Physics (Ver 2)

H2 Physics (9749) Qualitative Notes Ver 2.
Qualitative Questions: An Introduction
Qualitative questions are structured questions that require you to define, describe, and explain phenomena.
Understanding physics concepts and how to apply each formula won’t be enough to do well for H2 Physics. Instead of
answering in our own words based on our understanding of the physics concepts, we must be able to answer qualitative
questions with the required scientific terms, keywords, and phrases to score.
In this set of notes, we will be going through some of the commonly asked qualitative questions for all topics and sharing the
answers to tackle them comprehensively with the correct scientific terms, keywords, and phrases.
Before looking at the topical questions, here are some considerations when answering qualitative questions in general.
Definition Questions
This is the first type of qualitative questions tested in the A Levels. It requires students to define a certain concept and
phenomenon with the scientific terms and keywords. Students often lose marks when they miss out even one keyword or do
not have the exact keywords and phrases in their answers.
Useful techniques in tackling definition questions
1. Remember (memorise) them

a. In this set of notes, the first segment of every topic will cover a list of definitions that have been tested in past year
A Level papers, are commonly tested in school examinations, part of the syllabus requirements, or are likely to be
tested in future examinations
b. You can use the definitions list as a starter – memorise the keywords and key phrases you need to have to define
the term or phenomenon
c. Your school will provide a definitions list for you, often nearer to the A Levels. The definitions list provided by your
school will be more updated to the latest Cambridge requirements and standards. Although the differences won’t
be significant, it is still advised to use your school’s definitions list if you have it.
2. Explain physics formulas in words

a. Many physics definitions can be ‘translated’ from physics formulas by breaking each part down
b. Take “Newton’s Law of Gravitation” for example:
i. Force of attraction between two point masses is directly proportional to the product of their masses and
inversely proportional to the square of their separation
𝑴 𝑴
ii. Gravitational force 𝑭 = 𝑮 𝟏 𝟐 𝟐
𝒓
iii. M1M2  Directly proportional to the product of their masses
iv. r2  Inversely proportional to the square of their separation
3. Group similar definitions together

a. Many physics definitions are very similar or are sub-sets of each other
b. Take “Electric Potential Energy” and “Electric Potential” for example:
i. Electric Potential Energy – Electric potential energy at a point is the work done by an external agent on a
charge to move the charge from infinity to that point
ii. Electric Potential – Electric potential at a point is the work done per unit positive charge by an external
agent to move a point charge from infinity to that point
These notes are shared on
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H2 Physics (9749) Qualitative Notes Ver 2.0
Qualitative Questions
Along with calculation questions, this type of questions has the bulk of the marks in H2 Physics papers. And they are the ones
that most students will lose marks in because they come in all styles and are unpredictable. However, by scanning through all
the Preliminary Examination questions and A Level Papers, there are some types of questions that are commonly asked. Before
diving straight into each topic, let’s run through some general techniques you can use to answer qualitative questions.
In explaining and describing certain phenomena, we can consider the following techniques in general.
Useful techniques in tackling other qualitative questions
1. Explain physics formulas and equations in words

a. Take this question for example: If Young’s double-slit experiment were conducted underwater, how would the
observed interference pattern be affected?
𝒂𝒙
i. Formula involved: 𝝀 =
𝑫
ii. The speed of electromagnetic radiation underwater will be much slower than that in a vacuum. The
wavelength of the wave will decrease and fringe spacing of observed interference pattern will decrease.
2. Utilise physics laws and concepts

a. Many questions can be answered by referring to the related physics laws and concepts
b. We quote the physics law / concept involved and apply it to the phenomenon
c. Take a question on explaining magnetic flux in a coil for example:
i. Faraday’s law of magnetic induction – Induced emf is directly proportional to the rate of change of magnetic
flux linkage
ii. Lenz’s law – Induced emf is in a direction so as to produce effects to oppose the change producing it
iii. Answer: When coil is pulled out of magnetic field, magnetic flux linkage through coil decreases, thus
according to Lenz’s law, the induced emf will produce an induced current in a direction to produce effects to
oppose this decrease and thus flow counterclockwise to produce its own magnetic field out of the page.
3. Kinematics considerations
a. What is the magnitude of velocity? What is the direction?
b. Acceleration magnitude and direction? Does it oppose the direction of velocity?
4. Force considerations
a. Consider all the forces acting on the object / system: gravitational force, upthrust, contact force, friction, etc
b. Consider the resultant force. Is the system in equilibrium? What is the direction of resultant force?
5. Energy considerations
a. Apply conservation of energy and explain it in words
b. Describe the conversion of energy from one type to the other. For example, how gravitational potential energy of a
pendulum is converted to kinetic energy, and thus the rise in velocity.
After learning these basic techniques, you are ready for the commonly asked qualitative questions for each topic. Let’s start off
with Measurement!
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Measurement
Definitions and Concepts
Base quantity One of the seven physical quantities of the SI system by which all physical quantities are defined.
Base unit One of the seven base quantities of the SI system whose magnitude is defined without referring to any
other units.
Derived units Those obtained by product or quotient of base units
Homogeneous Equation where units of all the terms are the same, and each term in the equation must correspond
equation to the same physical quantity.
Random errors Present when the measured readings are scattered about the mean value with no fixed pattern; they
can be reduced by averaging, but cannot be eliminated (human reaction time etc)
Systematic errors Consistent deviation of readings from the true value with a fixed pattern; they cannot be eliminated
by averaging, but they can be reduced/eliminated by correct lab procedures and careful design of
experiments (calibration and zero errors – correct by negating their errors or calibrating before the
actual experiments).
Accuracy of a set of Degree of closeness of the measurement to the true value; a measure of reliability
readings
Accuracy of an Degree of closeness of a reading on an instrument to the true value of the quantity being measured.
instrument An accurate instrument will give readings close to the true values.
Precision of a set of Degree of closeness of the measurements are to each other; a measure of level of uncertainty in an
readings instrument’s scale
Precision of an Term used to describe the level of uncertainty in an instrument’s scale. High precision instruments
instrument have small scale divisions.
Scalar A scalar quantity is one which has magnitude but no direction
Vector A vector quantity is one which has direction and magnitude
Uncertainty A range of values on both sides of a measurement in which the actual value of the measurement is
expected to lie.
Fractional/ Ratio of absolute uncertainty to the measured value of a quantity
percentage
uncertainty
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Uncertainty rules
When using a digital voltmeter and digital ammeter to determine the resistance of a wire, state one possible random error
which could occur in the use of the digital meters. How could this error be kept to a minimum? Explain why the voltmeter must
have a resistance much greater than that of the wire, which resistance it is trying to measure, in order to avoid a systematic
error in the use of the voltmeter. [5] N95/III/I
Quantization error (rounding-off error), where the reading is rounded up or down.

Hence a reading of 2.3 could actually be anything between 2.25 to 2.35.
Quantization errors, like all random errors, can be minimized by taking several readings of V and I and finding the average, or
by plotting a graph of V versus I and drawing a best fit line to even out under and over estimations.
Additionally, using higher voltages and currents, and digital meters with greater precision and more decimal places will also
reduce the random error.
The voltmeter has to have a much greater resistance than that of the wire so that it will draw minimal current away from the
wire when connected across it.
This is to minimize the systematic error arising from the reduction in potential difference across the wire when the voltmeter
is connected.
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Kinematics
Definitions
Distance Total length travelled by an object

Displacement Straight line distance of an object from a fixed point in a specified direction
Speed The rate of change of distance with respect to time
Velocity The rate of change of displacement with respect to time
Acceleration The rate of change of velocity with respect to time
Average Average rate of change of distance/displacement with respect to time
speed/velocity
Instantaneous Rate of change of displacement with respect to time at a particular time
velocity
Projectile motion A motion due to a uniform velocity in one direction and a uniformly accelerated motion in a
perpendicular motion
Acceleration of free Acceleration of a body towards the surface of the Earth when the only force acting on it is its weight
fall
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A ball is thrown vertically upwards with an initial velocity vo. Sketch its velocity-time graph
showing the time until the ball reaches the thrower’s hand, in the case when
(a) air resistance is neglected, labelled A
(b) air resistance is considered, labelled B
Explain qualitatively the shapes of both graphs.
Max height reached is

smaller with AR (B)
Without AR (A):
 Velocity is constant throughout the journey because by conservation of energy, ball’s total energy remains constant.
Since the ball is thrown upwards and returns to the same level, its initial and finak GPE will be the same, thus KE
would also be constant since no energy is lost/converted to other forms of energy  as such, velocity is constasnt
because KE affects the speed by KE = ½mv2
With AR present (B):

