Chapter 6

Marine processes

The coastline is where the land and the marine environment

(seas and oceans) meet. It is like a battle zone, where waves
erode, transport and deposit material via a complex set of
processes. The size and energy of the waves, the strength
and direction of the wind, and the type of rocks along the
coast create a range of coastal landforms. Features of coastal
erosion such as cliffs, wave-cut platforms, caves, arches, stacks,
headlands and bays are formed by powerful, destructive waves.
Where wave action is more gentle and constructive, features
of coastal deposition, including beaches, spits and bars, sand
dunes and marsh, are formed.
Coastlines are constantly changing as a result of the action of
the sea and through the impact of human activity. Efforts to
protect the coast from erosion and flooding can be very costly, Figure 6.2
but not always effective or sustainable. Along some coastal Diver on coral reef
areas, coastal defences are no longer maintained, allowing the
sea to reclaim areas of land.
Ports and harbours for industry and shipping are found along
coastlines. Coasts also attract millions of tourists every year
to beaches, the sea and unique features such as coral reefs.
Industry, including tourism, brings valuable income and work
to coastal towns, benefiting the local area and the country’s
economy. However, it can also lead to pollution from factories,
sewage outlet pipes and oil spills. The large numbers of people
who visit popular coastal areas may erode footpaths, drop
litter, cause traffic congestion and may lead to competition for
space for accommodation and other facilities.

Figure 6.1
Wave action. Caption tbc

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 Marine processes

6.1 Wave action

The action of waves shapes the coastline. Some erode the land, others
help build it up by transporting and depositing material. Waves vary in
size, height and frequency, depending on the strength of the wind and the
amount of water they travel over (the fetch). Destructive waves (Figure
6.3a), are high-energy waves, responsible for eroding the coast, resulting Figure 6.3
in many spectacular landforms. Constructive waves (Figure 6.3b) are (a) Destructive waves;
(b) constructive waves
low-energy waves, depositing material along and up the coastline.

a b






Destructive waves Constructive waves


 

  

 
   


  
 



 
  


 




 
  
  



 
  
 

 

  


 
  
   



The action of a wave can be divided into two parts – the swash and
backwash. The swash is the top part of the wave that breaks and topples
over, pushing up the beach. The backwash is the water that falls or washes
back down the beach. Destructive waves have a stronger backwash and
remove material. Constructive waves have a stronger swash and deposit
and build up material.

Figure 6.4
longshore drift Longshore drift

backwash

swash direction of
incoming waves

When constructive waves approach the coast at an angle, the swash also
moves up the beach an angle, pushing the material they carry up the beach
(Figure 6.4). The backwash, under the force of gravity, will then flow back
down the beach at right angles to the sea, taking sand and pebbles with
it. This is repeated in a zigzag pattern, gradually moving material along
the coast by a process called longshore drift. If the coastline changes
direction, material will continue to be deposited in the original direction,
forming a spit.

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 Figure 6.5 6.2 Coastal erosion
Processes of marine erosion

Figure 6.6
Corrasion and hydraulic action

Abrasion
Solution
Hydraulic action

Attrition

There are four main processes by which waves erode the coastline (Figure
6.5). High-energy waves crash against the land, hurling sand, shingle,
Figure 6.7 pebbles and rock fragments against it. The force of this breaks up the rock
Beach pebbles rounded by attrition
– a process called abrasion. Waves pounding against the rocks along the
coast trap air in the cracks within it. As the waves retreat, the air pressure
is released. This is repeated, causing large pieces of rock to break away, a
process called hydraulic action.
The eroded pebbles and rock fragments carried by waves constantly hit
against each other, eroding them into smaller pieces of sand and gravel
or into rounded pebbles through a process called attrition. Some types
of rock found along the coast contain minerals that can be dissolved
by the action of sea water, for example chalk and limestone – a process
a)
Softer rock
called solution.

Resistant (harder) rock

Headland and bays
WAVES

Less resistant
(softer) rock
Rocks vary in hardness. Where hard rocks occur along a coastline, cliffs
and headlands are often found. This is because harder rocks erode
Harder rock
more slowly. Softer rocks are more easily eroded and wear back more
quickly, forming bays. Beaches often form between, and are sheltered by,
Softer rock headlands on one or both sides (Figure 6.8).

