SUBJECT CODE: MATH116

SUBJECT NAME: Analytic Geometry (Integrated in Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists)
EDITOR/S: Jeremy Lozo
EDIT DATE: June 06, 2019

ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

Analytic Geometry

Analytic Geometry is a branch of algebra that is used to model geometric objects - points,
(straight) lines, and circles being the most basic of these. Analytic geometry is a great invention of
Descartes and Fermat.
In plane analytic geometry, points are defined as ordered pairs of numbers, say, (x,
y), while the straight lines are in turn defined as the sets of points that satisfy linear equations, see
the excellent expositions by D. Pedoe or D. Brannan et al. From the view of analytic geometry,
geometric axioms are derivable theorems. For example, for any two distinct points (x1, y1) and (x2,
y2), there is a single line ax + by + c = 0 that passes through these points. Its coefficients a, b, c can
be found (up to a constant factor) from the linear system of two equations

ax1 + by1 + c = 0
ax2 + by2 + c = 0,

or directly from the determinant equation

However, no axiomatic theory may escape using undefined elements. In Set Theory that
underlies much of mathematics and, in particular, analytic geometry, the most fundamental
notion of set remains undefined.
Geometry of the three-dimensional space is modeled with triples of numbers (x, y, z) and
a 3D linear equation ax + by + cz + d = 0 defines a plane. In general, analytic geometry provides a
convenient tool for working in higher dimensions.
 Within the framework of analytic geometry one may (and does) model non-
Euclidean geometries as well. For example, in plane projective geometry a point is a triple
of homogenous coordinates (x, y, z), not all 0, such that

(tx, ty, tz) = (x, y, z),

for all t ≠ 0, while a line is described by a homogeneous equation

ax + bx + cz = 0.

In analytic geometry, conic sections are defined by second degree equations:

ax² + bxy + cy² + dx + ey + f = 0.

That part of analytic geometry that deals mostly with linear equations is called Linear Algebra.
Cartesian analytic geometry is geometry in which the axes x = 0 and y = 0 are perpendicular.
The components of n-tuple x = (x1, ..., xn) are known as its coordinates. When n = 2 or n = 3, the
first coordinates is called abscissa and the second ordinate.

In the (x,y)(x,y) coordinate system we normally write the xx-axis horizontally, with positive
numbers to the right of the origin, and the yy-axis vertically, with positive numbers above the
origin. That is, unless stated otherwise, we take "rightward'' to be the positive xx-direction and
"upward'' to be the positive yy-direction. *** (Horizontal or X-axis or abscissa) (Vertical or
Y-axis or Ordinate)

We use the word "quadrant'' for each of the four regions into which the plane is divided by the
axes: the first quadrant is where points have both coordinates positive, or the "northeast'' portion
of the plot, and the second, third, and fourth quadrants are counted off counterclockwise, so the
second quadrant is the northwest, the third is the southwest, and the fourth is the southeast.
Lines
If we have two points A(x1,y1) and B(x2,y2), then we can draw one and only one line
through both points. By the slope of this line we mean the ratio of Δy to Δx. The slope is often
denoted m: m=Δy/Δx=(y2−y1)/(x2−x1). For example, the line joining the points (1,−2) and (3,5) has
slope (5+2)/(3−1)=7/2.

Example 1.1.1 According to the 1990 U.S. federal income tax schedules, a head of household paid
15% on taxable income up to $26050. If taxable income was between $26050 and $134930, then,
in addition, 28% was to be paid on the amount between $26050 and $67200, and 33% paid on the
amount over $67200 (if any). Interpret the tax bracket information (15%, 28%, or 33%) using
mathematical terminology, and graph the tax on the y-axis against the taxable income on the x-
axis.

The percentages, when converted to decimal values 0.15, 0.28, and 0.33, are the slopes of the
straight lines which form the graph of the tax for the corresponding tax brackets. The tax graph is
what's called a polygonal line, i.e., it's made up of several straight line segments of different slopes.
The first line starts at the point (0,0) and heads upward with slope 0.15 (i.e., it goes upward 15 for
every increase of 100 in the x-direction), until it reaches the point above x=26050. Then the graph
"bends upward,'' i.e., the slope changes to 0.28. As the horizontal coordinate goes from x=26050
to x=67200, the line goes upward 28 for each 100 in the x-direction. At x=67200 the line turns
upward again and continues with slope 0.33. See figure 1.1.1.

Figure 1.1.1. Tax vs. income.

