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CFD SIMULATION OF A LIQUID ROCKET PROPELLANT (LH 2 /LOx)

COMBUSTION CHAMBER

Conference Paper · August 2013

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15th Annual CFD Symposium , August 9-10, 2013, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore

CFD SIMULATION OF A LIQUID ROCKET PROPELLANT (LH2/LOx)

COMBUSTION CHAMBER
M. Faisal Khan1***, Z. A. Quadri1, P. S. Kulkarni2, U. Guven1, S. P. Bhat1, K. Sundarraj1
1
Dept. of Aerospace Engg, University of Petroleum & Energy Studies, Dehradun, India
2
Dept. of Aerospace Engg, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India
***faisalmechster@gmail.com, faisal.khan@stu.upes.ac.in

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Abstract – A good liquid propellant with high specific impulse and a high speed of exhaust gases implies a
high combustion pressure and temperature and small molecular weight. However there is another
important factor i.e. density of the propellant leads to larger storage tanks, eventually increasing the
weight of the launch vehicle. Also the storage of liquid propellants at cryogenic temperature as in case of
military operations where there is no definite time to use these weapons (rockets, missiles etc) until there
is war, is a tremendous challenge. Despite all these drawbacks, high efficiency of LH2/LOx makes these
difficulties worth coping with, when reaction time and storability are not too critical. In the present
work, the simulation of a combustion chamber is carried out for LH2/LOx fuel/oxidizer injected at
cryogenic temperature in the combustion chamber and combustion takes place at high pressure (70 atm)
and high temperature (5000-8000 K) and finally gases expended in a C-D nozzle resulting high velocity
and high thrust. The geometry and meshing has been done on GAMBIT and commercial code Ansys
FLUENT has been used for the CFD simulation. The present study has been carried out for geometries
with varying number of inlets for better mixing and for varying nozzle designs for attaining the high
exhaust velocity and impulse which is the main objective of designing of a launch vehicle.

Keywords – Combustion, Liquid Propellant Rocket, Propulsion, Liquid Hydrogen, Liquid Oxygen, Finite rate
chemistry, Chemkin reaction mechanism

Introduction – The design, development and operation of liquid rocket engines requires efficient stable burning
of the propellants and the generation of high temperature, uniform gas, that is the rocket’s working fluid. The
primary consideration of the thrust chamber design is to get high exhaust velocity and high impulse. Moreover
highly efficient rocket combustion chamber design includes homogenous mixing of fuel and oxidiser, complete
combustion of the reactants, supersonic flow of the gases in the convergent-divergent nozzle after combustion
and no back pressure at any stage. A good liquid propellant capable of resulting high specific impulse and high
speed of exhaust gases in the nozzle implies high operating conditions of temperature and pressure inside the
combustion chamber without increasing the molecular weight. Liquid propellants having higher density
compared to gaseous propellants lead to larger storage tanks and thus increasing the mass of the launch vehicle.
Despite these drawbacks, the high efficiency of LH2/Lox makes these problems worth coping with, when
reaction time and storability are not too critical as in case of space vehicle or satellite launch. Liquid hydrogen
delivers a specific impulse about 30-40% higher than most of other rocket fuels. LH2 and Lox are used as the
propellant in the high efficiency main engines of the space shuttle. LH2/Lox also powered the upper stages of
the Saturn V and Saturn 1B rockets, as well as Centaur upper stage, the United States’ first LH2/Lox rocket
(1962).
Starting from the basic design aspects of a rocket combustion chamber and engine, Haidn, O.J. (2008) presented
a detailed overview of the rocket engine, injection system, combustion chamber, its cooling, characteristics of
different propellants based on their performance followed by the concept of advance nozzle design which are
being used in the propulsion technology to enhance the performance of the launch vehicle. Various possibilities
to improve thrust chamber cooling techniques involving new materials such as CuCrNb, ceramic matrix
composites or effusion cooling were explained, the different aspects shown. Additionally, the advantages and
the basic features of an advanced nozzle concept for a main stage engine, the dual bell nozzle was described and
the current statues of technology explained.
15th Annual CFD Symposium , August 9-10, 2013, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore

Under NASA sponsorship Northrop Gruman Space Technology (NGST) designed, built and tested non – toxic,
reaction control system (RCS) engine using liquid oxygen (LOx) and liquid hydrogen (LH 2) to establish the
LOx/LH2 RCS design concept. In this test injector configurations over a range of operation conditions were
screened. The test was conducted with 7 engine configurations with 2 combustion chambers, 3 LOx injector
pintle tips and 4 LH2 injector settings. The operating were 70-100% thrust levels, mixture ratios from 3.27- 4.29.
The results reflect higher combustion efficiencies with higher mixture ratios however the mixture ratio could not
be performed beyond O/F 3.7 while maintaining the acceptable temperatures in the hot spot areas [17].
Edwards et al. (2003) described the evolution of liquid fuels for past 100 years for aircraft and rockets as the
engines and vehicles they fuel have undergone these significant increases in performance. Daniel T. Banuti et. al
(2010) studied the effect of injector wall heat flux on cryogenic injection with the experiments at different
combustion pressure and found that for cryogenic jets, a moderate change in temperature is accompanied by a
drastic change in density.
The combustion analysis of H2/O2 flame structure under various flow conditions was carried out by Guillaume
Ribert et al. (2008) during the combustion of H2/O2 counter flow specifically H2/O2 flames are investigated at
pressures of 1–25 MPa and oxygen inlet temperatures of 100 and 300 K.. Results concluded that the flame
thickness and heat release rate correlate with the square root of the pressure multiplied by the strain rate. In his
findings it was also concluded that considering three cases for the fluid formulation i.e. (i) ideal gas, (ii) partial
real fluid and (iii) real fluid, the flame temperature for case (i) and (iii) was close to adiabatic flame temperature.
Shabanian S. R. et al (2010) investigated the effect of operational and geometrical conditions for hydrogen/air
premixed combustion in a micro scale chamber including; combustor size, wall conductivity, reactant flow rates
and hydrogen feed splitting on combustion stability and outlet gas temperature. It was find out that the flame
temperature increased sharply with increasing of feed flow rate at low flow rates due to the fact that the increase
of inlet velocity. After a specific mass flow rate the temperature becomes constant and further feed lead to
decrease in the temperature. The fact explained that for low feed rate, the heat generated is less than the heat
loss and hence lead to low temperature due to flame quenching while on the other hand if the feed rate is
increased beyond the optimum feed rate, the effective reactants resident time decrease and reactants have less
time to react. In addition to this, another finding was that the maximum temperature shifts towards the exit by
increasing the inlet gas velocity while extinction could be occurred by lowering the inlet gas flow rate. Further
to these results, it was also found that problem of high temperature near the inlet injector nozzle occurred which
lead to high heat transfer through the chamber wall resulting lower temperature at the exit. Comparatively better
results were observer to overcome this problem when hydrogen fuel feed was splitted into two stages leading to
lower temperature near the inlet nozzle and higher temperature at the exit. Also in his study 3 chambers of
different sizes were simulated with the same operation conditions and concluded that the biggest chamber has a
higher temperature.
K. M. Panday et al. (2010) worked on CFD analysis of pressure and temperature for a rocket nozzle with liquid
Pantane and air as fuel and oxidizer with two inlets at Mach 2.1 and concluded that the fuel and air enter in the
combustion chamber and burning takes place due to high velocity and temperature and then temperature
increases rapidly in combustion chamber and convergent part of the nozzle and after that temperature decreases
in the exit part of the nozzle. Based on the result in his study, it was concluded that two inlet rocket nozzle is
having better performance than single inlet.

Methodology - The chamber model is shown below. The nozzle has been designed with a parabolic profile of
equation X = a.Y2 + h. The geometry control curves for convergent and divergent sections can be obtained using
this equation with the following nozzle parameters for an area ratio of 25.