b) Bay

Erodes slowly leaving

a headland Erodes
more
quickly
Bay forming
a bay

Headland

Bay

Figure 6.8
Headlands and bays

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 Marine processes

Cliffs Figure 6.9

Cliff formation and retreat
When hard, resistant rocks are found next to the sea, cliffs are formed on
headlands. Figure 6.9 shows how they are formed by destructive waves
eroding the headland. This creates a notch at the base of the headland at
sea level. As erosion continues, unsupported rock first overhangs, then cliff retreats
collapses. The backwash of the waves here is usually stronger than the
swash, so smaller pieces of rock are quickly removed from the base of original position of cliff
wave
the cliff. Over time the cliff will be eroded and will retreat inland, leaving cut
wave cut notch
behind a rocky platform called a wave-cut platform, covered at high tide, platform
high water
but visible at low tide (Figure 6.10). mark
low water
mark

Figure 6.10
Cliff and wave-cut platform

Cliff structure

a b c

cliff top slopes

steeply down inland
rugged cliff top
steep cliff gently sloping cliff face
face with with few overhangs
many
overhangs

wave
erosion

The structure, as well as the hardness, of rocks will affect the shape of cliffs
Figure 6.11
(Figure 6.11). Horizontal layers or bedding will form steep cliffs (Figure The effect of rock structure on
6.11c). Where the layers dip inland, away from the sea, the cliff face will cliff shape
be steep and uneven (Figure 6.11a). If the layers dip towards the sea, the
cliff face will have a more gentle slope (Figure 6.11b). Sometimes cliffs
are formed from rocks of differing hardness. This will create an uneven
surface as they are eroded or weathered at different rates.

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 Headland erosion
When waves approach headlands they are bent or refracted. As a result
they attack the headland on three sides. Weaknesses in the rock will be
eroded first – a small crack or joint will be enlarged to form a sea cave. If
waves break through to the other side of a headland they form an arch.
The roof of the arch may later collapse, leaving a stack – a tall outcrop of
rock standing on its own away from the headland. Stacks are eventually
worn away to leave stumps, sometimes visible at low tide.

softer
harder rock rock

Figure 6.12
Headland erosion and retreat
softer
rock

stack
waves attack
weaknesses arch
in rock cutting stump
sea caves
and arches
Figure 6.13
Headland with arch/stack tbc

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 Marine processes

6.3 Coastal deposition

Figure 6.14
Beaches Building beaches

Beaches are formed when material cliffs

eroded from the land is transported by
the sea and deposited along the coastline. A
This material is known as the beach land
store. It occupies the zone between the berms are
beach found at
low and high water marks. Figure 6.14 different
shows how longshore drift affects the tide levels
beach store. The main sources of beach
material in Figure 6.14 come from: RE
STO
CH
A erosion of the cliff provides rock BEA
fragments berms

B longshore drift carries sand and

pebbles from the cliff to the beach
C constructive waves push the sand
B
and pebbles up the beach making it sea constructive waves
higher and wider throw sand and
Where rivers flow into the sea, fine muds longshore drift carries C pebbles up the beach
beach store along coast
and gravels may be picked up by waves
and added to the beach store.
Figure 6.15 shows the shape of a typical beach. Few beaches have a smooth
profile – most rise from the sea in a series of ridges, called berms. These
ridges are built by constructive waves pushing material up the beach. If
there is a very high tide, a berm will form high up the beach. Material
deposited here becomes stranded and tends to remain in place, with only
small amounts washed back by the backwash. Berms further inland are
usually higher and composed of larger pebbles. During low tides berms
are formed closer to the sea. Figure 6.15
Beach structure showing berm

Figure 6.16
Grading of beach material by size –
smallest nearer the sea

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 Figure 6.17 River estuary
The formation of spits and bars N
Original coastline

Bar
Headland Spit
The spit blocks
Deposition at the end of the estuary to
Longshore beach (longshore drift) form a bar
drift

Prevailing winds
Sea

Figure 6.18
Spurn Head, UK

Spits and bars

If longshore drift is taking place, sediment is gradually moved along the
coast. Sometimes the coastline changes direction, or there is a river mouth
or bay. Sediment (sand and shingle) will continue to be deposited by
longshore drift, building up and out from the coast and roughly parallel to
it. This feature is called a spit (Figure 6.17). Behind the spit is a sheltered
area where a saltmarsh may often be found. If the spit continues to grow,
it can cut off the river’s route to the sea completely, forming a bar (Figure
6.17). Occasionally a spit may grow and join onto an offshore island
forming a feature called a tombolo. The water trapped between the coast
and these features is called a lagoon. Figure 6.18 shows Spurn Head, a
spit on the Humber estuary in the UK. Wave action has caused the spit to
bend and curve. You can see sediment and saltmarsh located on the inside
curve of the spit.