The most familiar form of the equation of a straight line is: y=mx+b. Here m is the slope of the line:
if you increase x by 1, the equation tells you that you have to increase y by m. If you increase x by
Δx, then y increases by Δy=mΔx. The number b is called the y-intercept, because it is where the
line crosses the y-axis. If you know two points on a line, the formula m=(y2−y1)/(x2−x1) gives you
the slope. Once you know a point and the slope, then the y-intercept can be found by substituting
the coordinates of either point in the equation: y1=mx1+b, i.e., b=y1−mx1. Alternatively, one can
use the "point-slope'' form of the equation of a straight line: start with (y−y1)/(x−x1)=m and then
multiply to get (y−y1)=m(x−x1), the point-slope form. Of course, this may be further manipulated
to get y=mx−mx1+y1, which is essentially the "mx+b'' form.

It is possible to find the equation of a line between two points directly from the relation
(y−y1)/(x−x1)=(y2−y1)/(x2−x1), which says "the slope measured between the point (x1,y1) and the
point (x2,y2) is the same as the slope measured between the point (x1,y1) and any other point
(x,y) on the line.'' For example, if we want to find the equation of the line joining our earlier points
A(2,1) and B(3,3), we can use this formula:
y−1x−2=3−13−2=2,so thaty−1=2(x−2),i.e.,y=2x−3.
Of course, this is really just the point-slope formula, except that we are not computing m in a
separate step.

The slope m of a line in the form y=mx+b tells us the direction in which the line is pointing. If m is
positive, the line goes into the 1st quadrant as you go from left to right. If m is large and positive,
it has a steep incline, while if m is small and positive, then the line has a small angle of inclination.
If m is negative, the line goes into the 4th quadrant as you go from left to right. If m is a large
negative number (large in absolute value), then the line points steeply downward; while if m is
negative but near zero, then it points only a little downward. These four possibilities are illustrated
in figure 1.1.2.

Figure 1.1.2. Lines with slopes 3, 0.1, −4, and −0.1.

If m=0, then the line is horizontal: its equation is simply y=b.

There is one type of line that cannot be written in the form y=mx+b, namely, vertical lines. A
vertical line has an equation of the form x=a. Sometimes one says that a vertical line has an
"infinite'' slope.
Sometimes it is useful to find the x-intercept of a line y=mx+b. This is the x-value when y=0. Setting
mx+b equal to 0 and solving for x gives: x=−b/m. For example, the line y=2x−3 through the points
A(2,1) and B(3,3) has x-intercept 3/2.

Example 1.1.2 Suppose that you are driving to Seattle at constant speed, and notice that after you
have been traveling for 1 hour (i.e., t=1), you pass a sign saying it is 110 miles to Seattle, and after
driving another half-hour you pass a sign saying it is 85 miles to Seattle. Using the horizontal axis
for the time t and the vertical axis for the distance y from Seattle, graph and find the equation
y=mt+b for your distance from Seattle. Find the slope, y-intercept, and t-intercept, and describe
the practical meaning of each.

The graph of y versus t is a straight line because you are traveling at constant speed. The line
passes through the two points (1,110) and (1.5,85), so its slope is m=(85−110)/(1.5−1)=−50. The
meaning of the slope is that you are traveling at 50 mph; m is negative because you are traveling
toward Seattle, i.e., your distance y is decreasing. The word "velocity'' is often used for m=−50,
when we want to indicate direction, while the word "speed'' refers to the magnitude (absolute
value) of velocity, which is 50 mph. To find the equation of the line, we use the point-slope
formula:
y−110t−1=−50, so that y=−50(t−1)+110=−50t+160.
The meaning of the y-intercept 160 is that when t=0 (when you started the trip) you were 160
miles from Seattle. To find the t-intercept, set 0=−50t+160, so that t=160/50=3.2. The meaning of
the t-intercept is the duration of your trip, from the start until you arrive in Seattle. After traveling
3 hours and 12 minutes, your distance y from Seattle will be 0.