 As the object rises upwards, when there is AR present, both AR and weight act downwards in the same direction,
causing a larger net downward force  greater acceleration downwards which opposes the upward velocity 
upward velocity to decrease to 0 at a faster rate, causing the max height to be reached sooner  t(u) is thus shorter
with AR present in B
 Velocity of the ball when it reaches back the same level is smaller than that of the initial velocity because some
energy is used to overcome AR  KE is lesser than before
 Height of the ball reached is also decreased since with AR, ball travel to a shorter height since energy is used to do
work against AR both horizontally and vertically
A ball is thrown vertically upwards. Explain how air resistance would affect the time taken for the ball to reach its maximum
height, and the maximum height to which it rises. J81/I/13
Using N2L to explain instead:
The time will be shorter and the maximum height will be reached lower. Air resistance increases the downward resultant force
and hence the deceleration experienced by the ball, thus bringing to rest sooner. (Newton’s 2 nd Law of Motion) Without air
resistance, v=u-gt hence t=(u-v)/g = u/g since v=0. But with air resistance, t=u/(g+a), where a is the additional non-constant
deceleration due to air resistance.
When a train leaves a station, it accelerates from rest along a straight track. Explain why, in practice, trains do not have a
constant acceleration even though their engine power remains constant. [3] N90/III/I
In practice, air resistance increase with speed. (F=kv²) The resultant force acting on the train, which is equal to the forward
engine force subtract the air resistance, thus decreases with increasing speed. Since acceleration is proportional to the
resultant force according to Newton’s 2nd Law of Motion, the acceleration decreases with increasing speed.
When a driver sees the traffic light turn red, he steps on the brake so that the car will come to a stop. The total stopping
distance = thinking distance + braking distance. Explain why thinking distance is proportional to speed whereas braking
distance is not. Describe in words the relationship between braking distance and speed. [7] J89/II/9
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Thinking distance is the distance travelled by the car during the driver’s reaction time. Since it takes a human about 0.60 s to
react to an event that happened and step on the brakes, during this time interval, the car would travel at the same speed
hence the thinking distance is directly proportional to speed.
During the thinking phase, the brake has not been depressed hence there is no deceleration. Hence the speed is constant
during this phase. Since distance traveled is equal to the product of the car’s speed and the reaction time ie. s=ut, the thinking
distance is proportional to speed. The constant of proportionality is the reaction time t.
The braking distance is the distance travelled by the car after the driver applied the brakes. If the maximum brake is applied
throughout, there should be a constant retardation force hence the speed of the car would reduce linearly with time. Since
the speed of the car reduces with time, the braking distance would not be directly proportional to the speed.
During the braking phase, the brake exerts a retarding force on the car hence there is deceleration. The speed decreases non-
linearly with distance hence braking distance cannot be proportional to speed. Using the equation v²=u²-2as  s=u²/2a. The
braking distance is thus proportional to the square of the initial speed.
What would be the effects on the thinking distance and the braking distance when the road is wet, and when the driver is not
fully alert?
The thinking distance is the same since the reaction time would be the same. The braking distance would be larger since the
braking force would be less in rainy weather so it takes a longer distance to stop the car (due to reduced friction/grip).
The thinking distance would be larger since the reaction time of a driver who is not alert would be much longer. The braking
distance however would be the same since the braking force is not affected.
An archer tries to hit a target pointing his arrow at an angle to the horizontal. Neglecting air resistance, the angle calculated
is 32 degrees. Suggest with a reason whether the angle would in practice be larger or smaller than that calculated for the arrow
to hit the target. [3] N2000/II/2
Larger. In practice, there is air resistance hence the arrow will fall short of the target. In order to reach the target, it thus has
to aim to hit further than the target. The range of the arrow is R=u²sin2θ/g. The maximum range occurs when 2θ=1 ie. 2θ=90˚
or θ=45˚. The closer the angle is to 45˚, the larger the range. Hence if an angle is larger than 45˚, it should be decreased in
order to increase the range. On the other hand, if an angle is smaller than 45˚, it should be increased. In this case 32˚ is less
than the optimal angle of 45˚, hence the angle should be increased.
Describe qualitatively the motion of bodies falling in a uniform gravitational field with air resistance.
A falling object has 2 forces acting on it. Its weight acts vertically downwards. Drag force due to air resistance acts vertically
upwards. Drag force increases with velocity of the object. When the drag force is equal to the weight of the object, the object
is said to achieve terminal velocity.
In the study of kinematics, we normally adopt a coordinate system as a frame of reference. Explain why this is necessary. [1]
IJC Prelims 08/II/1
It helps us define the starting point for measuring any quantity
Explain why it is technically incorrect to define speed as distance traveled per second. Include in your answer the correct
statement defining speed. [2] N04/III/1
The second is not the only unit of time measurement, nor is it the smallest division of time interval. “Distance traveled per
second” is the average speed within a time interval of one second. Speed should be defined as the rate of change of distance
traveled.
State the conditions necessary for the kinematics equations to be applicable. [2] N98/III/1
Constant acceleration and linear motion.

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How do you reduce air resistance?
By bending the body forward into a more streamlined shape, the initial horizontal velocity at which the body is projected at is
increased, increasing the horizontal distance moved.
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Dynamics
Definitions
Newton’s first law An object at rest will remain at rest and an object in motion will remain in motion at constant velocity
in the absence of an external resultant force
Inertia The reluctance of a body to start moving or change its motion
Newton’s second The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to the resultant force acting on it
law and it occurs in the direction of the resultant force.
Newton’s third law If body A exerts a force on body B, then body B exerts an equal but opposite force of the same type on
body A
Action-reaction pair forces characteristics:

 are of the same nature
 are of equal magnitude
 act along the same line but opposite directions
 act on different bodies
Linear momentum The product of the mass of an object and its velocity. It acts in the same direction as its velocity.
Force The rate of change of momentum of an object that is free to move, and it acts in the same direction as
the change in momentum.
Mass The measure of a body’s resistance to change in velocity
Density Mass per unit volume of a substance
Weight Force acting on a mass due to a gravitational field
Apparent weight Normal contact force experienced by an object in contact with a surface
Weightlessness The absence of normal contact force acting on an object
Impulse Product of average force acting on an object and the time duration for which the force acts.
Principle of The total linear momentum of an isolated system is constant in any given direction (provided that no
conservation of net external resultant force acts on the system).
linear momentum
Isolated system System in which there are no net external force or torque acting and no transfer of mass in and out.
Impulse- Impulse of force acting on an object is equal to the change in momentum of the object
momentum
theorem
Elastic collision The collision between 2 bodies in which the total momentum and the kinetic energy of the system are
conserved after the collision. (Note, during the collision, total KE may not be conserved)
Inelastic collision Collision in which kinetic energy is not conserved.
Perfectly inelastic Total KE is not conserved, but the total momentum is conserved, and the objects stick together after
collision the collision.
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A ship is moving towards the dock is decelerated by its engine. Explain qualitatively how the law of conservation of momentum
applies to this example. [4] N88/II/8
Considering the ship and water to be one system, the decelerating force is an internal force. Since there is no net external
force acting on the system, the total momentum of the system is conserved. The momentum lost by the ship is transferred to
the water.
Describe the circumstances under which a body is said to be weightless. J79/I/1
A body is weightless when its acceleration is equal in magnitude and direction to the gravitational field strength at its location.
Under such circumstances, the reaction force between the body and the floor will be zero.
Case 1: Body in a lift under free fall near the Earths’ surface. The body’s acceleration is g, the gravitational field strength is g.
Since a=g, the body is weightless.
Case 2: Body in space station orbiting the Earth. The body’s acceleration is equal to the gravitational field strength at its
location. Since a=g, the body is weightless.
Case 3: Body which is stationary or moving at constant speed deep in outer space. The body’s acceleration is zero, the
gravitational field strength at its location is also zero. Since a=g=0, the body is weightless.
Some makes of cars have, as a safety feature, regions at the front and rear which are designed to collapse on impact. Give a
brief physical explanation of how this design may help to protect passengers from serious injury in the event of a collision.
N85/II/2
In the event of a collision, the initial momentum and final momentum of the car is predetermined by the speed at which it
was traveling. However, by collapsing upon impact, the safety regions increase the time for this momentum to change. This
reduces the rate of change of momentum of the car and its passengers. Since the resultant force acting on the passengers is
proportional to their rate of change of momentum (Newton’s 2nd Law of Motion), the resultant force acting on them is less
and they are protected from serious injury.
Describe the concept of weight as the effect of a gravitational field on a mass.
An object which placed in a gravitational field would experience a gravitational force. The magnitude of the gravitational force
experienced is the weight of the object. Weight = mass x acceleration due to gravity.
In physics we know that every force is an interaction between two objects. Thus, forces always come in pairs and they all obey
Newton’s 3rd law. Also during the interaction, the principle of conservation of momentum is observed. In the following
examples, describe briefly how the law and the principle are observed. a) A tennis ball is released from rest, falls vertically to
the floor and bounces back again. b) An alpha-particle travels from a great distance directly towards a gold nucleus, which can
be assumed to be stationary. The alpha-particle returns along the same path without penetrating the nucleus. [8] AJC Prelims
08/III/4
a) By Newton’s law of gravitation, the tennis ball exerts a gravitational attractive force acting upward on the floor, so the floor
exerts an equal and opposite force acting downward on the ball. At the point of impact, the ball exerts an electromagnetic
repulsive force on the floor downward, and the floor exerts and equal and opposite force upward on the ball.
When the ball is released from rest, the total momentum of the ball and the earth is zero. When the ball is falling down, it
gains momentum. The floor is gaining momentum upward so that the total momentum of the system is zero and conserved.
The upward momentum of the floor is not observed due to the large mass of the earth and its small velocity. At the point of
impact where both have zero velocity, the total momentum is zero and conserved. Immediately after the collision, the ball
moves upwards with maximum momentum in the upward direction. The floor will move downwards with momentum so that
the total momentum of the system is zero and conserved. The downward momentum of the floor again is not felt due to the
large mass of the earth and its velocity is so small that it is not observed. When the ball is moving up, it loses momentum
upward. The floor is also losing momentum downward so that the total momentum of the system is zero and conserved.
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b) There is an electric repulsive force acting on the alpha-particle by the gold nucleus and an equal and opposite repulsive
force acting on the gold nucleus by the alpha-particle. At the point of closest approach, the alpha-particle exerts the strongest
repulsive electric force on the gold nucleus. The gold nucleus also exerts an equal but opposite strong repulsive electric force
on the alpha-particle. At the great distance, the momentum of the alpha-particle is towards the gold nucleus and the gold
nucleus has zero momentum. When the alpha-particle slows down as it approaches the gold nucleus, its loss of momentum is
transferred to the gold nucleus. The gold nucleus will have velocity, hence its momentum is in the same direction so that the
total momentum of the system is conserved. Immediately after the impact, the alpha-particle moves in the opposite direction
with small speed. Its momentum is in the opposite direction. The gold nucleus will continue to move with greater momentum
in the other direction so that the total momentum of the system is conserved. When the alpha-particle speeds up in the
opposite direction, its momentum will increase in the opposite direction. The gold nucleus will speed up in the other direction
and its momentum will increase in the other direction so that the total momentum of the system will remain conserved.
When a neutron hits a stationary carbon atom elastically head on, it loses 0.284 of its kinetic energy and retains only 0.716 of
its kinetic energy. Discuss qualitatively the effect on the kinetic energy lost if the collision is not restricted to head-on collisions
only. Explain why very light particles such as electrons and massive particles such as uranium nuclei are unsuitable for slowing
down neutrons. [10] N89/II/12
If the collision is glancing and not-head on, the kinetic energy lost by the neutron will be less than 0.284. This is because only
the component of the neutron’s momentum acting along the radial direction of the stationary carbon atom will be involved
in the energy transfer. The tangential momentum, on the other hand, will be totally retained with the neutron. Hence the
kinetic energy transferred from the neutron to the stationary carbon will be less. In order to slow down neutrons, neutrons
have to transfer their kinetic energy to the stationary nuclei. The closer the mass of the two colliding bodies, the greater the
amount of kinetic energy transferred. In the case where the masses are equal, as in the case of a neutron colliding with a
proton, 100% of the neutron’s kinetic energy will be transferred and the neutron will stop. Electrons and uranium, on the
other hand, have masses much different from that of the neutron. The mass of the electron is too small while that of the
uranium nucleus is too large. Therefore, only a small fraction of the neutron’s kinetic energy is transferred to these nuclei.
State the relationship between the change in linear momentum of an object, the constant force acting on the object, and the
time for which the force acts. [1] N04/III/2
The change in linear momentum p of an object is equal to the product of the constant force acting on it and the time for
which the force acts.
Explain the conservation of momentum due to N2L and N3L:
During collisions, equal magnitude of force is exerted on each other (N3L), and the resultant force on the 2 objects as a system
is zero, thus by N2L, the change of momentum is equal to zero, thus momentum is conserved.
Suggest with a reason why the momentum equations would not necessarily apply if the particles concerned were traveling at
speeds close to the speed of light. [1] N01/III/1
At such speeds, relativistic mechanics replaces Newtonian mechanics in predicting the behaviour of collisions.
In an elastic collision, the two bodies become temporarily compressed and remain in contact for a short time. Explain why both
bodies have the same velocity at the time of maximum compression and why their total kinetic energy at this time is different
from the sum of their individual kinetic energies after they have completely separated. J87/II/9
At the point of maximum compression, the two bodies are stuck together and moving as one, hence they must have the same
velocity. Some of the kinetic energy is stored as elastic potential energy in the compressed bodies. However, when the bodies
separate, they regain their original shape and the elastic potential energy is converted back into kinetic energy. No kinetic
energy is lost since the collision is elastic. This is unlike a perfectly inelastic collision, whereby when the two bodies are stuck
together and moving as one, kinetic energy is lost permanently as heat and sound energy, and cannot be recovered.
Which situation is a wooden block more likely to be knocked over? By a metal or a rubber bullet?
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The rubber bullet is more likely to knock the wooden block over. This is because the change in momentum is greater when
the rubber bullet rebounds than when it is brought to rest in the case of the metal bullet (the metal bullet embeds itself in the
wood).
If you jump from a table and land with both your knees locked, you are more likely to get hurt than if you land with your legs
bent/relaxed. Explain.
By Ft = m(vf – vi), since m and v are constant, and impulse is the product of the force exerted and the time interval over which
the force acts. If we land with our legs bent/relaxed, the force exerted acts over a longer period of time (prolonging the
collision duration) and hence, it has a smaller magnitude. If you locked your knees, the force would act over a much shorter
period of time and would be much greater in magnitude, large enough to break your bone.
2 trolleys of X (2m) and Y (m) are held stationary and connected together by an extended elastic cord. If they are released at
the same instant, they move towards each other and stick together on impact. What is the speed of Y after the collision if the
speed of X is 20m/s initially?
Considering the two trolleys as one system, the force of the elastic cord as well as the force of impact are both internal forces.
Since no net external force acts on the system, the total momentum of the system remains constant (zero). Upon collision,
the rightward momentum of X (2m x 20 m s-1) cancels out the leftward momentum of Y (m x 40 m s-1) and both trolleys come
to rest, thus having 0m/s.
Discuss how seat belts and air bags in a car ensure greater safety.
By N1L, passengers tend to continue motion with constant velocity in a straight line after the car is braked. Seat belts and air
bags provide a backward force to stop the passengers from continuing moving forward. If the force can be provided for a
longer time, then the magnitude of the force will be lessened given that change in P = F∆t.
In order to reduce the number of road traffic accidents, many countries conduct research into improving road safety. a) One
area of research concerns braking. State three factors that affect braking which might be considered by researchers. b) State
one other aspect of car safety that could be researched, and suggest briefly how the research could be conducted. [5] N04/III/2
a) Frictional force between the tire and the road. Skidding due to the tires locking in abrupt braking situations. Speed of braking
action. Type of tire material. Surface of road. Width of tire.
b) Shock absorption in the event of collision. Research can be conducted into the efficacy of the crumple zone at the front and
back of the car. The material used should be stiff enough so that the car does not break apart, yet not so stiff as to result in an
extremely large force of impact. Force sensors placed on dummy drivers can be used to measure the force of injury in
simulated collisions.
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Forces
Field of force A region of space where a force is felt