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 Marine processes

Saltmarsh

Figure 6.19
Saltmarsh, Lincolnshire coast, UK

If a coastal area is flat and muddy, saltmarsh may form in sheltered

locations, e.g. behind spits, sea defences, creeks or inlets, where sediment
can be deposited and can accumulate. Saltmarsh is usually fully or partly
covered at high tides and revealed at low tide – so they are inter-tidal
zones. They have a highly specialised range of plants that have to be able
to tolerate not only salt water but also drier conditions when the tide
retreats. They are highly biodiverse habitats that can absorb wave energy
and protect the coast from erosion and flooding.

Figure 6.20
Sand dunes along the Lincolnshire
coast, UK

Figure 6.21
Marram grass

Coastal sand dunes need a large supply of sand to form, so they are found
inland behind large sandy beaches. If the beach is exposed, winds from
the sea pick up sand, which starts to accumulate around obstacles such as
vegetation or large rocks and pebbles. This then accumulates into small
ridges and dunes begin to form. The process continues, and older dunes
move inland as new ones form next to the beach.
Some sand dune coasts are continually changing, whilst others may have
been formed hundreds of years ago and remain unchanged along the
coast. Erosion by the wind, storm waves and human activity is a constant
threat. Typically marram grass (Figure 6.21), with its long roots, is planted
to stabilize sand dunes, although other measures such as fencing and sand
traps are also used. On established dunes a clear pattern or succession of
vegetation colonisation occurs. The older the dunes, the more variety.

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 6.4 Managing coastal areas
Marine environments, especially coastal areas, face a number of
conflicting pressures. Although the coast may be considered a natural
environment, in reality much of it is far from natural and is highly
managed (Figure 6.22) or strongly affected by human activity. With a
number of different users, there is usually a range of opinions about which
part should be protected – and how.
Over the next four pages we will look at some of the ways in which we
manage the coast, especially in terms of sea defences and the impact of
industrial development. Other case studies in the book also deal with
management and pressures on the coast. These include mass tourism in
the Mediterranean (p.X, section 10.4), The Great Barrier Reef (p.x, section
6.7) and marine pollution (p.X, section 6.8). The effect of the impact of
Figure 6.22
natural hazards on marine environments is also dealt with – the Asian
A stretch of managed coastline
tsunami (p.x, section 3.5) and Hurricane Katrina (p.x, section 7.6).

Coastal protection
We need to protect areas of coast where erosion is at its greatest, or
buildings, roads and valuable land could fall into the sea. One of the most
visible signs of coastal management are the different methods we use to
defend the land. These are divided into two types – hard engineering and
Figure 6.23a
soft engineering methods. Figure 6.23a and b shows the main types, and
Hard engineering methods
their advantages and disadvantages.

Type Description Advantages Disadvantages

Sea wall Vertical, hard, Prevents erosion; Expensive to build
(usually) concrete protects land and and maintain;
walls. Sometimes buildings etc; unsightly;
curved to reflect can include wave power not
wave energy back amenities, e.g. dissipated;
out to sea promenade; can increase erosion
may stop land of beach
flooding

Groynes Wooden barriers Quick to construct; Can starve beaches

built along the beach protects beach – of material
at right angles beaches absorb wave downdrift;
energy; needs continual
prevents longshore maintenance;
drift gives uneven beach

Rip rap/boulders/rock armour/revetments Large boulders piled Relatively cheap; Can be unsafe;
up at the top of the low maintenance; may need a lot of
beach, called gabions dissipates wave space/cover large
if secured inside wire energy; area to be effective
cages. Revetments helps beaches retain
may sometimes material;
be constructed of flexible use
concrete/wood

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 Marine processes

Type Description Advantages Disadvantages

Beach nourishment/beach replenishment Replaces eroded Beaches absorb Needs constant
beach material – wave energy, less maintenance;
usually dumped reaches land = replacement sand
by lorries and then natural defence; source required
spread evenly over fairly cheap
beach area

Sand dunes Ridges of sand Natural defence; Constant

behind beaches, attractive; maintenance;
created by onshore dissipate wave very easily eroded
winds energy; by wind, water or
provide habitats for storms
plants and wildlife

Managed retreat Allowing an area Cheap; Not appropriate

of coast to become Allows, e.g., if land is of high
eroded without saltmarsh, beaches value;
protecting it and provide natural difficult to control
coastal protection once started – may
have unexpected
results

Most coastal areas inhabited by people are defended by a combination

Figure 6.23b
of these methods. For example, along the Pembrokeshire coast in Soft engineering methods
Saundersfoot Bay, a range of measures are in place (Figure 6.24). There
are also places, such as Amroth, where zero action is considered – either
allowing the sea to erode by having no defences, or not maintaining
existing defences and allowing the sea to reclaim the coast.