Ex 1.1.1 Find the equation of the line through (1,1)(1,1) and (−5,−3)(−5,−3) in the
form y=mx+by=mx+b. (answer)

(2/3)x+(1/3)(2/3)x+(1/3)

Ex 1.1.2 Find the equation of the line through (−1,2)(−1,2) with slope −2−2 in the
form y=mx+by=mx+b. (answer)

y=−2xy=−2x

Ex 1.1.3 Find the equation of the line through (−1,1)(−1,1) and (5,−3)(5,−3) in the
form y=mx+by=mx+b. (answer)
(−2/3)x+(1/3)(−2/3)x+(1/3)

Ex 1.1.4 Change the equation y−2x=2y−2x=2 to the form y=mx+by=mx+b, graph the line, and find
the yy-intercept and xx-intercept. (answer)

y=2x+2y=2x+2, 2, −1−1

Ex 1.1.5 Change the equation x+y=6x+y=6 to the form y=mx+by=mx+b, graph the line, and find
the yy-intercept and xx-intercept. (answer)

y=−x+6y=−x+6, 6, 6

Ex 1.1.6 Change the equation x=2y−1x=2y−1 to the form y=mx+by=mx+b, graph the line, and find
the yy-intercept and xx-intercept. (answer)

y=x/2+1/2y=x/2+1/2, 1/21/2, −1−1

Ex 1.1.7 Change the equation 3=2y3=2y to the form y=mx+by=mx+b, graph the line, and find
the yy-intercept and xx-intercept. (answer)

y=3/2y=3/2, yy-intercept: 3/23/2, no xx-intercept

Distance Between Two Points; Circles

Given two points (x1,y1)(x1,y1) and (x2,y2)(x2,y2), recall that their horizontal distance from one
another is Δx=x2−x1Δx=x2−x1 and their vertical distance from one another is Δy=y2−y1Δy=y2−y1.
(Actually, the word "distance'' normally denotes "positive distance''. ΔxΔx and ΔyΔy are {\it
signed\/} distances, but this is clear from context.) The actual (positive) distance from one point
to the other is the length of the hypotenuse of a right triangle with legs |Δx||Δx| and |Δy||Δy|,
as shown in figure 1.2.1. The Pythagorean theorem then says that the distance between the two
points is the square root of the sum of the squares of the horizontal and vertical sides:
As a special case of the distance formula, suppose we want to know the distance of a
point (x,y)(x,y) to the origin. According to the distance formula, this is

√(𝑥 + 0)2 + (𝑦 + 0)2 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑟

A point (x,y)(x,y) is at a distance rr from the origin if and only if √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑟, or, if we square
both sides: 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑟 2 . This is the equation of the circle of radius r centered at the origin. The
special case r =1 is called the unit circle; its equation is 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 1.

Similarly, if 𝐶(ℎ, 𝑘)is any fixed point, then a point (x,y) is at a distance r from the point C if and only
if √(𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = 𝑟 i.e., if and only if
(𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = 𝑟 2

This is the equation of the circle of radius rr centered at the point (h,k)(h,k). For example, the
circle of radius 5 centered at the point (0,−6)(0,−6) has
equation (x−0)2+(y−−6)2=25(x−0)2+(y−−6)2=25, orx2+(y+6)2=25x2+(y+6)2=25. If we expand this
we get x2+y2+12y+36=25x2+y2+12y+36=25 orx2+y2+12y+11=0x2+y2+12y+11=0, but the
original form is usually more useful.

Example 1.2.1 Graph the circle 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 𝑦 2 + 4𝑦 − 11 = 0. With a little thought we convert this
to (𝑥 − 1)2 + (𝑦 + 2)2 − 16 = 0 or (𝑥 − 1)2 + (𝑦 + 2)2 = 16. Now we see that this is the circle
with radius 4 and center (1,−2)(1,−2), which is easy to graph.

Ex 1.2.1 Find the equation of the circle of radius 3 centered at:

a) (0,0)(0,0) d) (0,3)(0,3)
b) (5,6)(5,6) e) (0,−3)(0,−3)
c) (−5,−6)(−5,−6) f) (3,0)(3,0)
(answer)

(a) x^2+y^2=9
(b) (x−5)^2+(y−6)^2=9
(c) (x+5)^2+(y+6)^2=9

Slope

The gradient (also known as slope) of a line is defined as

𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑅𝑖𝑠𝑒
Gradient = 𝐻𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑧𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑅𝑢𝑛

𝑎
In the following diagram, the gradient of the line AB is given by: 𝑏

In general, for the line joining the points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2), we have:
Gradient of a Line Formula

We see from the diagram above, that the gradient (usually written m) is given by:

𝑦2 − 𝑦1
𝑚=
𝑥2 − 𝑥1

Interactive graph - slope of a line

You can explore the concept of slope of a line in the following interactive graph (it's not a fixed
image).

