Impedance Matching: For High-Frequency Circuit Design Elective

IMPEDANCE MATCHING
for
High-Frequency Circuit Design Elective
by
Michael Tse
September 2003
Contents
• The Problem
• Q-factor matching approach
• Simple matching circuits
L matching circuits
π matching circuits
T matching circuits
Tapped capacitor matching circuits
Double-tuned circuits
• General impedance matching based on two-port circuits
Immittance matrices and hybrid matrices
ABCD matrix and matching
• Propagation equations from ABCD matrix
Michael Tse: Impedance Matching 2

Impedance Matching
• Impedance matching is a major problem in high-
frequency circuit design.
• It is concerned with matching one part of a circuit to

another in order to achieve maximum power transfer
between the two parts.
max power transfer
Circuit 1 Circuit 2 space
max power transfer

The problem
Given a load R, find a circuit that can match the driving
resistance R¢ at frequency w0.
R¢
R
?
R¢
Obviously, the matching circuit must contain L and C in

order to specify the matching frequency.

The Q factor approach to matching
The Q factor is defined as the ratio of stored to dissipated
power 2p ⋅ (max instantaneous energy stored )
Q=
energy dissipated per cycle
In general, a circuit’s reactance is a function of frequency

and the Q factor is defined at the resonance frequency w0 .
X
As we will see later, the Q

factor can be used to modify the
w overall resistance of a circuit at
w0
some selected frequency, thus
achieving a matching condition.

Low Q circuit High Q circuit
X X
w w
w0 w0
w 0 dB w dX
Definition: Q= = 0
2G dw w =w 0 2R dw w =w 0
B = susceptance
X = reactance
It is easily shown that
R = resistance for linear parallel RLC
G = conductance circuits:
Q = w0CR = R/(w0L)
Essential revision (basic circuit theory)
R L C
Resistance (Ω) inductance (H) capacitance (F)
Z 1 = –jX
R jwL = +jX
IMPEDANCE jw C
(Ω)
Resistance (Ω) reactance (Ω) reactance (Ω)
Y 1 = –jB
G jwC = +jB
ADMITTANCE jw L
(S)
Conductance (S) susceptance (S) susceptance (S)
Quality factor (Q factor)
Series:
X 1 G L C
Q= = = wL 1
R RB B Q= Q=
R
R R
wCR
† Parallel: † †
R B R Q = wCR
Q = = RB = R L Q= R C
X G wL
† L or C.
Higher Q means†that it is closer to the ideal
†
Series to parallel conversion
jX 1 1 R - jX R X
Y= = = 2 = - j
Z R + jX R + X 2 R 2 + X 2 R2 + X 2
Z = R + jX R 1 1
= R X
2 +
† ÊXˆ ÊÊ R ˆ 2 ˆ
1+ Á ˜ jÁÁÁ ˜ + 1˜˜
Ë R¯ ËË X ¯ ¯
†
1 1
= +
Ê R(1+ Q2 ) Ê 1 ˆ
1ˆ jX Á 2 + 1˜
jX Á1+ 2 ˜ ËQ ¯
R(1+Q2) Ë Q ¯
or j R' R Ê 1 ˆ
Q j (1+ Q2 ) = jRQÁ 2 + 1˜
† Q † ËQ ¯
†
†
Parallel to series conversion
1 1 G - jB G B
G jB Z= = = 2 = - j
Y G + jB G + B 2 G 2 + B 2 G2 + B2
1 1
Y = G + jB
= G B
† 2 +
Ê Bˆ ÊÊ G ˆ 2 ˆ
1+ Á ˜ jÁÁÁ ˜ + 1˜˜
ËG¯ ËË B ¯ ¯
†
1 1
conductance (S)
= +
G(1+ Q2 ) G(1+ Q2 ) Ê 1 ˆ
jBÁ 2 + 1˜
ËQ ¯
Ê 1 ˆ susceptance (S)
jBÁ1+ 2 ˜
† Ë Q ¯
Ê ˆ
or j G' = j G (1+ Q2 ) = jGQÁ 12 + 1˜
Q Q Ë Q †¯
†
Example: RLC circuit (Recall Year 1 material)
1
Resonant frequency is w 0 =
LC
R L C C
Q factor is Q = R
L
Z drops by 2 (3 dB) at w1 and w2.