East Amroth
Amroth Telpyn Point
N

Wiseman’s Curved sea wall

Bridge Wooden groynes
Considering
zero action

Gabions
Riprap Saundersfoot Bay

Saundersfoot Vertical sea wall

Wodden groynes
Beach replenishment

Figure 6.24
Monkstone 0 1 2 Sea defences, Saundersfoot Bay,
Point kilometres Pembrokeshire

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 6.5 Managing coastal areas
Figure 6.25
Case study: Milford Haven,
Milford Haven land use Pembrokeshire, South Wales (MEDC)
location N
of
Milford
Haven Milford Haven

Stack Rock jetty

jetty ven
Ha

Thorn Island d jetty jetties

lfor
jetty
Mi

Key
oil refineries
and terminal
power station
Pembrokeshire
Coastal Path
Pembrokeshire Coast
National Park
rock platform
beach 0 3 km
cliffs deposits

Milford Haven is a natural deep-water inlet formed when sea levels rose at
Figure 6.26
Tanker docking in Milford Haven tbc the end of the last ice age, drowning a wide river valley to form a feature
called a ria. The whole coast around the Haven is deep water, on the edge
of the Atlantic Ocean, and the land rises steeply inland. A wide range of
human activity is found here, from tourists visiting the stunning scenery
of the Pembrokeshire Coastal Path and National Park, to supertankers
bringing crude oil to the refineries around Milford Haven port (Figure 6.25)

Milford Haven Port Authority factfile

s "IGGESTPORTIN7ALESTHBIGGESTIN5+
s #ARGOANDFERRYPORT
s "IGGESTlSHINGPORTIN7ALES
s 3HIPREPAIRINGOILANDGASRElNING
s (ANDLESPERCENTOFTHE5+SPETROLANDDIESEL
s #ANPROCESSPERCENTOF5+0.'NEEDS
s )NMORETHANSHIPSDOCKEDnSLIGHTLYLESSTHANBUTTHEY
were bigger ships carrying more cargo
s MILLIONTONNESOFCARGOHANDLEDIN

Industry
Its location on the UK’s Atlantic coast, its deep water and sheltered nature
make Milford Haven an ideal location for a port. The port has facilities for
both oil and liquid natural gas (LNG) tankers, with a number of refineries
128

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 Marine processes

situated around it. Tankers dock and offload at a series of specialised jetties
Figure 6.27
that reach out to the deepest water. Pipelines distribute oil and gas inland Coastal scenery tbc
to other facilities. Other industries and facilities include a power station,
with a new LNG-powered one planned for the future; a 360-berth marina;
facilities for the fishing fleet; shopping, transport and financial services.

Industry versus environment

The port of Milford Haven is surrounded by some of the best coastal
scenery in the UK (Figure 6.27), the Pembrokeshire Coast National
Park. It has a mixture of steep, rocky cliffs and sandy beaches, forested
estuaries and hills, castles and forts, covering 620 km2. The coastal path
itself is 416 km in length. There is a wide range of sites of special scientific
interest (SSSIs), different habitats, nature and marine reserves and other
conservation areas. The National Park Authority is responsible for
conserving the area and planning its development and use.
Mixing industry with an attractive, protected
N Key
environment can present problems. In February
1996, the oil tanker Sea Empress was blown onto Nature Reserve

the Milford Channel Rock and ran aground as it heavy National Park
oil
approached Milford Haven (Figure 6.28). Rescue tugs Sites of Special
Milford Scientific Interest
tried to free the tanker in the days immediately after Skomer Haven
Island
the accident, but were unable to do so. The weather heavy heavy oil
oil
worsened and gale force winds hit the ship. A total of Skokholm
Island St Ann's Pembroke
72 000 tonnes of crude oil and 500 tonnes of fuel oil Head
spilt in the eight days before it could be moved off the heavy
rocks and into the port. oil
Linney
The main slick: Head St Govan's
More than 200 km of the coast were affected by the heavy oil stretches
for 4 miles
Head
spill, including many sensitive SSSIs and nature
reserves, as oil was washed ashore. Half a million
545 badly oiled birds have
seabirds nest in this area and more than 7000 oiled been collected. Dolphins A light sheen of oil
and porpoises have been stretching across
birds, mainly razorbills and guillemots, were found seen swimming in oil in Carmarthen Bay
Carmarthen Bay to Swansea
washed ashore, but it is likely that thousands more were
affected and died at sea. Many small marine creatures, 0 50 km
e.g. limpets and cockles, were killed. Fishing had to be
stopped, with some restrictions still in place 18 months later.
Figure 6.28
Tourism was badly hit because of oiled water and beaches, and parts of the Effects of the Sea Empress oil spill
coastal path were closed. The loss of revenue was estimated at £2 million
in 1996. The clean-up operation was thought to have cost £23 million.