Drag either point A (x1, y1) or point B (x2, y2) to investigate how the gradient formula works. The
numbers will update as you interact with the graph.

Notice what happens to the sign (plus or minus) of the slope when point B is above or below A.
Example

Find the slope of the line joining the points (−4, −1) and (2, −5).

Perpendicular Lines

Perpendicular lines have the property that the product of their slopes is −1.
Mathematically, we say if a line has slope m1 and another line has slopem2 then the lines
are perpendicular if

m1 × m2= −1

In the example at right, the slopes of the lines are 2 and -0.5 and we have:

2 × −0.5 = −1

So the lines are perpendicular.

Opposite Reciprocal

Another way of finding the slope of a perpendicular line is to find the opposite reciprocal of the
slope of the original line.

In plain English, this means turn the original slope upside down and take the negative.

Interactive graph - perpendicular lines

You can explore the concept of perpendicular lines in the following JSXGraph (it's not a fixed
image).

Drag any of the points A, B or C and observe the slopes m1, m2 of the 2 perpendicular lines.
Special Cases

What if one of the lines is parallel to the y-axis?

For example, the line y = 3 is parallel to the x-axis and has slope \displaystyle{0}0. The line x = 3.6 is
parallel to the y-axis and has an undefined slope.

The lines are clearly perpendicular, but we cannot find the product of their slopes. In such a case,
we cannot draw a conclusion from the product of the slopes, but we can see immediately from
the graph that the lines are perpendicular.

The same situation occurs with the x- and y-axes. They are perpendicular, but we cannot calculate
the product of the 2 slopes, since the slope of the y-axis is undefined.
Exercise

A line L has slope m=4.

a) What is the slope of a line parallel to L?

b) What is the slope of a line perpendicular to L?

a) Since parallel lines have the same slope, the slope will be 4.

b) Using m1 × m2= -1, with m1 = 4, we obtain the value for m2:

1
m2 = − 𝑚
1

1
𝑚2 = −
4

Exercise

A line passes through (-3, 9) and (4, 4). Another line passes through (9, -1) and (4, -8). Are the lines
parallel or perpendicular?
The Parabola

Why study the parabola?

The parabola has many applications in situations where:

• Radiation often needs to be concentrated at one point (e.g. radio telescopes, pay TV
dishes, solar radiation collectors); or
• Radiation needs to be transmitted from a single point into a wide parallel beam (e.g.
headlight reflectors).

Here is an animation showing how parallel radio waves are collected by a parabolic antenna. The
parallel rays reflect off the antenna and meet at a point (the red dot, labelled F), called the focus.

Definition of a Parabola

The parabola is defined as the locus of a point which moves so that it is always the same distance
from a fixed point (called the focus) and a given line (called the directrix).

[The word locus means the set of points satisfying a given condition. See some background
in Distance from a Point to a Line.

In the following graph,

• The focus of the parabola is at (0,p).

• The directrix is the line y=−p.
• The focal distance is (Distance from the origin to the focus, and from the origin to the
directrix. We take absolute value because distance is positive.)
• The point (x, y) represents any point on the curve.
• The distance d from any point (x, y) to the focus (0,p) is the same as the distance from
(x, y) to the directrix.
• The axis of symmetry of this parabola is the y-axis.
The Formula for a Parabola - Vertical Axis

Adding to our diagram from above, we see that the distance d=y+p.

Now, using the Distance Formula on the general points (0,p) and x,y), and equating it to our value
d=y+p, we have

√(𝑥 − 0)2 + (𝑦 − 0)2 = 𝑦 + 𝑝

Squaring both sides gives:

(x − 0)2 + (y − p)2 = (y + p)2

Simplifying gives us the formula for a parabola:

x2 = 4py

In more familiar form, with "y = " on the left, we can write this as:

𝑥2
𝑦=
4𝑝

where p is the focal distance of the parabola.

Example - Parabola with Vertical Axis

Sketch the parabola

𝑦 = 2𝑥 2

Find the focal length and indicate the focus and the directrix on your graph.
Parabolas with Horizontal Axis

We can also have the situation where the axis of the parabola is horizontal:

In this case, we have the relation: (not function)

y2 = 4px

[In a relation, there are two or more values of y for each value of x. On the other hand,
a function only has one value of y for each value of x.]

The above graph's axis of symmetry is the x-axis.

In this case, we have the relation: (not function)

y2 = 4px

[In a relation, there are two or more values of y for each value of x. On the other hand,
a function only has one value of y for each value of x.]

