ⁡( 〖90 〗¿ −α ) i.e., P/b=sin ⁡α .
∴(P/a)2 +( P /b)2=cos2 ⁡α + sin2 ⁡α =1⇒ p2 /a 2+ p2 /b 2=1 i.e, 1/ p2=1/a 2+1/〖 b 〗2.

3.3 Intersection of two straight lines, concurrency of lines, angle between

straight lines, parallel and perpendicular lines, perpendicular distance
formula.
 Intersection of two given lines

Two lines a 1 x+ b1 y +c 1=0 and

a 2 x+ b 2 y + c 2=0 are

(i) Intersecting if a 1 /a 2 ≠ b1 /b 2

(ii) Parallel and distinct if a 1 /a 2=b1 /b 2 ≠ c 1 /c 2

(iii)Coincident if a 1 /a 2=b1 /b 2=c 1 /c 2

Angle between two lines

The angle θ between the two lines having slopes m1 and m2 is given by,

tan ⁡θ=±((m1−m2))/(1+m2 m2 )

If we take the acute angle between two lines, then tan θ = ¿( m1−m2 )/(1+m 1 m2 )∨¿

Parallel Lines

Two lines are parallel if their slopes m1 and m2 arc equal i.e., m1 = m2.

Lines a 1 x+ b1 y +c 1=0 and a 2 x+ b 2 y + c 2=0 are parallel if a 1 /a 2=b1 /b 2

Perpendicular Lines

The lines are perpendicular if product of their slopes m1 and m2 is - I i.e., m1 m 2=−1.

Lines a 1 x +b 1 y+ c 1=0∧a2 x +b 2 y+ c 2=0 are perpendicular if a1 a 2+b 1 b 2=0.

Concurrency of three lines

Three straight lines are said to be concurrent if they pass through a point i.e., they meet at a point.

Thus, if three lines are concurrent the point of intersection of two lines lies on the third line.

Let the equations of the three concurrent straight lines be,

a 1 x+ b1 y +c 1=0 … … … … … .(i)

a 2 x+ b 2 y + c 2=0 … … … … …. (ii)∧¿

a 3 x+ b 3 y+ c 3=0 … … … … … .(iii)

The point of intersection of the lines (i) and (ii) must satisfy the third equation.
Suppose the equations (i) and (ii) of two intersecting lines intersect at P(x1, y1). Then (x1, y1) will
satisfy both the equations (i) and (ii).

Therefore,a 1 x 1+b 1 y 1+c 1=0 and

a 2 x 1+b 2 y 1+ c 2=0

Solving the above two equations by using the method of cross-multiplication, we get,

x 1 /(b1 c 2−b 2 c i )= y 1 /(c 1 d 2−c 2 d 1)=1 /(a1 b2−d2 b1 )

Therefore, x1 = (b 1 c 2−b 2 c 1 )/(a1 b2 −a3 b1 ) and

y1 = (c 1 a2−c2 a1 )/(a1 b2 −a2 b1) , a1b2 - a2b1≠ 0

Therefore, the required co-ordinates of the point of intersection of the lines (i) and (ii) are

((b1 c 2−b2 c 1)/( aa b y −a z b 2) ,(c 1 d 1−c 2 a1)/ (ak b2−ag b 2)) , a 1 b 2−a 2 b 1 ≠0

Since the straight lines (i), (ii) and (ii) are concurrent, hence (x1, y1) must satisfy the equation (iii).

Therefore,

a 3 x 1+b 3 y 1+c 3=0

⇒ a 3((b 1 c 2−b 2 c 1 )/(a1 b2 −a2 b1))+b3 ((c 1 a2−c 2 a1) /(a1 b2−a2 b1))+c 3=0

⇒ a3(b1c2 - b2c1) + b3(c1a2 - c2a1) + c3(a1b2 - a2b1) = 0

¿ ■(a1∧b 1∧c 1 @ a2∧b2∧c 2 @a3 ∧b3∧c 3)∨¿ 0

This is the required condition of concurrence of three straight lines.