Image to be
updated
Figure 6.29
Title: tbc

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 6.6 Coral reefs

Tropic of Cancer

  



Equator



  



Tropic of Capricorn

Annual average water

temperature = 18°C
(needed for coral growth) 


 Great Barrier Reef
Coral reefs

Figure 6.30
4HEWORLDSCORALREEFS

CFUXFFO

BOE

N
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CVU
QSFGFSBCMZ
IJHIFS

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o¡$

OVUSJFOUQPPS
TBMU
XBUFS
o
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DBOOPU
MJWF
XIFSF
UIFSF
JT
MPUT
PG

Most coral reefs are found in warm, tropical waters (Figure 6.30),
although there are a small number of cold water corals and some that
form in deeper water. Warm, shallow corals need specific conditions in
which to form, including:
t
TIBMMPX
XBUFS
t
UFNQFSBUVSFT
VTVBMMZ
BCPWF
¡$
t
DMFBS
XBUFS
BMMPXJOH
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TP
BMHBF
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can thrive
t
DMFBO
sediment or fresh water
Coral reefs are formed by the skeletons of tiny creatures called polyps.
Algae living amongst the coral help it ‘grow’, producing more calcium
carbonate. This attracts a huge variety of marine life – coral reefs are often
called the ‘rainforests of the sea’ because of their rich biodiversity, thought
to be almost one million different species (Figure 6.31). Fish and plants
are frequently brightly coloured (Figure 6.31), attracting not only divers
and tourists, but also fishermen and those looking to harvest coral to sell.

Figure 6.31
-ULTI COLOUREDCORALREEFANDlSH

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 Marine processes

Formation

Fringing Reef Barrier Reef Atoll

a) Fringing reefs form close to
the shoreline. Corals attach
themselves to submerged
land in shallow water and
grow upwards to sea level
or just below. Fringing
reefs are usually quite
narrow and don’t have large
lagoons separating them
from the land.
b) As a fringing reef grows, it
becomes further away from
the shoreline, creating a large
lagoon. As the land/island
sinks the reef continues to
grow, especially if the water
is shallow. Although named
‘barrier’, these reefs are not
usually continuous – they
are easily damaged and
broken up by storms.
c) Atolls form when the land
sinks below sea level or
when sea level rises. They
usually form a broken circle
around an island. The coral
continues to grow upwards
and the central, shallow
lagoon may become filled
with sand and debris
broken from the reef.

Figure 6.32
The formation of coral reefs

Figure 6.33
Fringing reef, Fiji

Figure 6.34
Table coral damaged by divers

Coral reefs start to form when coral attaches itself to submerged land,
usually around tropical islands. The coral builds up gradually over time
and may change from being a fringing reef (Figure 6.32a and Figure 6.33)
to a barrier reef (Figure 6.32b) to an atoll (Figure 6.32c). Eventually they
may die and become extinct if the island sinks into deeper water. It could
take thousands of years for a reef to complete the entire sequence.

131

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 Figure 6.35
$IVERSRELEASElSHTRAPPEDINNETS

Coral bleaching factfile
)FCLIMATECHANGEISNOT islands such as the Maldives and the Seychelles depend on tourists who
stopped, coral bleaching is set
to steadily increase in frequency
and intensity all over the world
until it occurs annually by
n
This would devastate coral reefs
globally to such an extent that
they could be eliminated from
most areas of the world by
#URRENTESTIMATESSUGGEST t
Climate change/global warming: if seas become warmer, algae in the
that reefs could take hundreds
of years to recover. The loss
of these fragile ecosystems
would cost billions of dollars
in lost revenue from tourism
Coral reefs are unique marine ecosystems but they are also important
economically in terms of tourism and fishing. A number of tropical
visit to see the coral and its teeming wildlife. Many fishing communities
rely on the reefs to provide them with a living. As a result of this, and the
very precise conditions they need to grow, many of the world’s coral reefs
are under threat. A report in 2004 predicted that almost one-quarter of
the world’s coral reefs were at high risk of imminent collapse, with another
quarter under threat longer term.
The main threats are:
coral will be affected, causing them to lose colour – a process called
bleaching. This could kill off all of our coral reefs.
t
Extreme weather and natural hazards: storms break up and destroy
coral. The Asian tsunami in 2004 destroyed large areas of coral in the
ANDlSHINGINDUSTRIESASWELL
as damage to coastal regions
that are currently protected by
the coral reefs that line most
tropical coastlines.
Source: Climate Change
and the World’s Coral Reefs,
Greenpeace.
132
M06_GEOG_SB_IGCSE_1197_U06.indd 132
affected region (p.X, section 3.5).
t
Pollution: run off from the land takes sediment, chemical waste, sewage
and other pollutants into the sea, damaging water quality and corals.
Excess CO2 also creates acidification in seas and oceans.
t
Coastal development: increased human activity along coral coasts
increases pollution and fishing. People may also reclaim land from the
sea and mine sand and rock from reefs.
t
Overfishing: pressure to supply local (and global) markets has increased
fishing and damage from boats, but also the use of highly damaging
methods such as the use of dynamite and cyanide.
29/4/10 16:42:19
 Marine processes