The above graph's axis of symmetry is the x-axis.

In the above case, the axis of symmetry is the vertical line through the point (h, k), that is x = h.
If the axis of a parabola is horizontal, and the vertex is at (h, k), the equation becomes

(y − k)2 = 4p(x − h)

Exercise

1. Sketch 𝑥 2 = 14𝑦

Shifting the Vertex of a Parabola from the Origin

This is a similar concept to the case when we shifted the centre of a circle from the origin.

To shift the vertex of a parabola from (0, 0) to (h, k), each x in the equation becomes (x − h) and
each y becomes (y− k).
So if the axis of a parabola is vertical, and the vertex is at (h, k), we have

In the above case, the axis of symmetry is the horizontal line through the point (h, k), that
is y = k.

Conic section: Parabola

All of the graphs in this chapter are examples of conic sections. This means we can obtain each
shape by slicing a cone at different angles.

How can we obtain a parabola from slicing a cone?

We start with a double cone (2 right circular cones placed apex to apex):

If we slice a cone parallel to the slant edge of the cone, the resulting shape is a parabola, as
shown.
The Ellipse

Ellipses with Horizontal Major Axis

Ellipse as a locus

The ellipse is defined as the locus of a point (x,y) which moves so that the sum of its distances
from two fixed points (called foci, or focuses) is constant.

Ellipse with Vertical Major Axis

A vertical major axis means the ellipse will have greater height than width.

If the major axis is vertical, then the formula becomes:

Ellipses with Centre Other Than the Origin

Like the other conics, we can move the ellipse so that its axes are not on the x-axis and y-axis.
We do this for convenience when solving certain problems.

For the horizontal major axis case, if we move the intersection of the major and minor axes to
the point (h, k), we have:
Conic section: Ellipse

How can we obtain an ellipse from slicing a cone?

We start with a double cone (2 right circular cones placed apex to apex):

When we slice one of the cones at an angle to the sides of the cone, we get an ellipse, as seen in
the view from the top (at right).
The Hyperbola

Cooling towers for a nuclear power plant have a hyperbolic cross-section.

[Image source: Flickr.]

A hyperbola is a pair of symmetrical open curves. It is what we get when we slice a pair of vertical
joined cones with a vertical plane.

How do we create a hyperbola?

Take 2 fixed points A and B and let them be 4a units apart. Now, take half of that distance
(i.e. 2a units).

Now, move along a curve such that from any point on the curve,

(distance to A) − (distance to B) =2a units.

The curve that results is called a hyperbola. There are two parts to the curve.

Let's see how this works with some examples.

Applications of Hyperbolas

• Navigation: Ship's navigators can plot their position by comparing GPS signals from
different satellites. The technique involves hyperbolas.

• Physics: The movement of objects in space and of subatomic particles trace out hyperbolas
in certain situations.

• Sundials: Historically, sundials made use of hyperbolas. Place a stick in the ground and trace
out the path made by the shadow of the tip, and you'll get a hyperbola.

• Construction: Nuclear power plant smoke stacks have a hyperbolic cross section as
illustrated above. Such 3-dimensional objects are called hyperboloids.
Example 1

Let the distance between our points A and B be 4 cm. For convenience in our first example, let's
place our fixed points A and B on the number line at (0, 2) and (0, −2), so they are 4 units apart. In
this case, a = 1 cm and 2a = 2 cm.

Now we start tracing out a curve such that P is a point on the curve, and:

distance PB − distance PA= 2 cm.

We start at ( 0,1).

Shown below is one of the points P, such that PB−PA=2.

The equation of our hyperbola

For the hyperbola with a = 1 that we graphed above in Example 1, the equation is given by:

Notice that it is not a function, since for each x-value, there are two y-values.

We call this example a "north-south" opening hyperbola.

General Equation of North-South Hyperbola

For the hyperbola with focal distance 4a (distance between the 2 foci), and passing through the y-
axis at (0, c) and (0, −c), we define

b 2 = c2 − a 2

Applying the distance formula for the general case, in a similar fashion to the above example, we
obtain the general form for a north-south hyperbola:

East-West Opening Hyperbola

By reversing the x- and y-variables in our second example above, we obtain the following equation.

x2 − y2 = 1 (example)

This gives us an "East-West" opening hyperbola, as follows. Our curve passes through -1
and 1 on the x-axis and once again, the asymptotes are the lines y = x and y = −x.
 The general formula for an East-West hyperbola is given by:

Hyperbola with axis not at the Origin

(2) Our hyperbola may not be centred on (0, 0). In this case, we use the following formulas:
Conic section: Hyperbola

How can we obtain a hyperbola from slicing a cone?