Perpendicular distance formula:

The shortest distance from a point P to a line C is the perpendicular distance, which is the distance p
in the below diagram . There is a simple formula for this perpendicular distance.

Perpendicular Distance Formula:

The perpendicular distance p from the point (x1, y1) to the lineax +by +c=0is,

p=(∣ax 1 +b( y ) +d )/ √( a2 +bi )

1

Notice that the numerator is the point (x 1, y1) substituted into |ax +by + c|. The line must be
rearranged into general form before the formula can be applied.

Problem:

1. Let us find the equation of the straight line passing through the points (4, 2) and (- 2, 8).

Solution:
Let A = (4, 2) and B = (- 2, 8).

The equation of the line passing through (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) is y - y1 = ( y 2− y 1 )/(x 2−x 1)( x− x1 )

∴ The equation of the required line is y=2=( 8−2)/(−2−4)( x −4)

( Here x 1=4 , y 1=2, x 2=−2 , y 2=8)

Y −2=−1.(x−4)∨x + y−6=0.

2. Let us find the equations of the sides of the triangle whose vertices are (-1, 8), (4, - 2) and (- 5, -
3). Let us also find the equation of the median through (- 1, 8).

Solution:
Let the vertices of the triangle be A(- 1, 8), B(4, - 2) and C(- 5, - 3).

Equation of side AB.

The required equation is y=8=(−2−8)/(4−(−1))(x=(−1))

Using y− y 1=( y 2− y 1)/(x 2−x 1 )( x−x1 )

⇒ □( ) y−8=(−10)/5(x +1)
⇒ 2 x+ y−6=0.

Equation of side BC. The required equation is y−(−2)=(−3−(−2))/(−5−4)=(x−4 )

y +2=(−1)/(−9)( x−4)

⇒ 9 y +18=x−4

⇒ x−9 y −22=0

Equation of side CA. The required equation is y-(-3) = (8−(−3))/(−1−(−5)) = (x - (-5))

⇒ y +3=11/4 ( x +5)

⇒ 4 y +12=11 x +55

⇒ 11 x−4 y +43=0

Equation of median through A. Let D be the mid-point of BC.

D=((4+(−5))/2 ,(−2+(−3))/2)=(−1/2 ,−5 /2)

The equation of AD i.e., the median through A is y - 8 = (−5 /2−8)/(−1/ 2 — 1)(x — 1)

y−8=(−21)/1( x +1)

y−8=−21 x−21

21 x+ y +13=0.

3. Let us find whether the lines 2 x−3 y+ 5=0 , 3 x+ 4 y −7=0

¿ 9 x−5 y +8=0 are concurrent.

Solution:
We know that if the equations of three straight lines
a 1 x+ b1 y +c 1=0 , a 2 x+ b 2 y +c 2=0∧a 3 x+ b 3 y+ c 3=0 are concurrent then,

¿ ■(a1∧b 1∧c 1 @ a2∧b2∧c 2 @a3 ∧b3∧c 3)∨¿ 0

The given lines are2 x−3 y+ 5=0 , 3 x+ 4 y −7=0∧9 x−5 y +8=0

¿ ■(2∧−3∧5 @3∧4∧−7 @ 9∧−5∧8)∨¿

We have
¿ 2(32−35)−(−3)(24 +63)+ 5(−15−36)

¿ 2(−3)+3(87)+5 (−51)

¿−6+261−255

=0

Therefore, the given three straight lines are concurrent.

4. Let us find the perpendicular distance from the point P( -2, 5) to the line y = 2x -1.

Solution:
The line in general form is 2 x− y−I =0 ,

(∣ ax1 +by 1 +d )/ √ (a1 +b I )¿ ¿ (Substitute P(−2,5) into ├ 2 x − y−1. ¿

¿ 10/√ 5× √ 5 /√ 5 □ () (Rationalise the denominator.)