Equilibrium A system is in equilibrium when there is zero resultant force acting on the body in any direction, and
when there is zero resultant moment about any point axis
Hooke’s law Force is directly proportional to the extension, provided that the elastic limit has not been exceeded
Spring constant The constant of proportionality between force and extension for a sample of material that has not
been stretched to such an extent that it has exceeded the elastic limit.
Centre of gravity The point at which all the weight of an object appears to be acting through
Centre of mass The point at which all of the mass of an object appears to be concentrated
Couple A couple consists of a pair of parallel forces of equal magnitude but opposite direction whose lines of
action do not coincide
Moment of a force The turning effect of a force which is equal to the product of the force and the perpendicular distance
of the line of action of the force from the pivot
Torque of a couple The turning effect of a couple. It is equal to the product of one of the forces with the perpendicular
separation between the pair of forces.
Principle of Sum of clockwise moments about any point is equal to the sum of anticlockwise moments about the
moments same point.
Upthrust Upthrust is the vertical upward force exerted by the surrounding fluid when a body is submerged fully
or partially in a fluid. It is equal in magnitude to the weight of fluid displaced by the body.
Pressure Force acting normally to an area per unit area
Archimedes’ An object immersed fully or partially in a fluid experiences a buoyant force equal in magnitude to the
principle weight of the fluid displaced
Principle of An object floating in a fluid always displaces a weight of fluid equal to its own weight
floatation
Comparisons between the moment of a force and the torque of a couple:

 Moment of a force: can be supplied by a single force; may produce linear acceleration where the centre of mass moves,
magnitude depends on the position of the pivot
 Torque of a couple: must be supplied by a pair of equal and opposite forces which their lines of action do not coincide;
may produce angular acceleration but no linear acceleration; magnitude does not depend on the position of the pivot
(constant throughout)
Floatation elaborated:
 ALWAYS: Upthrust = Weight of fluid displaced
 If object is floating in equilibrium: Upthrust = Weight of object = Weight of fluid displaced
 When entire object is in the fluid: Volume of fluid displaced = Volume of object
 When sinking: Weight of object > Upthrust (and thus > weight of fluid displaced); Upthrust = Weight of fluid displaced;
Volume of fluid displaced = Volume of object
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A tennis racket hits a ball. Suggest why in practice it is impossible for a constant force to be applied to the ball. [2] J97/III/1
As the tennis racket hits the ball, the racket strings undergo extension. The force exerted by the string increases as the string
elongates, according to Hooke’s Law. Therefore, it is impossible for a constant force to be applied.
A bag inflated with air is attached to an object to lift it upwards in water, explain why as the system rises it will experience an
increasing acceleration and explain why air has to be released continuously from the lifting bag to allow a constant speed of
ascent.
As the bag rises, the surrounding water pressure decreases (fluid pressure = ρgh). Thus, if we assume the temperature T of
the air inside the bag to be constant, then since pV = constant, thus as pressure within the bag (counteracting pressure)
decreases, the volume of the air in the bag increases.
As the bag expands, it displaces more sea-water and hence the upthrust on the bag will increase if no air is released. Since
the weight of the object and lifting bag remains unchanged, the increase in upthrust produces a net upward force on the
system, which causes the system to accelerate upwards.
Hence if we want to have a constant of ascent (ie zero acceleration), then air has to be continuously released such as to keep
the volume of the bag constant, so as to ensure that the upthrust on the bag remains constant during the ascent.
Explain why, when ice floating in a jug of water melts, there is no change in the level of the water. [2] N02/III/10
Since the ice floats, in accordance with the principle of floatation, the weight of ice is exactly equal to the weight of the water
it displaces. Therefore, the mass of the ice is equal to the mass of water it displaces. Thus when the ice melts, it will produce
the same volume of water as the water it displaces. The water formed by the melted ice will exactly replace the water displaced
by the ice. Therefore there is no change in the level of the water.
Quantitatively:
Since the ice is floating, by the principle of floatation:
𝑈𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑐𝑒 = 𝑊𝑖𝑐𝑒
𝜌𝑤 𝑉𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑔 = 𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑔
𝜌𝑤 𝑉𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 = 𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑒
When the ice has fully melted, 𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑒 = 𝑚𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑚𝑒𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑐𝑒
Hence,
𝜌𝑤 𝑉𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 = 𝑚𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑚𝑒𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑐𝑒
𝜌𝑤 𝑉𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 = 𝜌𝑤 𝑉𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑚𝑒𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑐𝑒
𝑉𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 = 𝑉𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑚𝑒𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑐𝑒
Thus the water level in the beaker remains the same.
A mass is added to a vertical spring. The string extends according to Hooke’s Law. However, the energy stored in the spring is
only half of the loss in gravitational potential energy of the mass. With reference to the law of conservation of energy, explain
this observation. N86/II/13
When the spring first extends to its final equilibrium position, the loss in the mass’s gravitational potential energy is equal to
the sum of the spring’s elastic potential energy and the mass’s kinetic energy. However, this kinetic energy is later lost due to
damping factors such as air resistance. Thus, when the spring settles in its final equilibrium position, it is stationary. The mass
has lost all its kinetic energy, and is left with only the spring’s elastic potential energy.
A thin plastic bag is found to have weight W when empty and pressed flat. When the bag is filled with air at atmospheric
pressure and re-weighed, the weight is again found to be exactly W. Explain why the two results are the same. N83/I/2
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When the plastic bag is inflated, it displaces a volume of air equal to its own volume. According to Archimedes’ Principle, the
bag will experience an upthrust equal in magnitude to the weight of the air that it has displaced. Since this volume of air is
exactly equal to the volume of air which filled up the bag, the upthrust is exactly the same as the weight of the air injected
into the bag. The two additional forces, being equal and opposite, cancels out each other hence the bag weighs exactly W.
Suggest some similarities and differences between frictional forces and drag forces. J79/I/14
Similarities: Both forces are resistive forces which oppose motion.