We start with a double cone (2 right circular cones placed apex to apex):

When we slice the 2 cones vertically, we get a hyperbola, as shown.

Polar Coordinates

A graph using polar coordinates

For certain functions, rectangular coordinates (those using x-axis and y-axis) are very
inconvenient. In rectangular coordinates, we describe points as being a certain distance along
the x-axis and a certain distance along the y-axis.

But certain functions are very complicated if we use the rectangular coordinate system. Such
functions may be much simpler in the polar coordinate system, which allows us to describe and
graph certain functions in a very convenient way.

Polar coordinates work in much the same way that we have seen in trigonometry (radians and arc
length, where we used r and θ) and in the polar form of complex numbers (where we also
saw r and θ).

Vectors also use the same idea.

In polar coordinates, we describe points as being a certain distance (r) from the pole (the origin)
and at a certain angle (θ) from the positive horizontal axis (called the polar axis).

The coordinates of a point in polar coordinates are written as

Converting Polar and Rectangular Coordinates

The conversion from polar to rectangular coordinates is the same idea as converting rectangular
form to polar form in complex numbers.

[See how to convert rectangular and polar forms in the complex numbers chapter.]

Curves in Polar Coordinates

We'll plot the graphs in this section using a computer. You'll also learn how to sketch some of them
on paper because it helps you understand how graphs in polar coordinates work.
Don't worry about all the difficult-looking algebra in the second part of the answers - it's just there
to demonstrate that polar coordinates are much simpler than rectangular coordinates for these
graphs. We convert them using what we learned in the last section, Polar Coordinates.

Example

Sketch each of the following functions using polar coordinates, and then convert each to an
equation in rectangular coordinates.

Example: r = 2 + 3 sin θ

(This polar graph is called a limacon from the Latin word for "snail".)
Domain and Range of a Function

Definitions of Domain and Range

Domain

The domain of a function is the complete set of possible values of the independent variable.

In plain English, this definition means:

The domain is the set of all possible x-values which will make the function "work", and will
output real y-values.

When finding the domain, remember:

• The denominator (bottom) of a fraction cannot be zero

• The number under a square root sign must be positive in this section
he domain of this function is x≥−4, since x cannot be less than −4. To see why, try out some
numbers less than \displaystyle-{4}−4 (like −10) and some more than −4 (like −2 or 8) in your
calculator. The only ones that "work" and give us an answer are the ones greater than or equal
to −4. This will make the number under the square root positive.

Notes:

1. The enclosed (colored-in) circle on the point (−4,0). This indicates that the domain "starts"
at this point.
2. We saw how to draw similar graphs in section 4, Graph of a Function. For a more advanced
discussion, see also How to draw y^2 = x − 2.

How to find the domain

In general, we determine the domain of each function by looking for those values of the
independent variable (usually x) which we are allowed to use. (Usually we have to avoid 0 on the
bottom of a fraction, or negative values under the square root sign).

Range

The range of a function is the complete set of all possible resulting values of the dependent
variable (y, usually), after we have substituted the domain.

In plain English, the definition means:

The range is the resulting y-values we get after substituting all the possible x-values.

How to find the range

• The range of a function is the spread of possible y-values (minimum y-value to maximum y-
value)
• Substitute different x-values into the expression for y to see what is happening. (Ask
yourself: Is y always positive? Always negative? Or maybe not equal to certain values?)
• Make sure you look for minimum and maximum values of y.
• Draw a sketch! In math, it's very true that a picture isS worth a thousand words.
References

• D. Pedoe, Geometry: A Comprehensive Course, Dover, 1988

• Giannoukos, G., Besas, G., Hictour, V., & Georgas, T. (2016). A study on the role of
computers in adult education. Educational Research and Reviews, Chapter 11.9, pp.
907-923.
• Murray Bourne- Interactive Mathematics – Graphs and Functions & Plane Analytical
Geometry Section - https://www.intmath.com/
• LIST OF FORMULAS FOR ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
www.mathportal.com -
https://www.mathportal.org/formulas/analytic_geometry_formulas.pdf?fbclid=IwAR3ZKqiV
4GfR6G0vkP2NJFBMJ9SYU43O6cm3AVf_ER7QR2V767HsT1Odyq4