Table -1 Combustion Chamber & Nozzle Design Parameters

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Description Size (mm)
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Chamber Length 4000
Chamber Diameter 3000
Nozzle Throat Diameter 450
Nozzle Exit Diameter 2250
Convergent Length 1000
Divergent Length 2000
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
15th Annual CFD Symposium , August 9-10, 2013, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore

Fully structured grid generation with quadrilateral mesh has been adopted for meshing the geometry with an
interval size of 30 which gives 8360 cells and 16969 faces.
Governing Equations – The mathematical modelling for the whole process has been done using continuity
equation, 2-D Navier-Stokes equations for the solution of fluid flow variables. In addition to this the combustion
modelling has been carried out with species transport equations for each individual, Eddy dissipation concept
model is used for the chemical reaction at volumetric level and discrete phase model is used for the droplet
vaporization of the liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen.
The continuity, Navier-Stokes and energy equations used for the numerical modelling are as follows.
 (1)
 ( V )  S m
t

The term Sm denotes the mass added to the continuous phase from discrete phase due to vaporization of the
liquid droplets.
 ( u ) (2)
 ( uV )  p  ( )  Fx
t

 ( v)
 ( vV )  p  ( )  Fy (3)
t

The conservation of momentum equation in an inertial reference frame is shown by equation (2) and (3). Here
( ) is the stress tensor which can be described as follows

    2 (4)
(V  V T )  VI 
 3 

µ is the molecular viscosity and I is the unit tensor.

The energy equation used for modelling heat transfer in this model is given as follows

 
 ( E )  
 V ( E  p )  ( K eff T   h j j j  ( eff V )   S h (5)
t  j 
 j 

Where Keff is the effective thermal conductivity and Jj is the diffusion flux for j species. The first three terms at
right hand are representing heat transfer due to conduction, species diffusion and viscous dissipation
respectively. Sh is the heat of chemical reaction.
Species transport equation for conservation of chemical species is used which predicts the local mass fraction of
each species through the solution of a convection – diffusion equation for ith species.
 ( Yi ) (6)
 ( VYi )  J i  Ri  S i
t

where Ri is the rate of production of species i by chemical reaction and Si is the rate of creation by addition from
the dispersed phase.
The trajectory of discrete phase particle i.e. droplet is modelled by integrating the force balance in the
Lagrangian reference frame.

u p g x (   p )
 FD (u  u p )   Fx (7)
t p

In the above equation, the force balance equates the particle inertia with the force acting on the particle, where
FD(u-uP) is the drag force per unit particle mass and Fx is additional acceleration term.
For the combustion modelling and species transport a detailed mechanism of H 2/O2 based on the updated model
of hydrogen combustion is used [22]. Although it is computationally very expensive but more descriptive
chemical combustion phenomenon can be captured for such applications like chemical kinetics and combustion
in rocket chamber. Rate of reaction is calculated by k = ATn exp(-Ea/RT)
15th Annual CFD Symposium , August 9-10, 2013, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore

Table – 2 H2/O2 Reaction Model [22]

Reactions A n Ea

(1) H + O2 = O + OH 1.04E+14 0.00 1.531E+04

(2) O + H2 = H + OH 3.82E+12 0.00 7.948E+04
(3) H2 + OH = H2O + H 2.16E+08 1.51 3.430E+03
(4) OH + OH = O + H2O 3.34E+04 2.42 -1.930E+03
(5) H2 + M = H + H + M 4.58E+19 -1.40 1.040E+05
(6) O + O + M = O2 + M 6.16E+15 -0.50 0.000E+00
(7) O + H + M = OH + M 4.71E+18 -1.00 0.000E+00
(8) H2O + M = H + OH + M 6.06E+27 -3.32 1.208E+05
(9) H + O2 (+M) = H O2 (+M) 4.65E+12 0.44 0.000E+00
(10) HO2 + H = H2 + O2 2.75E+06 2.09 -1.451E+03
(11) HO2 + H = OH + OH 7.08E+13 0.00 2.950E+02
(12) HO2 + O = O2 + OH 2.85E+10 1.00 -7.239E+02
(13) HO2 + OH = H2O + O2 2.89E+13 0.00 -4.970E+02
(14) HO2 + HO2 = H2O2 + O2 4.20E+14 0.00 1.200E+04
(15) HO2 + HO2 = H2O2 + O2 1.30E+11 0.00 -1.630E+03
(16) H2O2 (+M) = OH + OH (+M) 2.00E+12 0.90 4.875E+04
(17) H2O2 + H = H2O + OH 2.41E+13 0.00 3.970E+03
(18) H2O2 + H = HO2 + H2 4.82E+13 0.00 7.950E+03
(19) H2O2 + O = OH + HO2 9.55E+06 2.00 3.970E+03
(20) H2O2 + OH = HO2 + H2O 1.74E+12 0.00 3.180E+02
(21) H2O2 + OH = HO2 + H2O 7.59E+13 0.00 7.270E+03