¿(10 √ 5)/5

¿2√5.

Perpendicular distance

3.3.1 Conversion of general form of equation to the various forms

Conversion Into Slope-Intercept Form

We are given a first degree equation in x and y as Ax + By + C = O

Are you able to find slope and y-intercept ?

Yes, indeed, if we are able to put the general equation in slope-intercept form. For this purpose,

let us re-arrange the given equation as.

Ax + By + C = 0 as

By = –Ax – C

Or y=−A /B x−C /B (Provided B≠ 0)

which is the required form. Hence, the slope = , y - intercept = −C / B

Conversion Into Intercept Form

Suppose the given first degree equation in x and y is

Ax +By + C = 0 ..............(1)

In order to convert (1) in intercept form, we rearrange it as− A /B

Ax + By = -C

Or

Ax/(−C)+By /(−C)=1

Or

x /((−C / A))+ y /((−C /B))=1

(Provided A ≠ 0 and B ≠ 0)

which is the required converted form. It may be noted that intercept on x-axis = −C / A and
intercept on y - axis = −C / B

Conversion Into Perpendicular Form

Let the general first degree equation in x and y be

Ax+ By+C=0..............(1)

We will convert this general equation in perpendicular form. For this purpose let us re-write the

given equation (i) as Ax+ By=−C

Multiplying both sides of the above equation by λ, we have

λAx+ λ By=− λC ..............(2)

Let us choose λ such that (λA)2 + (λB)2 = 1

Or λ=1/√ (( A 2+ B2 ))

Substituting this value o λ in (2), we have

Ax/√ ((A 2 +B 2))+ By / √ (( A 2+ B2 ))=−C/ √((A 2 +B 2)) ........(iii)

This is required conversion of (i) in perpendicular form. Two cases arise When C is negative or
positive.

(i) If C < 0, the equation (ii) is the required form.

(ii) If C > 0, the R. H. S. of the equation of (iii) is negative.

∴We shall multiply both sides of the equation of (iii) by –1.

∴The required form will be,

− Ax/√ (( A 2 +B 2))−By/ √((A 2 +B 2))=C /√(( A2 + B2 ))

Thus, length of perpendicular from the origin = C /√(( A2 + B2))

Inclination of the perpendicular with the positive direction of x-axis,

is given by cos θ =± A/ √(( A 2 +B 2)) or sinθ=± B/√ (( A 2+ B2 ))

where the upper sign is taken for C > 0 and the lower sign for C < 0. If C = 0, the line passes through
the origin and there is no perpendicular from the origin on the line.

Problems:

1. Let us convert the equation x +7 y – 4=0 to the slope – intercept form.

Solution :
The given equation is

x +7 y – 4=0

7 y=– x+ 4
or

y=−1/7 x + 4/ 7

Which is the converted form of the given equation in slope-intercept form.

2. Let us find the slope and y intercept of the line x + 4y – 3 = 0.

Solution :
The given equation is,

x +4 y – 3=0

¿ 4 y=– x +3

Or y=−1/4 x +3/4

Comparing it with slope-intercept form, we have,

slope =−1/4 , y – intercept =3/ 4

3. Let us reduce 3x + 5y = 7 into the intercept form and find its intercepts on the axes.

Solution :
The given equation is

3 x+ 5 y =7

or, 3/7 x +5/7 y=1

or, x /(7 /3)+ y /(7/5)=1

∴The x - intercept =7 /3 and, y - intercept = 7 /5

4. Let us find x and y- intercepts for the line 3 x – 2 y =5.

Solution :
The given equation is

3 x−2 y=5
or, 3/5 x−2/5 y=1

or, x /(5 /3)+ y /((−5)/2)=1

Thus, the required x - intercept = 5/3

and y-intercept = (−5)/2

5. Let us convert the equation x +√ 3 y +7=0into perpendicular form.

Solution :
The equation of given line is x +√ 3 y +7=0............(I)

Comparing (i) with general equation of straight line, we have

A = 1 and B = 3

∴ √ (( A 2+ B 2))=2

Dividing equation (i) by 2, we have,

x /2+ √ 3 /2 y +7 /2=0

Or, (−1/2) x +(−√ 3 /2) y−7/2=0

¿ , x cos ⁡4 π /3+ y sin ⁡4 π /3=7 /2

3.4 General equation of a circle and its characteristics.

Circle

It is the set of all points in a plane that lie a fixed distance from a fixed point. The fixed distance is
called the radius and the fixed point is called the center of the circle.