1 Ê 1 1 ˆ
Z= w1,2 = w 0 ÁÁ 1+ ± ˜
(1/R) + jwC - ( j /w L) Ë 4Q 2 2Q ˜¯
1
Bandwidth is Dw = w 2 - w1 =
RC
Note: w1 and w2 are called 3dB corner

frequencies. Their geometric mean is w0. For
w1 w0 w2 narrowband cases, their arithmetic mean is
close to w0.

Practical components are lossy!
= C RC Q factor = QC = w0CRC
(unloaded Q factor)
= RL L Q factor = QL = RL/w0L
(unloaded Q factor)
QLC = unloaded Q factor for the paralleled LC components

1 1 1
= + (easily shown)
QLC QC QL

Simple matching circuits
R¢
R
?
R¢
L matching circuit (single LC section)

p matching circuit
T matching circuit

Design of L matching circuits
Series L circuit: Objective: match Yin to R’ at w0
L
Begin with
Yin C R 1
Yi n = jwC +
R + jwL
R È w L ˘
= 2 2
+ jÍw C - 2 2
˙
R + (w L) ÍÎ R + (wL) ˙˚
Obviously, the reactive part is cancelled if we have
L 1 R2
C= 2 where w 0 = - 2 (#)
R + w 20 L2 LC L

Thus, at w = w0, we have a resistance for Yin, which should be set to R’.
R 2 + w 20 L2
R¢ =
R
(
= R 1+ Q2 ) (*)
Here, Q is the Q-factor, which is equal to w0L/R (for series L and R).
So, we can see clearly that Q is modifying R to achieve the matching

condition.
Design procedure:
-Given R and R’, find the required Q from (*).

-Given w0, find the required L from Q = w0L/R .
-From (#), find the required C to give the selected resonant frequency w0.

Shunt L circuit: Begin with
1
L Zi n = jwL +
G + jw C
G È wC ˘
C R = 2 2 2
+ jÍwL - 2 ˙
2 2˚
G +w C Î G +w C
Zin
Reactive part is cancelled when
C 1 G2
L= 2 where w 0 = - (#)
G + w 20 C 2 LC C 2
Finally, the matching condition requires that

1/G R
R¢ = = (*)
1+ (w 0 C /G)2 1+ Q2
Design procedure is similar to the series case.

Other L circuit variations
L C
Series: C R L R
L C
Shunt: C R L R
Exercise: derive design procedure for all other L circuits.

General procedure for designing L circuits
Series L circuit (suitable for R’>R) : R¢ = R(1+ Q2 )

Ê 1 ˆ jR ¢
jX1 jX 2 = - jX 1ÁÁ1+ 2 ˜˜ = -
Ë Q ¯ Q
jX2 R
R¢ Q= 1
X
R
R
Shunt L circuit (suitable for R’<R) : R¢ =
1+ Q2
jX1
jX2 jX 2 = - = - j R¢Q
1
1+ 2
jX1 R Q
R¢
B R
Q= 1 =
G X1

Advantages of L circuits:
• Simple
• Low cost
• Easy to design
Disadvantages of L circuits:
• The value of Q is determined by the ratio of R/R’. Hence,
• there is no control over the value of Q.
• the bandwidth is also not controllable.
Solution: Add an element to provide added flexibility.

fi p circuits and T circuits

p matching circuits
Analysis by decomposing into two L
circuit sections:
jX2
First section (from right):
jB3 jB1 R R
R¢¢ R¢ + jX ¢ R¢ = 2
X ¢ = X 2 - R ¢Q1
1+ Q1
B
Q1 = 1 = B1R
G
jX’ Second section:

j(X2–R’Q1) X ¢ X 2 - R ¢Q1 X
Q2 = = fi 2 = Q1 + Q2
R¢ R¢ R¢
jB3 R¢ R¢¢ = R ¢(1+ Q22 )
R¢¢ R¢ + jX ¢
Q Q
B¢¢ = B3 - 2 fi B3 = 2
R¢ R¢

Impedance transformation in p matching circuits
jX2
jB3 jB1 R
R¢¢ R¢ + jX ¢
R R¢¢
1
1+ Q22
1+ Q12
R¢
Obviously, we have to set Q1 > Q2
if we want to have R”<R.
Likewise, we need Q1 < Q2 if we
want to have R”>R.