Both forces result in heat dissipation.
Both forces increase with roughness of body’s surface texture.
Differences: Friction is independent of speed whereas drag force increases with speed.
Friction increases with body weight whereas drag force is independent of body weight.
Friction is independent of surrounding fluid medium but drag force increases with density of surrounding
fluid medium.
Friction is independent of surface area of the body, but viscous drag force increases with surface area.
For the car, motion is impossible without friction. Discuss what is meant by friction and the direction in which it acts on the car.
In your answer, suggest another example where friction is useful. [5] N06/III/1
Friction is a type of force that exists between contact surfaces, and which resists relative motion between the two surfaces or
the tendency to such motion. In the case of the car, the frictional force acts in the forward direction of the car. There is friction
at the contact point between the tires and the road. As the wheels rotate clockwise, the tires exert a leftward frictional force
on the road surface. By Newton’s third law of motion, the road surface will exert an equal but opposite rightward frictional
force on each of the rotating tires. This rightward force is the forward force which accelerates the car.
Friction is also useful in braking. When the brakes are stepped on, there is a tendency for the wheels to stop rotating and rub
against the road surface. In this instance, the frictional force acts in the opposite direction to the car’s motion. This produces
a deceleration which brings the car to rest.
A cyclist traveling at a constant speed of 15m/s exerts a power of 240W. Explain why a cyclist traveling at a higher constant
speed needs to exert a greater power. [4] It is often stated that many forms of transport transforms chemical energy to kinetic
energy. Explain why this cyclist is not making this transformation, and explain what transformations of energy are taking. [5]
N99/III/1
Resistive forces opposing the cyclist comprise friction (which is independent of speed), and air resistance (which increases
with speed according to F=kv², where k is a constant). Since acceleration is zero, resultant force is also zero. Hence driving
force is equal but opposite to resistive force. The power exerted is given by the formula P=Fv where F is the driving force and
v his speed. At the same time, this force is exerted over a greater distance per unit time. Both increases in F and v result in an
increase in the power.
Kinetic energy = 0.5mv². When speed is constant, kinetic energy remains constant hence there is no transformation of chemical
to kinetic energy. Chemical energy (in the form of metabolic activity of the cyclist) is used to do work against resistive forces
such as friction and air resistance, and dissipated as heat and sound energy. The heat transfer raises the internal energy of the
bicycle, the ground and the surrounding air.
State the origin of upthrust.
Upthrust on a body is caused by the pressure difference between its upper and lower surfaces.
Describe a situation in which motion is produced without friction being required. [2] N06/III/1
Rockets in space which eject gas to accelerate themselves produce motion without friction being required. The principles of
their motion are the law of conservation of momentum and Newton’s third law of motion – the backward thrust on the gas
produces an equal and opposite thrust on the rocket.
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Work, Energy, Power

Definitions
Work done The product of the average force acting on the object and the displacement in the direction of the
force.
If F is varying, the work done is the area (sum of integrals) under the force-displacement graph
Energy The stored ability to do work
Principle of the Energy can neither be destroyed nor created in any process. It can be transformed from one form to
conservation of another, and transferred from one body to another but the total amount remains constant.
energy
Mechanical Energy The mechanical energy of a system is the sum of the kinetic energy and all the potential energies
present at an instant.
Power Work done per unit time (scalar)
Efficiency The ratio of the work got out of a machine to the energy put in
Joule SI unit of energy or work done. One Joule of work is done when a force of one newton moves its point
of application by one metre in the direction of the force.
Watt One watt is the amount of power when the work done per unit time is one joule per second.
Power The rate of doing work with respect to time (or work done per unit time) or the rate of transfer of
energy with respect to time.
Average power Total work done divided by total time taken
Intensity Energy incident per unit time per unit area normal to the wave or radiation.
Kinetic energy Energy of a body associated with its motion
Potential energy Ability to do work as a result of the position, shape or state of an object.
(includes Gravitational potential energy, electrical potential energy, chemical and Elastic potential
energy).
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Distinguish between gravitational potential energy, elastic potential energy and electric potential energy.
Gravitational potential energy arises from interaction between masses, whereby forces involved are always attractive in
nature. Elastic potential energy arises from interaction between charges, whereby forces involved can be either attractive or
repulsive. Elastic potential energy arises from deformation of a material whereby forces involved serve to stretch or compress
the material.
3 identical balls are thrown from top of building, all with same initial speed; first thrown horizontally, 2 nd at some angle above
horizontal; and 3rd at some angle below horizontal. Neglecting AR, rank the speeds of the balls as they reach the ground.
From conservation of energy, all three balls have the same speed before they hit the ground.
Discuss the energy changes which take place in the following systems. a) A mass suspended from a spring and oscillating
vertically. b) A nucleus undergoing radioactive decay. [8] N07/III/4
a) When the mass is at the top of its oscillation, it has maximum gravitational potential energy. As the mass accelerates
downward towards its equilibrium position, it loses GPE, gains EPE and gains KE. Loss in GPE = Gain in KE + PE. As the mass
passes its equilibrium position, it has lost half its total GPE. Of this GPE lost, half is converted into KE and the other half stored
as EPE. After the equilibrium position, the tension in the spring decelerates the mass. The mass slows down and loses KE,
continues to lose GPE, but gains EPE. Gain in EPE = Loss in GPE + KE. Finally at the lowermost position, its GPE=0. Its entire GPE
lost is converted into EPE. In the case where resistive forces are present, the oscillating system will experience damping and
progressively lose total energy due to work done against these resistive forces. This energy will be dissipated as heat, which
then raises the internal energy of the spring and the surrounding.
b) An unstable nucleus can undergo radioactive decay to emit an alpha particle, beta particle or gamma radiation. In alpha
and beta decay, the stationary radioactive nucleus disintegrates into two parts: a daughter nucleus and either an alpha or beta
particle. The products have a total rest-mass energy lower than that of the radioactive nucleus. The lost mass Δm is converted
into energy according to Einstein’s mass-energy equivalence equation E=Δmc² where c is the speed of light in free space. As
mass is lost, binding energy increases hence the products have a higher binding energy and are more stable than the
radioactive nucleus. Most of this energy is released as the kinetic energy of the products, with the remainder as
electromagnetic radiation mainly in the form of gamma radiation. The gamma radiation comes from the de-excitation of the
daughter nucleus formed in alpha or beta decay. The daughter nucleus, which is in an excited state, de-excites and falls to a
lower energy state. The energy difference is emitted as gamma radiation. The energy of the gamma ray photon emitted is
equal to the difference in the quantised energy levels within the nucleus, which are considerably larger than those of the
orbital electrons.
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Circular Motion
Definitions
Angular Angle through which an object turns in a specified direction about a specified axis, usually measured
displacement in radians (rad).
Angular speed The rate of change with time of the angular direction of the line joining an object to the axis about
which it is rotating in.
Angular velocity Angular velocity is the rate of change of angular displacement of a radius joining the body to the axis
of rotation in a given direction.
Tangential velocity The instantaneous linear velocity of the particle at a point in the circular path in the orbiting direction
and it is tangential to the circular to the circular path at that point
Centripetal The acceleration which is always perpendicular to the velocity and always acts towards the centre of
acceleration the circular motion
Uniform circular Motion of an object moving in a circular path at constant speed with constant angular velocity
motion
Centripetal force The resultant perpendicular force acting on an object moving in circular motion. The resultant force is
directed to the centre of the circular motion.
Frequency Number of cycles per unit time
Period of a circular Time taken for an object to complete one revolution through an angle of 2π radians
motion
Radian Angle subtended at centre of a circle by an arc whose arc length is equal to the radius of the circle
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Use Newton’s laws of motion to explain why a body moving with a uniform speed in a circle must experience a force towards
the center of the circle. J78/I/14
When a body moves in a circle, even though the speed remains uniform, its velocity is continuously changing due to the
changing direction. Newton’s first law of motion states that a body will continue in its state of rest or uniform motion in a
straight line, unless acted upon by an external net force. An external net force is thus required to change the direction of its
motion. The direction of change is always towards the center of the circle. Newton’s second law of motion states that the net
force produces an acceleration in the same direction. Since the acceleration is towards the center of the circle, the force must
also be towards the center of the circle. They are known as the centripetal acceleration and centripetal force, respectively.
Explain why it is necessary to exert a centripetal force on a body as it moves along the curved track
Change in direction means there is a change of velocity. This requires an acceleration that is perpendicular to the velocity. This
acceleration requires centripetal force.
“An aeroplane circling the Earth above its equator is said to orbit the Earth.” Discuss the validity of his statement. [2] YJC
Prelims 08/III/6
It is not valid. To be in orbit, the acceleration of the aeroplane must be equal to the gravitational field strength. The aeroplane
would be falling freely but here, it has a thrust force due to its engine.
A table fan’s blades broke and you glued them back. Use Newton’s laws to explain why the blades might break off again at
high angular velocities. [4] N89/II/9
Newton’s first law of motion states that a body will remain in its state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line, unless acted
upon by an external net force. When the blades undergo circular motion, their direction is continuously changing. To change
the direction of their velocity, a net external force has to be applied. This is the centripetal force, which is provided by the
holding force of the glue between the blade and the axle of the fan. Centripetal force increases with angular velocity. At high
angular velocities, the centripetal force required exceeds the holding force of the glue. The blade thus breaks and flies off
tangential to its circular motion, in a straight line uniform motion according to Newton’s first law of motion.
Using energy considerations, suggest why it is difficult to drive a fairground ride to whirl people on a platform in circular motion
at a constant speed. [4] N02/III/2
As the panel rises and falls, it gains and loses gravitational potential energy respectively. There is a tendency for the platform
to lose kinetic energy and slow down on the way up, and gain kinetic energy and speed up on its way down. To avoid this, the
motor’s power output has to be increased on its way up and reduced on its way down. To complicate matters, the rate of gain
or loss in gravitational potential energy is not uniform throughout the motion, varying from zero when the arms are vertical,
to maximum when they are horizontal. To maintain a constant speed would require very precise control of motor power
output using computerized controllers.
Forces acting on bodies which travel in a circle are responsible for the following. Suggest an explanation for each. a) A string
may snap if it is attached to an object and the object is spun around a vertical pole. b) The rings of Saturn are centered on the
center of the planet. [4] N06/III/3
a) As the string wraps round the pole, the radius of the circular orbit becomes progressively smaller. Assuming no loss in kinetic
energy of the object due to air resistance, its speed will remain constant. The tension in the string, which provides the
centripetal force for the object’s circular motion is given by T=mv²/r. With a constant mass m and speed v but a progressively
smaller orbital radius r, the tension becomes progressively greater. The string may snap if this tension exceeds the string’s
breaking strength.
b) The gravitational force acting on the rings provides the centripetal force for their circular motion about the planet. Since
the gravitational force acts towards the center of the planet while the centripetal force acts towards the center of the orbit,
the plane of the ring’s orbit must contain the center of the planet. Any asteroid which orbits about a circle not centered on
the center of the planet will experience a force which moves it towards the equatorial plane.
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In a ride on a hollow vertical cylinder, explain how a man can stay in contact with the wall throughout the ride if the cylinder is
spinning fast enough.
The normal reaction force (N) exerted on the man by the inner wall of the cylinder keeps him in the circular motion, thus N =
mrw2. Since m and r are constant, as angular velocity increases (spinning faster), N increases, causing uN (static friction) to
increase. The friction acts upwards, thus resisting the downward weight acting on the man, enabling him to keep in contact
with wall and not fall down.
For a cyclist/car/bus going around a level bend or a banked bend:

 Horizontal static friction acts on the wheels sideway to keep them moving in the circular arc
 N = Weight, for the bicycle/bus to not topple, the cyclist/driver has to be tilted towards the left to balance the
moment of the static frictional forces, and when they are titled at an angle to the left, the clockwise moments must
be equal to the anticlockwise moments to not topple
 If the speed of the cyclist/bus is increased, the angle of tilt (from the vertical) has to increase, which means the
cyclist/bus has to be tilted more towards the circular arc center and more away from the original vertical so as to
prevent them from toppling (since tanθ = v2/rg )
Body on surface of earth vs. satellite

Same 𝑇, 𝑓, 𝜔 (2𝜋𝑓), Different 𝐹𝐺 , 𝐹𝐶 , 𝑟, 𝑣,
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Gravitational Field
Definitions
Newton’s law of The force of attraction between 2 point masses is directly proportional to the product of their masses
gravitation and inversely proportional to the square of their separation
Gravitational field A region in space where a gravitational force is experienced by a mass.
Gravitational field The gravitational force per unit mass experienced by a small test mass placed at that point.
strength
Gravitational The gravitational potential at a point is defined as the work done per unit mass in bringing a small
potential test mass from infinity to that point.
Gravitational The gravitational potential energy of a mass at a point is defined as the work done on the mass in
potential energy moving it from infinity to that point.
Escape velocity The minimum velocity of an object at the surface of the planet so that it completely escapes from the
influence of the gravitational field of the planet
Geostationary orbit An equatorial orbit in which the orbiting object remains stationary relative to the viewer/observer on
the Earth. It has an orbital period of 24 hours and moves in the direction from West to East.
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Why is it incorrect to call g “gravity”? [2] J94/II/2
“Gravity” refers to the gravitational force acting on a body. “g” is not a force, but the acceleration due to this gravitational
force F. Since F=ma, this acceleration a=F/m.
Why is a small test mass used in determining the gravitational field strength?
A small test mass does not distort the gravitational field, this is to ensure that the gravitational field set up by the small test
mass itself does not significantly change the field strength to be measured.
Explain why, although the planets and the Sun are not point masses, Newton’s law of gravitation also applies to them.
The law applies to them because their separation is much greater than the diameters of the sun and the planet
The Moon orbits about the Earth with a centripetal acceleration of 0.00271m/s² towards the Earth. Since the Moon is
accelerating towards the earth, why does the Moon not fall and hit the Earth? J91/III/1
The Moon has a tangential momentum which is perpendicular to the gravitational pull that the Earth exerts on it. The
gravitational pull of the Earth on the Moon is just sufficient to provide the centripetal acceleration required to keep the Moon
in circular motion. The centripetal acceleration keeps altering the direction of the Moon’s velocity so that it is always tangential
to its circular path, and the continual falling simply results in a change in the Moon’s direction of motion. Since the Earth is
round, as the moon accelerates towards it, the Earth’s surface curves away at the same angular rate, thus maintaining a
constant distance between the Moon and the Earth’s surface. Therefore, the Moon will never hit the Earth’s surface.
Explain why the center of the Earth is expected to lie on the plane of the moon’s orbit. [2] AJC Prelims 08/III/1
The only force acting on the moon is the gravitational force directed towards the center of the Earth. The moon will only move
in the plane where this force lies.
Explain why gravitational potential has a negative value? [2] N94/III/1
Gravitational potential at infinity is defined to be zero. Due to the attractive nature of the gravitational force, an external agent
has to exert a force in the opposite direction to the displacement of the mass, in order not to cause it to accelerate when
bringing it from infinity to the point. Since the applied force and the displacement are in opposite directions, the work done
by the external agent is negative. Since potential is defined as work done per unit mass by the external agent, potential is
negative.
Explain why gravitational field strength at the poles (~9.83) is greater than that at the equator (~9.79)
The rotation of Earth affects the acceleration of free fall. At the equator, object moves in a circular motion, thus the measured
acceleration of free fall is the gravitational field strength minus away the centripetal acceleration towards Earth’s core. At the
poles, the object does not go through a circular motion, thus the measured acceleration of the free fall is the gravitational
field strength alone. Thus, part of the gravitational field strength at the equator is used to provide centripetal force for circular
motion. Moreover, the Earth is not spherical, thus at the equator where radius of Earth is largest, the acceleration has its
smallest value compared to at the poles. 9.81 is just an average value for Earth.
Mathematically:
At the poles: Gmm/r2 = N  mg/m = N/m  real g = measured g (on mass balance)
At the equator: N + mrw2 = Gmm/r2  mrw2 + N = mg
N/m = mg/m – mrw2/m  measured g = real g – rw2
The difference between the 2 values is small because the equatorial centripetal acceleration is very small, only 0.0337, which
is only 0.3% of its gravitational acceleration 9.81, thus the difference is small
What are the features of a geostationary satellite?

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It always remains vertically above a single fixed point on the equator as the Earth rotates about its axis. It has an orbital period
of 24 hours and moves from West to East. The orbit of the geostationary satellite lies in the plane containing the equator.
Explain why a geostationary satellite is often used in telecommunications.
Its radius of orbit is always fixed at 4.23x107m. Therefore its position can be predicted accurately at all times.
What are the advantages of a low orbit satellite?
Time of transmission is shorter. Less energy is required to bring the satellite to orbit. Signal of transmission is higher.
Why must a geostationary satellite be directly above the earth’s equatorial orbit?
The center of earth is approximately the center of the satellite’s orbit. All gravitational force exerted by the satellite provides
centripetal force required for circular motion, thus the satellite must be at the correct distances/great circle above the
equator. If it has a varying latitude, and not above the equator, then it will not be geostationary, with orbital period not equal
to 24 hours.
Suggest one advantage of launching satellites from equator in the direction of the rotation of Earth
Satellite will already have some initial speed (due to tangential velocity from the circular motion around Earth’s center) in the
correct direction, making it easier to launch.
Suggest advantages of low polar orbits, advantages and disadvantages of geostationary orbits. [4] N07/III/5
A geostationary satellite allows continuous transmission between the ground station and the satellite, since they are always
at the same spot above the equator. When launching a geostationary planet, we can make use of Earth’s rotational momentum
(due to West-East rotation) to fling satellite into its orbit, thus less energy is required to launch it.
Satellites in polar orbits are closer to the Earth hence their signals are received more strongly (shorter time delay between
transmission and receipt of signal). These satellites can fly over and can cover the every part of the world equally, including
the poles.
However, the polar-orbiting satellites must be tracked continuously, it is required to make several orbits in order to complete
their functions, and more satellites of the same kind are required for continuous operation.
Why all geostationary satellites in orbit around Earth must have the same orbital speed.
For a satellite in circular motion, its orbital speed v is related by v = rw = r(2π/t). Since r and t are the same for satellites in a
geostationary orbit, the orbital speed must all be the same as well.
Explain why the energy at infinity is normally taken to be zero. [1] IJC Prelims 08/III/4
The force between the respective two entities is negligible. Thus, the potential energy at infinity is zero and it is used as a
reference for other potential energy.
State the condition(s) under which the equations to find the gravitational potential energy U=mgh and U=-GMm/r may be
used. [2] MJC Prelims 08/II/2
The first equation can be used to find the change in gravitational potential energy due to a change in the distance h when
distance h is << the radius of the planet, meaning it is very close to the surface of the planet. The second equation can be used
to find the gravitational potential energy associated with an object of mass m at a distance r from the centre of another object
M, regardless of this distance.
Mathematically:
Change in GPE for height h = GMm/(R+h) – (-GMm/R)
= GMm(1/R + 1/(R+h))
= GMm x h/R(R+h) These notes are shared on
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Since h<<R (assumed h = small distance compared to R of Earth), then (R+h) ≈R