General Form of the Equation of a Circle

Consider the equation of a circle in general form is,

x 2+ y 2+2 gx+ 2 fy +c =0 ...................(I)

Where g, f, c are any constant values.

If we rearrange the terms of the above equation (1) of a circle, we have

x 2+ 2 gx + y 2+ 2 fy +c =0- - - (2)

In this equation we use the method of completing squares, so for this we need to add g 2 and f2 on
both sides of the equation (ii). i.e.,

x 2+ 2 gx + g2+ y 2+ 2 fy+ f 2+ c=g2 + f 2

⇒ 〖(x + g)〗2 +〖( y +f ) 〗2=g2 +f 2−c

⇒ [ x−(−g)]2 +[ y −(−f )]2=[√(g2 + f 2−c )]2 ¿

Comparing this equation of a circle with the standard equation of a circle (x−h) 2 + (y−k)2 = r2 and we
get the radius as,

√ (g2 + f 2−c )

and centre (−g,−f).

This shows that the equation x 2+ y 2+2 gx+ 2 fy +c =0 represents a circle with center (−g,−f) and
radius √ (g2 + f 2−c ). This is called the general equation of a circle.

Characteristics of Circles

Special names are given to geometric figures that lie on or inside circles. Among these geometric
figures are arcs, chords, sectors, and segments.

Arc

The arc of a circle consists of two points on the circle and all the points on the circle lie between
those two points. It's like a segment that was wrapped partway around a circle. An arc is measured
not by its length (although it can be, of course) but most often by the measure of the angle whose
vertex is the center of the circle and whose rays intercept the endpoints of the arc. Hence an arc
can be anywhere from 0 to 360 degrees. Below an arc is pictured.

The arc above contains points A, B, and all the points between them. Every pair of endpoints
defines two arcs. An arc whose measure is less than 180 degrees is called a minor arc. An arc whose
measure is greater than 180 degrees is called a major arc. An arc whose measure equals 180
degrees is called a semicircle, since it divides the circle in two. Every pair of endpoints on a circle
either defines one minor arc and one major arc, or two semicircles. Only when the endpoints are
endpoints of a diameter is the circle divided into semicircles. From this point on, unless otherwise
mentioned, when arcs are discussed we may assume the arc is a minor arc.

Major arc, minor arc, and semicircle

A central angle is an angle whose vertex is the center of a circle. Any central angle intercepts the
circle at two points, thus defining an arc. The measure of a central angle and the arc it defines are
congruent.

A central angle and the arc it defines

Chord

A chord is a segment whose endpoints are on a circle. Thus, a diameter is a special chord that
includes the center.

A chord
Chords have a number of interesting properties. Every chord defines an arc whose endpoints are
the same as those of the chord. For example, a diameter and semicircle are a chord and arc that
share the same endpoints.

The union of a chord with a central angle forms a triangle whose sides are the chord and the two
radii that lie in the rays that make up the angle. This kind of triangle is always an isosceles triangle.
Also, the diameter perpendicular to a given chord also the perpendicular bisector of that chord.
These are illustrated below.

Properties of chords

Sectors and Segments

Central angles and chords also define certain regions within a circle. These regions are called sectors
and segments. A sector of a circle is the region enclosed by the central angle of a circle and the
circle itself. A segment of a circle is the region enclosed by a chord and the arc that the chord
defines. A given segment is always a subregion of the sector defined by the central angle that
intersects the circle at the endpoints of the chord that defines the given segment.