General procedure for designing p matching circuits
For R¢¢ < R For R¢¢ > R

1. Select Q1 according to the max Q. 1. Select Q2 according to the max Q.
2. Find R’ using R¢ = R /(1+ Q12 ) 2. Find R’ using R¢ = R¢¢ /(1+ Q22 )

2 R¢¢ 2 R
3. Get Q2 using Q2 = -1 3. Get Q2 using Q1 = -1
R ¢ R ¢
4. Obtain X2 using X2 = R’(Q1 + Q2). 4. Obtain X2 using X2 = R’(Q1 + Q2).
5. B1 = Q1/R 5. B1 = Q1/R
6. B3 = Q2/R” 6. B3 = Q2/R”

T matching circuits
The analysis is similar to the p case.
jX3 jX1
The difference is that R is first raised
jB2 R to R’ by the series reactance, and
R¢¢ R¢ + jX ¢ then lowered to R” by the shunt
reactance.
The design procedure can be

R¢ similarly derived. (Exercise)
1+ Q12 1
R 1+ Q22
R¢¢

General procedure for designing T matching circuits
For R¢¢ > R For R¢¢ < R

1. Select Q1 according to the max Q. 1. Select Q2 according to the max Q.
2. Find R’ using R¢ = R(1+ Q12 ) 2. Find R’ using R¢ = R¢¢(1+ Q22 )

2 R¢ 2 R¢
3. Get Q2 using Q2 = -1 3. Get Q1 using Q1 = -1
R¢¢ R
4. Obtain X1 using X1 = Q1R. 4. Obtain X1 using X1 = Q1R.
5. B2 = (Q1+Q2)/R’ 5. B2 = (Q1+Q2)/R’
6. X3 = Q2R” 6. X3 = Q2R”

Tapped capacitor matching circuit
Ê 1+ Q2 ˆ
p
C1 C2 ÁÁ 2 ˜˜
Ë Qp ¯
L
R
C2 R
1+ Q2p
Q factor
Qp = w 0 C2 R

Ê 1+ Q2 ˆ
p
C1 C2 ÁÁ 2 ˜˜
Ë Qp ¯
R’ L
Q1 = R’/w0L R
R¢ R
1+ Q2p
1+ Q12 1+ Q2p
required
R¢ R R
2
=
1+ Q1 1+ Qp2
fi Qp =
R¢
( )
1+ Q12 - 1

Ê 2 ˆ
1 1 1 Á Qp ˜
C = +
C C1 C2 ÁË1+ Q2p ˜¯
R
R’ L 1+ Q2p
1
For a high Q circuit, w 0 ª
LC
Also, we have the alternative approximation for Q1: Q1 ≈ w0R’C,

which is set to w0 / Dw .
Thus, we can go backward to find all the circuit parameters.

General procedure for designing tapped C circuits
1. Find Q1 from Q1 = w0 / Dw
2. Given R’, find C using C = Q1/ w0R’ = 1 / 2π DwR’
3. Find L using L = 1 / w02C
4. Find Qp using Qp = [ (R/R’)(1+Q12)–1 ]1/2
5. Find C2 from C2 = Qp / w0R
6. Find C1 from C1 = Ceq C2 / (Ceq – C2) where Ceq =
C2(1+ Qp2)/ Qp2

Advantages of π, T and tapped C circuits:
• specify Q factor (sharpness of cutoff)
• provide some control of the bandwidth
Disadvantage:
• no precise control of the bandwidth
For precise specification of bandwidth, use

double-tuned matching circuits.

Double-tuned matching circuits
Specify the bandwidth by two frequencies wm1 and wm2 .
transmission gain GT
w
wm1 wm2
There is a mid-band dip, which can be made small if the pass band is
narrow. Also, large difference in the impedances to be matched can be
achieved by means of galvanic transformer.

The construction of a double-tuned circuit typically includes a real
transformer and two resonating capacitors.
M
• •
RG C1 L11 L22 C2 RL
Transformer turn ratio n and coupling coefficient k are related by
L1 1
n=
k 2 L2 2

Equivalent models:
L22(1–k2)
n:1
• •
RG C1 L11 C2 RL
ideal transformer
Ê1 ˆ
L2’ L11Á 2 -1˜
Ëk ¯
Ê L11 ˆ
RG C1 L11 C2 ’ RL ’
Á 2 ˜R2
Ë k L22 ¯
† Ê L11 ˆ
Á 2 ˜C2
Ë k L22 ¯
†
Exact match is to be achieved at two given frequencies: fm1 and fm2.
L2’
RG C1 L11 R1 R2 C2 ’ RL ’
Observe that:
• R1 resonates at certain frequency, but is always less than RG
• R2 decreases monotonically with frequency
So, if RL is sufficiently small, there will be two frequency

values where R1 = R2.