6.7 Coral reefs

Case study: The Great Barrier Reef,
Australia
Figure 6.36
The Great Barrier Reef, Australia

Far northern section

(area: 85 200 sq km)

Coral Sea
Cairns section
(area: 35 500 sq km)

Cairns
Central section
(area: 76 100 sq km)

Townsville

Mackay

Mackay/Capricorn section
(area: 143 400 sq km)
N Rockhampton

Great Barrier Reef

World Heritage Area
(Area: 348 000 sq km)
Great Barrier Reef
Marine Park
(Area: 345 000 sq km) 0 400 km
Brisbane

Australia’s Great Barrier Reef (Figure 6.36) is the world’s largest coral reef
system, stretching for more than 2000 km north to south, between 15 and
150 km off the coast of Queensland. Up to 65 km wide in parts, it covers
345 000 km2. It was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1981, and
is the world’s largest Marine Park.

Great Barrier Reef factfile

Types or species
Coral 
4ROPICALlSH 
Birds 
Reptiles 
Others Molluscs, dolphins, dugongs, rays, sponges, turtles,
humpback whales

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 Photo 6.39
to come

Figure 6.37
View of the Great Barrier reef, Tourism
Australia
The marine tourism industry is the largest commercial activity in the
Great Barrier Reef region, which is both a World Heritage Site and the
world’s largest Marine Park. Visitors contribute more than Aus$5 billion
to the Australian economy every year, and the industry provides jobs for
more than 50 000 people. There are more than 800 operators and 1500
vessels operating along the reef, ranging from small sailing boats catering
for 20 or fewer to luxury catamarans carrying 400 people. Some cruise
ships also include it on their itinerary. More than 85 per cent of visitors go
ashore in just 10 per cent of the park. Attractions include day, overnight
and extended tours, snorkelling, scuba diving and fishing, aircraft or
helicopter trips, sailing, cruising and glass-bottomed boat viewing.

Problems
Despite the high numbers of tourists, it is not visitors who pose the real
threat to the reef. As is the case for most coral reefs, the main threat is
global warming. Coral growth here has declined more in recent years that
at any time over the past 400 years. If sea temperatures rise, bleaching
could decimate the coral. Deposition of sediment and pollution from
the run off of pesticides, fertilizers and detergents from the land are also
causing problems.
In terms of wildlife, two species in particular are causing concern.
Loggerhead turtle numbers have fallen by 90 per cent in the past 50 years,
many getting caught in fishing nets. Dugongs (a large marine mammal)
have fared even worse, declining by 97 per cent over the same period, also
the victim of fishing nets, but also through hunting or being hit by boats.

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 Marine processes

6.8 Marine pollution

Most people, even those who live on the coast, see only a small fraction of
the marine environment. A significant amount of the pollution that makes
its way to our seas and oceans originates on land from human activity. For
many years seas and oceans have been treated like giant drains or sewers.
Waste finds its way into our rivers, either via our drainage systems (Figure
6.38) or from surface run off, and ultimately into the sea, where tides
carry it away from the coast – and out of sight. Waves, tides and currents
can carry waste thousands of kilometres away, with some of it washed up
along other coastal areas.
Figure 6.38
Runoff and discharges from land Waste being discharged into
Atmosphere
wind-blown gases sewage and industrial waste water course
and particles

33%
44%

12%
10% 1%

Marine transport Offshore

oil spills/leaks, Dumping at sea production Figure 6.39
cargo spills unwanted waste, waste from oil/ Causes of marine pollution
ships' garbage gas production