Thus, GPE change ≈ GMm(h/R2) = GMm/R2 x h
Since GMm/R2 = g ≈ 9.81,
GPE change simply = mgh (change in GPE on near surface of Earth)
Explain why g is approximately constant near Earth’s surface and equal to acceleration of free fall (or comparison between g
at mount Everest and at sea level).
At points near the Earth surface, gravitational field strength does not change much for small distances above the Earth’s
surface largely because the height increase is small and thus negligible compared to the radius of the Earth. Since gravitational
field strength is gravitational force per unit mass experienced by a small test mass, it is equal to the acceleration of free fall by
N2L.
Mathematically:
g2 = GM/(R+h)2 = GM/R2 x R2/(R+h)2 = GM/R2 x [(R+h)/R]-2 = GM/R2 x (1 + h/R)-2
As h  0, h/R  0, thus g2 ≈ g (does not change much for small distances h)
Why a satellite does not move in the direction of the gravitational force?
Gravitational force is just enough to provide centripetal force for the satellite to move in a circular motion. The satellite has a
velocity which is tangential to the circular motion, and the gravitational force is always acting perpendicular to the direction
as its motion, thus, gravity only changes the direction of the satellite but not its tangential speed. This means that there is no
change in its kinetic energy as well (scalar). By conservation of energy, since there is no change in PE and KE, the satellite
remains at its fix distance from the planet.
Why are we weightless in satellites?
Gravitational force is just enough to provide centripetal force for the satellite to move in a circular motion, with no contact
force acting by the satellite on the astronaut. Both the astronaut and the satellite has the same centripetal gravitational
acceleration in circular motion, thus it appears that we are going through free-fall, feeling apparent weightless.
Why human beings do not leave the surface of the Earth despite high speed of Earth rotation?
Since gravitational field strength (about 9.81) is greater than the centripetal acceleration of only ~0.03, gravitational force is
more than enough to provide the centripetal force, thus there is contact force.
What happens when satellite loses its energy due to air resistance?
The total energy of the satellite deceases, leading to a reduction in the radius of the orbit (drop to a lower height). The kinetic
energy of the satellite would increase, hence increasing the speed of the satellite. The increasing resistive forces would give
rise to an increasing rate of conversion of energy of the satellite to thermal energy.
Mathematically:
If ET decreases, then –GMm/2r will become more negative, thus GMm/2r becomes larger, so r decreases. Since KE = GMm/2r,
when r decreases, KE increases. Since KE = mv2/2, when KE increases, v increases.
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Common Graphs
Variation in gravitational potential between Earth and Moon Variation of resultant gravitational field strength (red)
and resultant gravitational potential (black)
g field strength = gradient of the potential graph
Variation in gravitational field strength between Earth and Moon KE and total E of satellite orbiting Earth at radius = r
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Thermal Physics
Definitions
Temperature A measure of degree of hotness of an object. Thermal energy moves on its own accord from objects
at higher temperature to objects at lower temperature.
Thermal equilibrium Refers to a situation whereby there is no net heat transfer between bodies, occurs when the bodies
are of the same temperature.
Zeroth law of If objects A and B are separately in thermal equilibrium with a third object C, then A and B are in
thermodynamics thermal equilibrium with each other
Heat Thermal energy that flows from a region of higher to a region of lower temperature due to differences
in temperature
Absolute zero Theoretical temperature at which the molecules of a substance have the lowest energy and hence a
minimum internal energy. It is the zero of the thermodynamic scale of temperature.
Kelvin 1/273.16 of the temperature difference between absolute zero and the triple point of water
Triple point (of The particular temperature and pressure at which the 3 states of water can coexist in equilibrium, at
water) the assigned temperature of 273.16K.
Empirical Scale of temperature based on the variation with temperature of a property of a substance
temperature scale (thermometric property), assuming that the property varies linearly with temperature changes
Absolute scale/ Temperature on the absolute scale does not depend on the thermometric property of any particular
Thermodynamic substance, and has absolute zero as lower fixed point and triple point of water as the upper fixed point.
temperature scale It is constructed based on the ideal gas law PV=nRT.
Water Celcius scale Absolute/Thermodynamic scale

Ice point 0C 273.15 K
Steam point 100 C 373.25 K
Triple point 0.01 C 273.16 K
Absolute zero -273.15 C 0K
Heat capacity Value equal to the quantity of thermal energy required to raise the temperature of the whole body by
one kelvin.
Specific heat The quantity of thermal energy required to raise the temperature of unit mass of the substance by
capacity one kelvin.
Latent heat Thermal energy required by matter for a change in phase without any change in temperature.
Specific latent heat The quantity of thermal energy required per unit mass when the substance changes from solid state
of fusion to liquid state without a change in temperature.
Specific latent heat The quantity of thermal energy required per unit mass when the substance changes from liquid state
of vaporization to gaseous state (vapour) without a change in temperature.
Evaporation The change of phase of a substance from liquid to gas phase that occurs at the surface at any
temperature below the boiling point
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First law of Internal energy of a system depends only on the thermodynamic state of the system; the increase in
thermodynamics the internal energy of a system is equal to the sum of the heat supplied to the system and the work
done on the system (Q + W)
Ideal gas A hypothetical gas that obeys the equation of state (PV = nRT) for an ideal gas perfectly at all values
of pressure, volume and temperature.
Internal energy The internal energy of a substance is the sum of the kinetic energy due to the random motion of the
molecules and potential energy due to intermolecular forces of attraction
Internal energy of Sum of kinetic energies due to the random motion of the gas molecules. (No mention of potential
ideal gas energy)
Mole Unit of measurement of amount of substance. One mole of any substance contains a number of
molecules or atoms equal to the Avogadro constant, which is the number of moles in 0.012kg of
Carbon-12
Isobaric process Change at constant pressure

Isothermal process Change at constant temperature
Isochoric process Change at constant volume (W is zero)
Adiabatic process A change in the pressure, volume, and temperature of a system such that during the change, there is
zero net transfer of thermal energy in and out of system (Q is zero)
Root-mean-square- The statistical measure of the speed of a molecule of a gas; it is the square root of the mean value of
speed (rms) molecularly speed squared.
Mean translational kinetic energy of a molecule of an ideal gas is directly proportional to the thermodynamic temperature.
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State why the thermodynamic scale of temperature is called an absolute scale. [2] J90/II/6
This means that the temperature on such a scale is not dependent on the thermometric property of any particular substance
and has absolute zero as its minimum temperature. Its fixed point, absolute zero, is not dependent on any particular substance
but rather is the temperature at which all substances have a minimum internal energy.
List the basic assumptions of the kinetic theory of gases. J77/I/16
A gas consists of a large number of molecules in constant random motion and which obey Newton’s laws of motion. Inter-
molecular forces of attraction are negligible. Collisions are elastic on average. The volume of the molecules is negligible
compared to the volume occupied by the gas. Collisions are of negligible duration compared to the duration between
collisions. The pressure on the container is the result of the reaction on the walls as the molecules strike and rebound.
Explain what is meant by an ideal gas. N07/III/6
An ideal gas is a hypothetical gas that obeys the equation of state of an ideal gas perfectly at all temperatures and pressure,
with negligible intermolecular forces of attraction, volume of particles, and they go through perfectly elastic collisions. A real
gas approaches ideal behaviour at very low pressures and high temperatures.
What are the assumptions for an ideal gas?