R2
resistance
R1
f
fm1 fm2
Our objective here is to match RG and RL over a

bandwidth Df centered at fo, usually with an allowable
ripple in the pass band.

General Impedance Matching Based on Two-Port
Parameters
Two-port models
i1 i2
+ +
v1 v2
– –
Idea: we don’t care what is inside, as long as it can be modelled in

terms of four parameters.

Two-port models
i1 i2
+ +
port 1 v1 v2 port 2
– –
z-parameters Èv1 ˘ Èz11 z12 ˘Èi1 ˘ v1 = z11i1 + z12i2

(impedance matrix): Í ˙=Í ˙Í ˙
Îv 2 ˚ Îz21 z22 ˚Îi2 ˚ v 2 = z21i1 + z22i2
y-parameters Èi1 ˘ È y11 y12 ˘Èv1 ˘
(admittance matrix): Í ˙=Í ˙Í ˙ :
Îi2 ˚ Î y 21 y 22 ˚Îv 2 ˚
h-parameters
†
Èv1˘ Èh11 h12 ˘È†i1 ˘ :
(hybrid matrix): Í ˙=Í ˙Í ˙
Îi2 ˚ Îh21 h22 ˚Îv 2 ˚
†
g-parameters È i1 ˘ Èg11 g12 ˘Èv1˘
(hybrid matrix): Í ˙=Í ˙Í ˙
Îv 2 ˚ Îg21 g22 ˚Îi2 ˚
†
†
Finding the parameters
e.g., z-parameters
v1 = z11i1 + z12i2 v1 v
z11 = = 1
v 2 = z21i1 + z22i2 i1 i = 0 i1 port 2 open -circuited
2
v1 v
z12 = = 1
i2 i = 0 i2 port 1 open -circuited
1
†
v2 v2
z21 = =
i1 i2 = 0
i1 port 2 open -circuited
v2 v2
z22 = =
i2 i1 = 0

†
Finding the parameters
e.g., g-parameters
i1 = g11v1 + g12i2 i1 i
g11 = = 1
v 2 = g21v1 + g22i2 v1 i = 0 v1 port 2 open -circuited
2
i1 i1
g12 = =
i2 v1 = 0
i2 port 1 short -circuited
†
v2 v2
g21 = =
v1 i2 = 0
v1 port 2 open -circuited
v2 v2
g22 = =
i2 v1 = 0
i2 port 1 short -circuited

†
Input impedance:
i1 i2
+ +
v1
[Z] ZL v2
– –
Zin
v1 i2 i2
= z11 + z12 Z in = z11 + z12
v1 = z11i1 + z12i2 i1 i1 i1
fi fi
v 2 = z21i1 + z22i2 v2 i1 i1
= -z21 - z22 Z L = -z21 - z22
-i2 i2 i2
† † Ê z12 z21 ˆ
†
fi† Z in = z11 - Á † ˜
Ë Z L + z22 ¯

†
†
Similarly, we can find the input impedance at any port in terms of any
of the two-port parameters, or even a combination of different two-
port parameters.
We will see that the matching problem can be solved by making sure
that both input and output ports are matched.
ZG i1 i2
+
± [Z] ZL v2
–
ZIM1 ZIM2
matching: ZG = ZIM1 and ZIM2 = ZL
image impedances
The ABCD parameters (very useful form)
i1 i2
+ +
v1 [ABCD] v2
– –
Here, voltage and current of port 1 are expressed in terms of those of port 2. So,
this is neither an immittance matrix like Z and Y, nor a hybrid matrix like G and H.
Èv1˘ ÈA B˘È v 2 ˘
Í ˙=Í ˙Í ˙
i
Î 1˚ ÎC D˚Î-i2 ˚
Note: the sign of i2 in the above equation. This sign convention will
make the ABCD matrix very useful for describing cascade circuits.
†

i1 i’ i” i2
+ +
+
v1 [ABCD]1 v’
–
[ABCD]2 v2
– –
Èv1˘ ÈA1 B1 ˘È v' ˘ Èv'˘ È A2 B2 ˘È v 2 ˘