Figure 6.39 shows the various causes of marine pollution. Sewage and
Figure 6.40
industrial waste have always been discharged into rivers and seas, with Ships account for nearly a quarter of
large quantities broken down by natural processes. However, we now marine pollution
produce so much that these processes are slowing down. A lot of waste
is so toxic or rich in nutrients that algae grow very quickly, blocking out
sunlight and reducing oxygen levels in water. This is a real threat to marine
ecosystems. The Mediterranean Sea (which is not tidal) has seen great
masses of algae in recent years. Swimmers and surfers increasingly suffer
viruses and skin complaints through contact with contaminated water.
About three-quarters of marine pollution comes from the land, the rest
comes from ships (Figure 6.40), plus a small amount from offshore rigs
or platforms. Illegal dumping of waste at sea accounts for an estimated
10 per cent of marine pollution, slightly less than from oil spills or leaks
and cargo spills.

Plastic soup
There is an increasing amount of non-biodegradable waste in our seas and
oceans, especially plastics. The UN estimates that there are 18 000 pieces
of floating plastic for every square kilometre of ocean, and this figure is
increasing every year.
About 20 years ago a huge amount of rubbish was discovered in the North
Pacific Ocean, thousands of kilometres from land. Few commercial ships
sail here as the seas are nutrient-poor with only small numbers of fish and
marine life.

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 0 500 1000 kilometres

t
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There are now two separate areas of what is now called ‘plastic soup’
Figure 6.41
4HE.ORTH0ACIlC/CEAN around the Hawaiian Islands (Figure 6.41), known as the Eastern and
Western Pacific Garbage Patches or Trash Vortex. The reason that plastic
soup has collected here in the North Pacific Gyre is because the current
spirals clockwise, taking rubbish from countries around the Pacific Rim
with it. About 10 per cent of the plastic we manufacture every year (10
million tonnes) ends up in the oceans. This includes plastic goods such as
containers, fishing nets, polystyrene and a whole range of smaller objects
such as plastic bags and bottles. Some is washed up onto beaches, but a
Figure 6.42 larger proportion slowly breaks down into smaller pieces. Industry also
Albatrosses frequently ingest large provides an important ingredient for the soup in the form of tiny plastic
quantities of plastic, mistaking it pellets used to make many of our plastic products, washed into rivers from
for food factories and eventually to the sea.
Plastic soup does not biodegrade. It floats as a mass just on or below the
surface of the water. Most of it cannot be seen from the air because it is
translucent. These could damage existing habitats as alien species. Plastic
soup mixes with plankton, the base of the marine food chain. Small
marine mammals and birds feed on the plankton, swallowing plastic soup
at the same time. Albatrosses (Figure 6.42) mistake some of the rubbish
for squid and ingest it and feed it to their chicks. More than 1 million
seabirds and 100 000 marine mammals die every year from swallowing
plastic or becoming entangled in it and drowning. It provides a route for
living organisms to be transported around the globe. There are also fears
that under certain conditions plastics may release highly concentrated
toxins and that this may move right through the food chain.

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 Marine processes

Summary
.OWTHATYOUHAVESTUDIEDTHISCHAPTERYOUSHOULDBEABLETO
s understand the action of waves and how they erode, remove, transport and deposit material
around coastlines
s describe the differences between constructive and destructive waves and how this affects swash
and backwash
s identify and explain the formation and location of a range of coastal landforms including cliffs, wave-
cut platforms, caves, arches, stacks, headlands and bays, beaches, spits, bars, sand dunes and salt marsh.
s DElNESWASHBACKWASHFETCHWAVEREFRACTIONHYDRAULICACTIONCORRASIONCORROSIONSOLUTION AND
attrition, hard and soft engineering methods
s describe and explain the process longshore drift
s describe the different measures used to manage coastal areas, including different hard and soft
engineering methods
s explain how coastal areas have to be managed to serve a range of users
s describe the different types of coral reefs and the conditions under which they are formed
s list the causes of marine pollution and the problems created
s where appropriate use relevant case studies and a range of maps, data and statistics

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 Activities
 A I 7HATISMEANTBYTHEFETCH

II $ESCRIBETHEDIFFERENCESBETWEENCONSTRUCTIVEANDDESTRUCTIVEWAVES
III 4HEREAREFOURMAINPROCESSESOFMARINEEROSIONINCLUDINGSOLUTION.AMEANDWRITEASHORT
SENTENCEDESCRIBINGEACHOFTHEOTHERTHREE