1. The volume of the molecules is a negligibly small fraction of the total volume occupied
2. The intermolecular forces of attraction are negligible
3. The collisions are elastic and are of negligible duration
4. Between collisions, a molecule moves with uniform velocity
What experimental evidence is there that the assumption that the collisions of the molecules with the walls of the container
are elastic is reasonable? N84/I/17
Collisions are elastic as the temperature of the insulated cylinder of gas is constant. The temperature of an insulated cylinder
of gas remains constant provided no heat lost to surrounding. Temperature is proportional to the average kinetic energy of
gas molecules. The fact that temperature remains constant shows that collision is elastic. Otherwise, the temperature will
keep falling with time as molecules lose their kinetic energy.
How may an isothermal compression of a gas be achieved in practice? N78/I/15
Heat is removed from the system at the same rate that work is being done on it.
Suggest how an isothermal expansion can be achieved in practice. [2] HCI Prelims 08/III/2
The process must be carried out very slowly so that heat has time to flow in or out to maintain constant temperature. The
walls of the container must be a good conductor.
Two different gases at the same temperature have molecules with different mean square speeds. Explain why this is possible.
[2] ACJC Prelims 08/III/2
Gases at the same temperature have the same average translation kinetic energy. However, different gases have different
masses, therefore mean square speed is different.
In the upper atmosphere, a large fraction of the hydrogen molecules travel so fast that they are able to escape from the Earth.
There may also be some loss of helium, but for all other heavier molecules escape in negligible. Explain a) fast molecules are
able to escape form the Earth’s atmosphere but slow molecules are not; b) molecules of smaller mass are able to escape
whereas more massive ones are not; c) some molecules escape even though the speed required for escape is very much greater
than their root-mean-square speed. J89/II/10
a) Fast molecules have sufficient kinetic energy to overcome their potential energy due to Earth’s gravitational pull. They will
escape if their speed exceeds the escape speed of the Earth, which is approximately 11km/s. These notes are shared on
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b) For the same temperature, root-mean-square speed is inversely proportional to the square-root of a molecule’s mass.
Smaller molecules thus have greater rms speeds and thus more likely to exceed the escape speed.
c) Root-mean-square speed is just a form of average speed. Even at the same temperature, there are molecules with speeds
much greater and much less than the rms speed. Those that are much faster may exceed the escape speed, and thus escape.
If two sufficiently energetic sodium atoms collide, an electron in one of them may be raised to a higher energy level. a) Explain
why such a collision is called an inelastic collision. b) Briefly explain why such inelastic collisions are not consistent with basic
assumptions of the kinetic theory of gases. J90/III/3
a) When the sodium atom is raised to a higher energy state, the energy is gained from the kinetic energy of the colliding
sodium atoms. The colliding atoms thus lose part or all of their kinetic energy. Since kinetic energy of the system is not
conserved, the collision is inelastic.
b) Kinetic theory of gases assumes that molecules make elastic collisions so that their average kinetic energy, and hence
temperature, remains constant. If collisions are inelastic, then colliding molecules progressively lose their kinetic energy and
gradually slow down. The temperature of the gas thus progressively decreases, even though no heat is supplied / removed or
work done on / by the system.
Explain why the specific latent heat of vaporization of a substance is much larger than the specific latent heat of fusion.
N97/III/5
During boiling, the liquid absorbs heat known as the latent heat of vaporization. This heat breaks the intermolecular bonds
between molecules and separates them to a significant distances apart, and work is also done against atmospheric pressure
and gravitational pull. During melting, the heat absorbed, known as the latent heat of fusion, does not break the intermolecular
bonds completely or separate the molecules to a great distance apart. The heat merely modifies the bonds from a rigid
structure to a form that allows relative motion amongst molecules. Less energy is required. Furthermore, the change in volume
in the substance is negligible during melting hence little work is done on or by the system whereby the intermolecular spacing
does not increase much.
Explain the cooling effect accompanying evaporation.
Molecules in the liquid phase possess a wide distribution of random kinetic energies due to many collisions taking place. The
most energetic molecules at the surface obtain energy from the environment and gain sufficient energy to break free of the
intermolecular forces of attraction with other molecules below and thus leave the system. As the most energetic molecules
leave the system, the average kinetic energy of the system decreases, causing the temperature of the system, resulting in a
cooling effect.
Explain the following observations a) when pumping up a bicycle tyre the pump barrel gets warm; b) when a gas at high
pressure in a container is suddenly released, the container cools. [2] CJC Prelims 08/III/2
a) External work done on the gas during compression causes the internal energy to increase. Since the internal energy is
proportional to the temperature, the temperature increases.
b) The gas undergoes sudden expansion and internal energy is used do work against external pressure. This causes the internal
energy of the gas to decrease, hence the temperature decreases and the container cools.
“Internal energy is determined by the state of the system”. Explain what this means. [2] PJC Prelims 08/III/1
A system is at a definite state when it is at equilibrium under a given set of conditions. The system has a specific pressure,
volume, number of moles and molecules and thermodynamic temperature values that correspond to that state. Internal
energy is determined by the values of the current state and is independent on how the state is arrived at. If a system undergoes
a series of change from one state to another, its increase in internal energy is the same, regardless of which path it has taken.
Bubbles are formed in water when water boils. Explain why the bubbles in boiling water get larger as they approach the surface.
[1] PJC Prelims 08/III/1
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The pressure of water decreases with a decrease in depth of water. The bubble experiences less pressure as it approaches the
surface. Since PV=nRT, the volume of the air bubble is inversely proportional to the pressure it experience. Therefore the
volume increases as it approached the surface.
Explain why the melting of ice takes place without a change in temperature. [3] TPJC Prelims 08/II/1
Heat energy that ice absorbs from the surrounding when it is melting is used to increase potential energy of water molecules.
Heat energy has not been used to increase the average kinetic energy of the water molecules. Thermodynamic temperature
of matter is directly proportional to its average kinetic energy, hence melting of ice takes place without a change in
temperature.
Outline how molecular movement causes the pressure exerted by a gas. [2] N99/III4
Gas molecules are in continuous random motion. When a molecule collides with the walls of a container, it exerts a force
which is proportional to its mass, speed and frequency of collision. The force by all molecules acting per unit surface area is
the pressure exerted by the gas.
Outline the principles involved in measuring the specific heat capacity of a liquid using an electrical method. [4] N01/III/5
An insulated container contains the substance which specific heat capacity is to be measured. An electric heater is placed in
the liquid. A thermometer is used to measure the temperature of the liquid and a stirrer ensures the temperature is evenly
distributed throughout the liquid. The heater is switched on for a predetermined period of time t. The rise in temperature Δθ
of the liquid within this time interval is recorded. The voltage V and current I is recorded from the voltmeter and ammeter
respectively. The specific heat capacity of the liquid can be found from the equation c=IVT/(m Δθ).
One advantage of this method is that the rate of heat loss of the system to the surrounding is accounted for to ensure a more
accurate specific heat capacity value. The temperatures for both experiments must be made the same so as to ensure that
the rate of heat loss to the surrounding is kept constant for both experiments.
State and explain how the splashing of water out of the beaker will affect the calculated value of the specific latent heat.
As water is splashed out, the latent heat L calculated will be lower than expected. Because P = mL + h where by m is the mass
of water vaporized, thus L = (P-h)/(mi – mf). If water splashes out, then the mf will be smaller than its actual value, thus causing
L to be smaller.
State two reasons why the temperature of a body is not a measure of the quantity of thermal energy in the body. [2] N06/II/4
Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the molecules whereas the thermal energy in a body is its total
energy. Temperature only measures the kinetic energy of the molecules whereas thermal energy includes both their kinetic
and potential energy.
Comment on similarities and differences between boiling and melting. Boiling: Liquid to Gas
Melting: Solid to Liquid Separation vastly increased
Not much change in separation Same speed since same temperature
Same speed since same temperature Molecules in gas in random motion
More random motion in liquid state Increased in distance between collisions from liquid
More vibration in solid state to gas
Some change in PE component of internal energy PE component of internal energy is greatly
increased
Work is needed to do push back atmosphere
Use the kinetic theory of gases to explain why the pressure of an ideal (ii) when its temperature is lowered at constant
gas decreases volume.
(i) when it is expanded at constant temperature, at constant volume: when temperature is lowered
Pressure is in change in momentum of molecules per unit time per  mean square speed/momentum/KE of
unit area – at constant temperature: when volume increases  molecules decreases  change in
molecules have further distance to travel between collisions momentum/impulse (per collision) is lower 
 frequency of collisions (with the container walls) is reduced fewer collisions with the walls per unit time  so
so pressure decreases pressure decreases These notes are shared on
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Oscillations
Oscillation It is a periodic motion of an object about a fixed point with a continuous interchange of kinetic
energy and potential energies.
Free oscillations Oscillating system where there is no energy gain or loss (no external force acting on the system).
Equilibrium position Equilibrium position (or neutral position) is the position at which no net force acts on the oscillating
mass.
Displacement Displacement is the distance of the oscillating mass from its equilibrium position at any instant in a
stated direction.
Distance of the Maximum displacement of the oscillating object from the equilibrium position in either direction
oscillating object
from its equilibrium
position at any
instant
Amplitude Amplitude is the maximum displacement of the oscillating mass from the equilibrium position.
Period of a vibrating Time taken to complete one cycle of oscillation
system
Frequency in Frequency is the number of complete to‐and‐fro cycles per unit time made by the oscillating object
vibrating system (Hz).
Angular frequency Angular frequency ω is a measurement related to the frequency f of the sinusoidal motion by the
(w) relation ω = 2πf.
Phase An angle in either degrees or radians which gives a measure of the fraction of a cycle that has been
completed by an oscillating particle or by a wave.
Phase difference Phase difference is a measure of how much one wave is out of step with another.
Simple Harmonic Simple harmonic motion is defined as oscillatory motion of a particle whose acceleration is directly
Motion proportional to its displacement from a fixed point and this acceleration is always in opposite
direction to its displacement. (a = -w2x)
Natural frequency A system that is free to vibrate will vibrate at its natural frequency when no external force acting on
it.
Resonance A phenomenon that occurs when the frequency at which an object is being made to vibrate (forced
driving frequency of vibration) is equal to its natural frequency of vibration. At this frequency, the
amplitude of vibration is a maximum.
Forced oscillation Forced oscillations are caused by continual input of energy by external applied force to an oscillating
system to compensate the loss due to damping in order to maintain the amplitude of the oscillation.
Damped oscillation Oscillation in which there is a continuous dissipation of energy to the surroundings such that the
total energy in the system decreases with time, hence the amplitude of the motion progressively
decreases with time.
Damping Damping is a process where energy is taken from an oscillating system as a result of dissipative
forces.
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Damping
Light damping – Object undergoes a Critical damping – Displacement of the Heavy damping – No oscillations occur
number of complete oscillations with the object is reduced to 0 in the minimum about the equilibrium position when
amplitude of vibration decreasing time possible without any complete the damping force increases beyond
exponentially with time. The greater the oscillations occurring. the point of critical damping. The
amount of damping, the greater the system takes a long time to return to
decay of amplitude. the equilibrium position compared to
critically damped system. The time
increases as the degree of damping
increases
Meters that need to show rapid Ammeters and voltmeters that require Meters that need to ignore transient
fluctuations such as level meters on tape the needle to not oscillate at the final changes: Doors and car fuel gauges
recorders reading
As the degree of damping is increased:
 Amplitude of peak oscillation decreases
 Peak becomes broaderand spreads over a wider range
of frequencies (less sharp response)
 Resonance occurs at a frequency lower than natural
frequency
Critical
damping  The shape of the graph appears with:
o Lower peak
o Flatter peak
o Peak occur at lower frequency (shift
leftwards slightly)
o Smaller amplitude at all frequencies.
When there is no damping, the amplitude of oscillation of the o Amplitude is never zero.
driven system will tend to an infinitely large magnitude at
resonance due to a continual input of energy.
Useful resonance: Child on swing, microwave oven heating Non-useful: Vibrating panels of washing machine due to
mortor, and vibrating bridges due to wind
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Common Graphs
Energy, 𝐸 𝟏 𝟏
𝐸𝑇 = 𝒎𝝎𝟐 𝒙𝟎 𝟐 𝐸𝐾 = 𝒎𝝎𝟐 𝒙𝟎 𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐(𝝎𝒕)
𝟏 𝟐 𝟐
𝐸𝑇 = 𝒎𝝎𝟐 𝒙𝟎 𝟐
𝟐 Energy,𝐸 𝟏
𝐸𝑃 = 𝒎𝝎𝟐 𝒙𝟎 𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 (𝝎𝒕)
𝟐
𝟏
𝐸𝑃 = 𝒎𝝎𝟐 𝒙𝟐
𝟐
𝟏
𝐸𝐾 = 𝒎𝝎𝟐 (𝒙𝟎 𝟐 − 𝒙𝟐 )
𝟐
𝑥
−𝑥0 0 𝑥0
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When horizontal double springs are rotated by 90deg, why the vertical double springs may not be SHM?
The lower spring may not be extended, and the upper spring may exceed the limit of proportionality.
Some sand is placed on a flat horizontal table and plate is made to oscillate with simple harmonic motion in a vertical direction.
With the frequency of oscillation kept constant at 13Hz, the amplitude of oscillation of the plate is gradually increased. Explain
at which point the sand loses contact. [3] J99/III/4
The sand starts to lose contact with the oscillating table when the maximum downward acceleration of the table exceeds the
acceleration of free fall of the sand. Maximum downward acceleration occurs at the maximum upward displacement position.
When the amplitude of oscillation exceeds 1.47mm, the maximum acceleration exceeds that of free fall. When this happens,
at its maximum displacement position, the table accelerates downwards with greater magnitude than the sands’ acceleration
due to free fall. This will cause the subsequent downward velocity of the table to exceed that of the sand. The contact force
between the sand and table falls to zero and the sand loses contact with the table.
Acceleration is just above 9.81 when it loses contact. This happens when the plate is at maximum displacement and when it
is moving in the downwards direction. At this point, the weight of the sand solely contributes to the resultant force on the
sand. Hence the reaction force by the plate is zero.
A block of wood of mass m floats in still water. When the block is pushed down into the water, without totally submerging it,
and is then released, it bobs up and down in the water with a frequency f. Surface water waves are then incident on the block.
These cause resonance in the up-and-down motion of the block. Describe and explain what happens to the amplitude of the
vertical oscillations of the block after the following changes are made. a) Water waves of larger amplitude are incident on the
block. b) The distance between the wave crests increases. c) The block has absorbed some water. [6] N94/II/2
a) The amplitude of the block increases. The energy of a wave is proportional to the square of its amplitude. Waves of larger
amplitude possess greater energy, thus transferring a greater amount of energy to the block.
b) Resonance no longer occurs hence the amplitude of oscillation decreases. Distance between wave crests is the wavelength
λ. Since speed of wave v=fλ and v is constant, a larger λ means a lower frequency f. The frequency f of the driving force drops
below that of the natural frequency of the block.
c) Resonance no longer occurs hence the amplitude of oscillation decreases. When the block absorbed some water, its mass
increases. The natural frequency decreases. The frequency of the driving force is now above the natural frequency of the
system.
State one situation in which resonance is used to advantage. [1] J97/II/2
1. Radio tuner’s natural frequency adjusted to resonate with frequency of radio wave of the station it intends to receive.
2. The working principle behind a microwave oven is to cook food making use of resonance of water molecule. Microwaves
with a frequency similar to the natural frequency of the water molecules are used. When food containing water molecules
is placed in the oven and radiated by the microwaves, the water molecules in the food resonate, absorb energy from the
microwaves and get heated up. This absorbed energy then spreads through the food and cooks it.
A mass-spring system is used to demonstrate the effects of damping on the oscillation of the mass. Suggest how light damping
of the oscillations may be achieved and how the degree of damping may be increased. [4] N2000/II/3
Light damping may be achieved by attaching a light piece of cardboard to the mass thus increasing its effective area and air
resistance experienced by it. The degree of damping may be increased by immersing the mass in a viscous liquid such as
glycerine, which provides a large viscous drag force against the motion. This causes large amounts of energy to be dissipated
from the body.
Discuss the behaviour of a car when the shock absorber mechanism is working correctly. N78/III/1
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A shock absorber mechanism should be critically damped. When a car goes over a hump, there is an immediate compression
of the suspension springs. A properly working mechanism should then return the spring to its uncompressed position in the
shortest time, without overshooting the equilibrium position.
Resonance can cause considerable engineering problems. Explain one such problem and suggest ways in which it can be
overcome. [4] N98/III/2
When resonance occurs, the system vibrates with maximum amplitude and energy. This vibration creates tremendous stress
on mechanical structures and may cause them to breakdown. One such problem is in building and bridge structures. If the
frequency of the gusts due to high speed winds coincides with the natural frequency of the bridge, the bridge may resonate
and vibrate with maximum amplitude. This problem can be overcome by increasing the damping of the system through the
use of shock absorbers.
Describe 2 practical examples of forced oscillations and resonance.
Microwave oven – Microwaves will cause the water molecules in the food to vibrate. If the frequency of the microwave is the
same as the natural frequency of the water molecules, resonance occurs and the water molecules will vibrate with maximum
amplitude, hence heating up the food.
Breaking of a glass by a singer – sound waves from the singer will cause the glass molecules in the glass to vibrate. If the
frequency of the sound wave is the same as the natural frequency of the glass molecules, resonance occurs and the glass
molecules will vibrate with maximum amplitude, and hence may break the glass.
If a truck travels at a certain speed over a series of speed bumps, the vertical oscillations can be very large. Explain why this is
so. [2] MJC Prelims 08/II/2
Resonance occurs. The frequency of passing over the bumps matches the natural frequency of the truck.
Damping is very often necessary when unwanted oscillations occur in machinery such as a washing machine or a dishwasher.
Describe the factors that determine the frequency at which unwanted oscillations occur and the principles that are used in
damping out these oscillations. [5] H2 Specimen Paper 07/III/6
The frequency of unwanted oscillations is the natural frequency of the system. The natural frequency of a system is determined
by factors such as the inertia of the system (mass), the elastic restoring force acting on it (spring constant) and the dimensions
of the system. For machinery like washing machines and dishwashers, their mass, springiness of their metal frames and
dimensions of their casings determine their natural frequency and frequency of unwanted oscillations. Damping involves the
reduction of amplitude of an oscillating system through the application of external resistive forces that results in energy being
dissipated from the system. This can be achieved by using dampers. Dampers can be in the form of viscous fluids or solid
material with dissipative properties attached to the parts of the machine that are likely to experience the most vibrations.
Resonance Applications
 Musical instruments – production of sound in musical instruments (allows it to be much louder and audible)
 Radio reception – tuning of frequency of electrical oscillators in radio tuner to match the frequency of radio channel,
amplifying the signals in this frequency and diminishing other frequencies
 Microwave cooking – microwaves have the same frequency at the natural frequency of water, allowing them to
vibrate and heat up the food through friction
 Magnetic resonance imaging – strong varying radio frequency electromagnetic fields are used to cause oscillations
in atomic nuclei. Pattern of absorption of energy generates an image
 Destructive resonance
o Resonance can cause large vibrations that shatters glass/damages internal organs
o Earthquakes can force buildings to resonate, damaging building structures
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Wave Motion
Wave A means by which energy may be transferred from one place to another as a result of oscillations.
Transverse wave A wave in which oscillations of the particles in the wave are in a plane normal to the direction of energy
transfer
Longitudinal wave A wave in which oscillations of the particles in the wave are along the direction of energy transfer
Mechanical wave A wave that requires a medium for transmission (sound waves and water waves)
Electromagnetic A wave consisting of oscillating electric and magnetic fields perpendicular to each other and to the
wave direction of energy transfer of the wave. It does not require a medium for transmission. It travels
through vacuum at the speed of light (~3x108m/s)
Amplitude The maximum displacement of an oscillating particle from its mean position.
Wavelength The minimum distance between any two points of the wave with the same phase at the same
instant.
Wave speed Distance travelled per unit time by the wave energy in the direction of energy transfer, with the
equation v = fλ
Frequency (for wave Number of complete cycles a wave particle undergoes per unit time.
particle)
Phase The angle in either degrees (°) or radian (rad) which gives a measure of the fraction of a cycle that has
been completed by an oscillating particle or by wave
Phase difference Measure of how much one wave is out of step with another. It is the fraction of a cycle between two
points in a wave or between identical points of two waves.
Coherence Two waves are said to be coherent when the phase difference between the two waves remains
constant and does not vary with time.
Wave front An imaginary line joining wave points that are in phase
Ray The direction of energy transfer of the wave. Rays are always directed at right angles to the wave
fronts.
Progressive wave A wave in which energy is carried from one point to another by means of vibrations or oscillations
within the waves.
Polarization Vibrations in one direction in the plane normal to the direction of transfer of energy of the wave.
Intensity Wave energy incident per unit time per unit area normal to the direction of energy transfer of wave
(Wm-2)
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𝐼1 𝐴 2 𝑟 2 𝑟2
= (𝐴1 ) = (𝑟2 ) for 3D ( )
𝐼2 2 1 𝑟1 for 2D
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Why is it not possible to polarize sound waves?