Í ˙=Í ˙Í ˙ Í ˙=Í ˙Í ˙
i C
Î 1˚ Î 1 D1˚Î-i'˚ Îi"˚ ÎC2 D2 ˚Î-i2 ˚
Since –i’ = i”, we have
† Èv1† ˘ ÈA1 B1 ˘È A2 B2 ˘È v 2 ˘
Í ˙=Í ˙Í ˙Í ˙
Î i1 ˚ ÎC1 D1˚ÎC2 D2 ˚Î-i2 ˚
So, if more two-ports are cascaded, the overall ABCD matrix is just
the product of all the ABCD matrices.
†
To find the ABCD parameters, we may apply the same principle:
v1 v1 z11
A= = =
v2 i2 = 0
z21
-v1 -v1 z z -z z
B= = = 11 22 21 12
i2 v i2 port 2 short -circuited z21
2=0
i1 i1 1
C= = =
v2 i2 = 0
z21
-i1 -i1 z22

D= = =
i2 v =0
i2 port 2 short -circuited z21
2
We can show easily that AD – BC = 1 if z12 = z21, i.e., reciprocal circuit.

†

Matching problem
ZG i1 i2
+ +
± v1
–
[ABCD] ZL v2
–
ZIM1
Input image impedance

v1 = Av 2 - Bi2 v1 Av 2 - Bi2
fi Z in = =
i1 = Cv 2 - Di2 i1 Cv 2 - Di2
v2
A +B
-i2
=
† † v
C 2 +D
-i2
AZ L + B
=
CZ L + D
†
ZG i1 i2
+ +
v1
–
[ABCD] v2
–
ZIM2
Output image impedance
v1 = Av 2 - Bi2 v 2 = Dv1 - Bi1 v 2 Dv1 - Bi1

fi fi Z IM2 = =
i1 = Cv 2 - Di2 i2 = Cv1 - Ai1 i2 Cv1 - Ai1
v
D 1 +B
because AD – BC = 1 -i1
=
† † † † v
C 1 +A
-i1
DZG + B
=
CZG + A
†
Under matched conditions,
ZG = ZIM1 and ZL = ZIM2
AZ L + B DZG + B
fi Z IM1 = ZG = and Z IM2 = Z L =
CZ L + D CZG + A
AB DB
† † fi Z IM1 = †
CD
and Z IM2 =
AC
Alternatively, we have
†
† z11 z22
Z IM1 = and Z IM2 =
y11 y 22

†
Note: image impedances are different from input and output impedances.
1. Image impedances do not depend on the load impedance or the source

impedance. They are purely dependent upon the circuit.
z11 z22
Z IM1 = and Z IM2 =
y11 y 22
2. Input impedance (Zin) depend on the load impedance. Output impedance

(Zout)†depends on the source impedance. For example,
Ê z12 z21 ˆ
Z in = z11 - Á ˜
Ë Z L + z22 ¯
Matching conditions:
• Source impedance equals input image impedance
• Load † impedance equals output image impedance

Example
We can easily see that
i1 Za Zc i2
v1
+ + z11 = = Za + Zb
v1 Zb v2
– – i1 1
y11 = =
v1 port 2 short -circuited Z a + Z b Z c
port 1 port 2
v2
z22 = = Zb + Zc
i2 1
y 22 = =
v2 port 1 short -circuited
Zc + Za Zb
Thus, the image impedances are
Z IM1 = (Z a + Z b )(Z a + Z b Z†c ) and Z IM2 = (Z c + Z b )(Z c + Z a Z b )
†
Matching a cascade of circuits
1 2 3 4 ZL
ZIM1 Z’IM1 = ZIM2 Z’IM2 = ZIM3 Z’IM3 = ZIM4 Z’IM4 = ZL
A wave or signal entering into circuit 1