A sector and a segment of a circle

The sector is the region shaded on the left. The rays of the central angle DCE and the arc DE enclose
the sector. The segment of the circle, which is shaded in on the right side of the circle, is bounded
by the chord AB and the arc AB. Were the central angle ACB to be drawn, a sector would be defined
that would include all of the segment created by the chord AB.

3.4.1 To find the equation of a circle, given:* Centre and radius,* Three points lying on it,*
Coordinates of end points of a diameter

Equation of a Circle, Centre (0, 0) and Radius r

A circle is a set of points (a locus) which are equidistant from a fixed point called the 'centre'. The
distance from the centre to any point on the circle is called the 'radius'. On the right is a circle with
centre (0, 0), radius r and (x, y) any point on the circle.

Distance between (0, 0) and (x, y) equals the radius,

∴ □ ()√ ((x −0)2+( y−0)2 )=r√ (x 2+ y 2)=r

X2 + y2 = r2 (square both sides)

Hence, x2 + y2 = r2 is said to be the equation of the circle.

Equation of a circle, centre (0, 0) and radius r, is x2 + y2 = r2.

Two quantities are needed to find the equation of a circle:

1. Centre

2. Radius

If the centre is (0, 0), the equation of the circle will be of the form x 2+ y 2=r 2

Circle Determined by Three Conditions:

From the general form of the circle,

x 2+ y 2+2 gx+ 2 fy+c =0

We see that there are three effective constants g, f and c. In the general form three conditions can
be imposed upon them which will determine a circle, unique or otherwise.

Circle Through Three Points:

If we substitute the coordinates of any point, we get three linear equations, in the three unknowns,
which may be solved simultaneously for g, f and c. By substituting these values in general form we
get the equation of the circle.

Circles Tangent to Line:

Instead of specifying that the circle pass through certain points we may require that it is tangent to
certain line or that its centre lie on a given line. Combinations of point and line conditions may be
used to determine a circle (or circles).

Circle Through Three Points:

If we substitute the coordinates of any point, we get three linear equations, in the three unknowns,
which may be solved simultaneously for g, f and c. By substituting these values in general form we
get the equation of the circle.

Example:

Let us find the equation of the circle with center (-3, 2) and radius 2 and sketch its graph.

Solution
Here the center is (c, d) = (-3, 2) and the radius is r = 2, so the equation of the circle is

( x−c)2+( y −d)2=r 2

[ X−(−3)]2 +( y −2)2 =22

( x +3)2+( y−2)2=4.

Equation of a Circle through three points

Consider the general equation a circle is given by,

x 2+ y 2+2 gx+ 2 fy+c =0

If the given circle is passing through three non-collinear points, A(x 1,y1), B(x2,y2) and C(x3,y3), then
these points must satisfy the general equation of a circle. Now put the above three points in the
given equation of a circle, i.e.:

x 21+ y 21+2 g x 1+2 f y 1 +c=0 …(i)x 22+ y 22+2 g x 2+2 f y 2 +c =0 …(ii)x 23+ y 23+ 2 g x 3+ 2 f y 3+ c=0 … (iii)

To evaluate the equation of the required circle, we must the find the values of g,f,c from the above
equations (i), (ii) and (iii), and put these values back in the general equation of a circle. Using this
method of solving simultaneous equations we can also use methods of a matrix like Cramer’s Rule.

Example:

Let us find the equation of a circle through three non-collinear points (1,2), (2,3) and (3,1).