Computation Strategy and Boundary Conditions - The geometry has been defined with 7 nos. injections of
LH2 and Lox. The inlet of LH2/Lox at cryogenic temperature injected in the chamber at high pressure. Density
based solver is used for the simulation with absolute velocity formulation considering steady state condition.
Realizable k-ϵ turbulence model is incorporated for turbulence modelling.
Species transport has been modelled with Eddy Dissipation Concept (EDC) model which is associated with
detailed chemical mechanism in turbulent flow. The chemkin file based on the detailed reactions as mentioned
in table – 2, with 9 species i.e. H2, H, O2, O, OH, HO2, H2O, H2O2 & N2 has been imported for the combustion
modelling. The operating pressure is kept as 1 atm and density of the gases is calculated by ideal gas law
however the effect of gravitational acceleration has not been considered here. The standard heat of formation of
the chemical species is shown in table – 3.

Table – 3 Heat of formation (ΔHf) of chemical species [22]

Species H O OH H2 O2 H2O HO2 H2O2 N2
ΔHf (298.15) kcal/mol 52.10 59.56 8.91 0.00 0.00 -57.8 3.00 -32.53 0.00

The discrete phase evaporation model for liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen has the following properties. A
liquid spray of LH2 fuel and Lox oxidizer enters the combustion chamber at a velocity of 300 m/s and 120 m/s
respectively. The mixture ratio has been kept as 6.428. The combustion chamber walls are held at a constant
temperature of 5000 K. As the liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen evaporate, they enter the gas phase and react.
The combustion is modelled using the mixture fraction approach, with the equilibrium. The spray is assumed to
consist of 100-micron diameter.
Solution method formulation chosen is implicit with Roe-FDS flux distribution. Maximum temperature limit
was set to 10000 K. As the chemkin reactions with detail Arrhenius mechanism are computationally very
expensive, the accuracy of the solution is limited to first order upwind for this problem due to time constraint.
15th Annual CFD Symposium , August 9-10, 2013, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore

Table – 4 Properties of liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen injection

Properties LH2 LOx
Velocity (m/s) 300 120
Droplet diameter (µm) 100 100
Flow Rate (kg/s) 41.8 268.7
3
Density (kg/m ) 70.85 1142
Specific Heat (j/kg-K) 9772.2 1699
Vaporization Temperature (K) 14 55

Result & Discussion– The results are shown above. Figure 1 shows the static pressure distribution inside the
chamber. The combustion chamber pressure is constant throughout the chamber within the range of 70 atm and
starts reducing inside the C-D nozzle approximately 33-40 atm at the throat and 0.89-4.47 atm as expected.
These results can be verified with the standard relations for the iso-entropic flow of a perfect gas (ϒ=1.4)
From the gas table of an iso-entropic flow of a perfect gas, pressure ratio at the throat (M=1)
Pt/Po = 0.528 which yields Pt = 37 atm (Po = 70 atm)

Figure-1 Contours of Static Pressure

Figure-2 Velocity magnitude Figure-3 Static Temperature

The velocity profile in Figure 2 shows a very low velocity in the combustion chamber and it starts increasing in
the convergent section of the nozzle and attains highest velocity nearly 3500 m/s which is more than 10 times
greater than the injection velocity of LH2 (300 m/s).
The static pressure distribution along the centre line of the chamber and nozzle geometry is shown in Figure 3.
The fuel and oxidizer are injected at cryogenic temperature and starts evaporating at a temperature 300 K. The
combustion chamber walls are kept at 5000 K. As the liquid fuel and oxidizer evaporates to gaseous phase, they
are exposed to higher temperature inside the chamber and then the temperature reduces in the C-D nozzle upto
2500 K at the exit. As static temperature varies proportionally with the static pressure, it is clear that in the C-D
nozzle the static temperature is reducing due to the expansion or pressure reduction.
15th Annual CFD Symposium , August 9-10, 2013, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore

Figure-4 Density Figure-5 Total Temperature

As the liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen are injected into the chamber, the density of the gas inside the
chamber, which is less than that of the liquid form, increases (Figure – 4), similarly Figure – 5 shows a small
fall in the total temperature near the chamber inlet and then it rises and reaches above 4000 K at the exit of the
nozzle. The liquid fuel and oxidizer, which are at cryogenic temperature when mix with the gases inside the
chamber leads to small decrease in the temperature due to temperature gradient. Once the evaporation is
complete, the total temperature of the gases rises due to combustion chamber high temperature and heat of
combustion of the chemical reaction.

Figure-6 Reaction rate of H2 Figure-7 Reaction rate of O2

Figure-8 Reaction rate of HO2 Figure-9 Reaction rate of OH

H2 and O2 starts reacting from the inlet of the combustion chamber resulting the intermediate species as
explained in Table – 2. The rate of reactions calculated by k = ATn exp(-Ea/RT) where Ea is the activation
energy, n is temperature constant and A is the pre-exponent factor and the value of constants are given in table –
2. When hydrogen and oxygen reacts volumetrically at high temperature, the amount of hydrogen and oxygen is
consumed and new species are formed. The reactions of hydrogen and oxygen are taking place near the inlet
15th Annual CFD Symposium , August 9-10, 2013, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore

region of the chamber which is shown by Figure 6 & 7. As the reaction is complete, the rate of reaction attains
the value of zero.

Similarly the other species HO2 and OH as shown in Figure – 8 & 9 are showing higher rate of reaction
according to the reaction rate calculated by individual species constant in Table – 2

Figure-10 Mass fraction of H2 Figure-11 Mass fraction of O2

Figure-12 Mass fraction of HO2 Figure-13 Mass fraction of OH

Figure-14 Mass fraction of H Figure-15 Mass fraction of H2O2

The mass fractions of species are shown above. The mass of the species decreases with their consumption
(reaction) and increases with the production (as a result of reaction). H2 and O2 are consumed in the chemical
reaction upto the middle of the combustion chamber which is also shown above by the rate of reaction of H 2 &
O2 in Figure – 6 & 7. The mass fraction of H2 and O2 are decreasing as the chemical reaction progresses inside
the chamber. The variation for other species is shown in Figure – 12, 13, 14 & 15 which reflects that the mass
fraction decreases in the divergent section of the nozzle.
15th Annual CFD Symposium , August 9-10, 2013, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore

Conclusion – In the present work the combustion chamber and nozzle has been designed for LH2/LOx
propellant rocket engine and the analysis of various flow parameters is carried out. The present design
simulation for the chamber and nozzle profile is giving the output parameters i.e. exit velocity, exit pressure,
temperature and the pattern of combustion as expected for the iso-entropic flow considering most expensive
combustion model for the simulation (i.e. EDC) where rate of reaction is calculated based on detailed chemical
reactions of fuel and oxidizer. The pressure decreases when the flow passes through the nozzle in the convergent
section and continues decreasing through throat up-to the exit. The velocity starts increasing in the convergent
section and continues increasing up-to 3500 m/s at the nozzle exit. The combustion modelling with the
computationally expensive but with detailed chemical mechanism i.e. Eddy Dissipation Concept model has been
analysed which is giving the results as expected.
The present work has a tremendous scope in the future study. The effect of different pressure, temperature, mass
flow rate, mixture ratio can be studied on the same design for optimization of modelling parameters. Apart from
constant heated walls of chamber, a heat source can be located inside, plasma phase of the gases (ionised gas)
can be considered in the Eddy Dissipation Concept model for combustion. Further the same approach can be
tested on different geometrical design of chamber and nozzle to optimise the performance parameters of the
space vehicle. Cooling of the chamber and heat transfer is another very important and critical aspect which is
required to overcome for successful experimentation.

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