Figure 6.43

B I 3TUDY&IGURE.AMEANDDESCRIBETHESTRUCTUREANDLOCATIONOFTHEFEATURESHOWN
(ii) The feature described in (b)(i) is designed to help prevent coastal erosion – in particular
erosion via longshore drift. Explain how it works. (4)
c) Describe how a headland may be eroded to form a series of features, culminating in a stack and
STUMP9OURANSWERSHOULDALSOREFERTOMETHODSOFEROSION

 A I 7HATISAWAVE CUTPLATFORM


II (OWISAWAVE CUTPLATFORMFORMED
III %XPLAINHOWROCKSTRUCTUREAFFECTSTHESHAPEOFCLIFFS

Softer rock

Resistant (harder) rock

WAVES

Less resistant
(softer) rock

Harder rock

Softer rock

B I 3 TUDY&IGURE$RAWASECONDLABELLEDDIAGRAMTOSHOWWHATHAPPENSWHENANAREAOFCOAST
LIKETHISISERODEDANDWHATFEATURESAREFORMED
(ii) Beaches are stores of sediment/rock material. Where does this material come from and how does
ITACCUMULATE

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 Marine processes

Figure 6.44
Waves approaching the coast at an
angle. TBC

C & IGURESHOWSWAVESAPPROACHINGTHECOASTATANANGLE$ESCRIBEHOWTHISCANLEADTOAPROCESS
CALLEDLONGSHOREDRIFT!SARESULTOFTHISPROCESSHOWARECOASTALSPITSANDBARSFORMED

 A I 7HATISAPOLYP

II )NWHATGENERALLOCATIONAREMOSTOFTHEWORLDSCORALREEFSFOUND
III 7HYARECORALREEFSOFTENCALLED@THERAINFORESTSOFTHESEA
B I $ESCRIBETHREECONDITIONSNEEDEDFORTHEGROWTHOFCORALREEFS
(ii) Describe the sequence of events that leads to the formation of an atoll. (4)

Figure 6.45
One problem caused by human
activity to a coral reef

C %XPLAINWHATISMEANTBYCORALBLEACHING7HYISITAPROBLEMANDWHATCANBEDONETOPREVENTIT
D ,OOKAT&IGURE4HEPHOTOSHOWSONEOFTHEPROBLEMSFACEDBYFRAGILEMARINEECOSYSTEMSSUCH
as coral reefs. For a named area of coral reef you have studied, describe the main threats caused by
HUMANACTIVITY

 A I 7HATDOESMANAGEMENTMEANINTERMSOF@MANAGINGCOASTS

II 7HYARECOASTSIMPORTANTLOCATIONSFORINDUSTRIALACTIVITY

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 Figure 6.46
Managing coastal erosion

III &IGUREISANEXAMPLEOFMANAGINGCOASTALEROSION7HATPLANTDOESITSHOW7HYISTHIS
PLANTUSEFULWHENPLANTEDONSANDDUNES

Figure 6.47
Coastal defences

B I 7HATTYPEOFCOASTALDEFENCEISSHOWNIN&IGURE%XPLAINHOWITWORKS
II )NTERMSOFTHEPROTECTIONOFSOMECOASTALAREASZEROACTIONISCONSIDEREDTHEBESTOPTION
7HATDOESTHISMEANANDWHYMIGHTITBETHEBESTCHOICE
C 7HATISTHEDIFFERENCEBETWEENHARDANDSOFTENGINEERINGMETHODSUSEDTOPROTECTCOASTALAREAS
Give one example of each type (other than those shown in (a)(iii) and (b)(i)), describing the main
BENElTSANDDISADVANTAGES
d) For a named coastal area you have studied, describe how it is managed to satisfy different needs
ANDUSES

 A I 7HATDOWEMEANBYNON BIODEGRADABLEWASTE


II (OWDOESRUBBISHANDWASTEFROMTOWNSFARINLANDlNDITSWAYINTOOURSEASANDOCEANS
III 7HYISTHEPROBLEMOFMARINEPOLLUTIONINCREASING
b) (i)
(ii) What natural and human actions have caused the formation of the areas called the Eastern
AND7ESTERN'ARBAGE0ATCHESINTHE0ACIlC/CEAN
C 7HATARETHECOMMON@INGREDIENTSOFPLASTICSOUP7HEREDOTHEYCOMEFROMANDWHATPROBLEMS
ISITCAUSING
D &ORANAMEDEVENTANDLOCATIONDESCRIBEANDEXPLAINHOWACOASTALAREABECAMEPOLLUTED)NCLUDE
REFERENCESTOBOTHSHORT ANDLONG TERMEFFECTSINYOURANSWER

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