Solution:
Consider the required equation of a circle in general form as,

x 2+ y 2+2 gx+ 2 fy +c =0 - - - (iv)

Since the given points (1,2), (2,3) and (3,1) lie on the circle, putting these points in the above
equation of a circle (iv) becomes for these three points:

5+2g+4f+c=0 - - - (v)

13+4g+6f+c=0 - - - (vi)

10+6g+2f+c=0 - - - (vii)

First, by solving equations (v) and (vi) and by subtracting equation (vi) and (v) we get the new
equation as

8 + 2g + 2f=0 .......(ix)

Also by solving equations (iv) and (vii) and by subtracting equation (vi) and (vii) we get the new
equation as,
3 − 2g + 4f = 0....(x)

Now we solve equations (ix) and (x), and we the values of g and f as f = −11/6 and g = −13/6. We put
these calculated values in equation (v) so we have the value of c = 203.

Now we put all these three values in the first equation (iv) to get the required equation of a circle

x 2+ y 2+2(−13/6) x +2(−11/6) y +20 /3=0

3 x 2+3 y 2−13 x−11 y +20=0

passing through three non-collinear points.

Coordinates of end points of a diameter

Let A(x1,y1) and B(x2,y2) be the end points of the diameter of the circle as shown in the below
diagram.

Let P(x,y) be any point of the circle. Connecting the points A and B with the point P makes an angle
90∘between them. First we find the slopes of the lines PA and PB as:

Slope of the line PA = ( y− y 1)/(x−x 1 )

Slope of the line PB = ( y− y 2)/( x−x 2 )

Since m∠APB = 90, the lines PA and PB are perpendicular to each other. Therefore, the product of
their slopes is −1. i.e.:

( y− y 1)/( x−x 1 )×( y− y 2)/( x−x 2 )=−1⇒ ( y− y 1 )( y− y 2 )/(x−x 1)(x−x 2 )=−1

( y− y 1)( y− y 2)=−(x−x 1)(x−x 2 )

( x−x 1)( x −x2 )+( y − y 1)( y − y 2)=0

This is the equation of the circle through the extremities (ends) of its diameter. In order to find the
centre and radius of this circle, we simplify the above equation of a circle as follows:
x 2−x 1 x−x 2 x + x 1 x 2 + y 2− y 1 y− y 2 y+ y 1 y 2=0 x 2+ y 2−( x 1 + x 2) x−( y 1 + y 2 ) y + x 1 x 2 + y 1 y 2 =0

Comparing this equation with the general equation of a circle, we have

g=−( x 1 + x 2)/2 , f =−( y 1 + y 2)/2 , c=x 1 x 2 + y 1 y 2

Therefore, the centre of the circle is given by,

(-g,-f) = (( x1 + x 2) /2 ,( y 1 + y 2 )/2)

The radius of the circle is given by,

r =√ (g 2+ f 2−c)=√((−( x1 + x 2) /2)2 +(−( y 1 + y 2)/2)2−(x 1 x 2 + y 1 y 2))

⇒ r −√ ((( x 1+ x 2 )2+( y 1 + y 2)2−4( x1 x2 + y 1 y 2))/4)

⇒ r =√ (x 21+ x 22 +2 x1 x 2+ y 21 + y 22 +2 y 1 y 2−4 x 1 x 2−4 y 1 y 2 )/2

⇒ r =√ ((x 1−x 2 )2+( y 1− y 2 )2)/2

Example:

Let us find the equation of a circle through the ends (5,7)and (1,3)of its diameter. Also find the
centre and radius.

Solution:
The equation of the circle through the ends points of its diameter is

( x−x 1)( x−x 2)+( y− y 1)( y− y 2)=0

Here from the given points we have values x1=5,x2=1,y1=7,y2=3

Now substitute these values of the given points in the above equation of a circle as

( x−5)(x−1)+( y −7)( y−3)=0 ⇒ x 2−6 x +5+ y 2−10 y +21=0⇒ x 2 + y 2−6 x−10 y +26=0

The centre of the circle is (( x ‾ 1+ z2 )/2 ,( y 1+ t 2 )/2)=(( s+ 1)/2 ,(7+3)/2)=(3,5)

The radius of the circle is,

r =√ ((x 1−x 2)2 +( y 1− y 2)2 )/2−√ (( 5−1)2+(7−3)2)/2=(4 √ 2)/2=2 √ 2