Convention
from left side will travel without
i1 i2 reflection through the circuits if all ports
+ + are matched.
v1 v2
– – Propagation constant g
† †
ZIM1 ZIM2
g input power v1i1 v1 Z IM2
† † e = = =
output power v 2 (-i2 ) v 2 Z IM1
†
Propagation equations
v1i1 v Z IM2 v1
eg = = 1 fi g
e = if the 2-port circuit is symmetrical
v 2 (-i2 ) v 2 Z IM1 v2
v1 Av 2 - Bi2 B
In general, = = A+
† v2 v2 Z IM2
† †
AC A
= A+ B
BD
=
D
( AD + BC )
i1 D
-i2
= CZ IM2 + D =
A
( AD + BC )
†
Thus, v1i1
† eg = = AD + BC
-v 2i2
e-g = AD - BC
†
Combining eg and e–g, we have
eg + e-g
cosh g = = AD
2
eg - e-g
sinh g = = BC
2
Define
Z IM1 A
n= =
† Z IM2 D
We have A = n coshg
† B = nZ IM2 sinh g
sinh g
C=
nZ IM2
cosh g
D=
n
†
From the ABCD equation, we have
v1 = nv 2 cosh g - ni2 Z IM2 sinh g
v i
i1 = 2 sinh g - 2 cosh g
nZ IM2 n
Dividing gives v1 Z L + Z IM2 tanh g
2
Z in = = n Z IM2
i1 Z L tanh g + Z IM2
†
For a transmission line, ZIM1 = ZIM2 = Zo, where Zo is usually called
the characteristic impedance of the transmission line. Also, for a
lossless†transmission line, g = jL is pure imaginary, and thus tanh
becomes tan, sinh becomes sin, cosh becomes cosh.
v1 Z L + jZ o tan L
Z in = = Z o
i1 Z o + jZ L tan L
†
This is just the same transmission line equation. In communication,
we usually express L as electrical length, and is equal to
L = w l / v = 2p l / l
wavelength
frequency in rad/s length of transmission line velocity of propagation
So, we can easily verify the following standard results:

1. If the transmission line length is l/2 or l, then the input impedance
is just equal to the load impedance.
2. If the transmission line length is l/4, then the input impedance is
Zo2/ZL.
Impedance value for other lengths can be found from the equation or
conveniently by using a Smith chart.

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IMPEDANCE MATCHING

Michael Tse: Impedance Matching 2

• It is concerned with matching one part of a circuit to

max power transfer

Circuit 1 Circuit 2 space

max power transfer

Obviously, the matching circuit must contain L and C in

Michael Tse: Impedance Matching 4

In general, a circuit’s reactance is a function of frequency

As we will see later, the Q

Michael Tse: Impedance Matching 5

Resistance (Ω) inductance (H) capacitance (F)

Z drops by 2 (3 dB) at w1 and w2.

Note: w1 and w2 are called 3dB corner

Michael Tse: Impedance Matching 11

QLC = unloaded Q factor for the paralleled LC components

Michael Tse: Impedance Matching 12

L matching circuit (single LC section)

Michael Tse: Impedance Matching 13

Obviously, the reactive part is cancelled if we have

Michael Tse: Impedance Matching 14

So, we can see clearly that Q is modifying R to achieve the matching

-Given R and R’, find the required Q from (*).

Michael Tse: Impedance Matching 15

Finally, the matching condition requires that

Design procedure is similar to the series case.

Exercise: derive design procedure for all other L circuits.

Series L circuit (suitable for R’>R) : R¢ = R(1+ Q2 )

Michael Tse: Impedance Matching 18

Solution: Add an element to provide added flexibility.

Michael Tse: Impedance Matching 19

jX’ Second section:

Michael Tse: Impedance Matching 20

Michael Tse: Impedance Matching 21

For R¢¢ < R For R¢¢ > R

2. Find R’ using R¢ = R /(1+ Q12 ) 2. Find R’ using R¢ = R¢¢ /(1+ Q22 )

Michael Tse: Impedance Matching 22

The design procedure can be

Michael Tse: Impedance Matching 23

For R¢¢ > R For R¢¢ < R

2. Find R’ using R¢ = R(1+ Q12 ) 2. Find R’ using R¢ = R¢¢(1+ Q22 )

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Also, we have the alternative approximation for Q1: Q1 ≈ w0R’C,

Thus, we can go backward to find all the circuit parameters.

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For precise specification of bandwidth, use

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Transformer turn ratio n and coupling coefficient k are related by

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So, if RL is sufficiently small, there will be two frequency

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Our objective here is to match RG and RL over a

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Idea: we don’t care what is inside, as long as it can be modelled in

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z-parameters Èv1 ˘ Èz11 z12 ˘Èi1 ˘ v1 = z11i1 + z12i2

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