Only transverse waves can be polarized. However, sound waves are longitudinal waves that do not have oscillations in the
plane normal to the direction of energy transfer of the wave, thus cannot be polarized.
The wavelength of sound in air is of the order of one million times greater than the wavelength of light in air. Describe how you
could check this statement experimentally. [8] N04/III/3
The wavelength of a wave can be determined using two-source interference experiments. To determine the wavelength of
sound, connect two loudspeakers to a single sound oscillator. Face the two speakers towards a wall several metres away.
Move a microphone along the wall to detect variations in sound intensity. There will be intensity maxima corresponding to
constructive interference of the two sound waves, and minima corresponding to destructive interference. Select a maximum
that is nth order from the central axis maximum. Measure the distance from each speaker to this maximum and subtract them
to obtain the path difference. The path difference divded by ‘n’ will be the wavelength of the sound.
To determine the wavelength of light, use Young’s double-slit experiment. A monochromatic light source is placed behind the
double slits, with a third slit between them to ensure coherence. Bright and dark fringes will be observed on the screen. Since
the angle of diffraction is small in this experiment, the Young’s double-slit formula y=λD/d can be used to calculate the
wavelength λ of the light. The experimental results will show that the wavelength of sound waves is in the order of metres;
while that of light waves in the order of micrometres.
Distinguish between the displacement of a vibrating object and the amplitude of vibration. [3] J99/III/4
Displacement is the shortest distance from the equilibrium position to the object at any instant in time. Amplitude is the
maximum displacement of the object from its equilibrium position, in either direction.
What phenomenon associated with transverse waves is not observed with longitudinal waves? N90/III/3
Polarisation. Transverse waves vibrate perpendicularly to its direction of propagation, and possess many possible planes of
vibration. Polarisation eliminates all planes of vibration except the plane which is parallel to the allowed axis of transmission
of the polarizer. Longitudinal waves vibrate parallel to its direction of propagation, and possess no plane of vibration parallel
to the allowed axis of transmission of the polarizer. Therefore, longitudinal waves cannot be polarized.
When a mass is dropped into still water, the amplitude of the resulting ripples decreases with increasing distance. Why?
Energy is spread over a longer wave front. Intensity drops. Since Intensity is proportional to square of amplitude, the amplitude
drops too.
How do you confirm that a beam is plane polarized?
Rotate a polaroid between the plane and a receiver through 180deg. If there is an angle where the receiver detects no laser
beam, the beam is said to be plane polarized.
Thin parallel wires are stretched across a wooden frame. Explain why vertically polarized microwaves are transmitted through
the frame most strongly when the wires are horizontal.
The horizontal wires will absorb energy of any horizontal oscillation of waves that pass through them. There will be minimum
absorption of energy from vertical oscillation of waves. Hence vertically polarized microwaves are transmitted through the
frame very strongly. The horizontal wires are like the horizontal strands of molecules in materials.
Suggest an experimental method to obtain a wave graph of decreasing amplitude.

We can use several microphones and place them at several specified positions, at various distances x from the source. These
are connected the CRO and provide the displacement y of the point it is placed at, at the time t = 0 s. By manually plotting
displacement y against distance x and joining these points in a curve, we can get the graph.
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

 Works on the principle of the deflection of an electron beam by an electric field
 Displays varying electrical signal as waveforms
o Converts sound energy (displacement-time signal) picked up by the microphone acting as a transducer into
electrical energy (voltage-time signal)
o y-plates displays voltage in Vcm-1
o x-plate (time-base) in ms cm-1 that can be switched on/off (if off, graph appears as 1 vertical line)
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 Derivation of sound using stationary waves

o Requires a reflector, a microphone and loudspeaker
1. Direct the loudspeaker producing at a known frequency, f at the reflector
2. As sound waves reflect off the reflector, it forms a stationary wave with the incoming sound wave (refer to
superposition, topic 11
3. The microphone is then moved along the path between the reflector and the loudspeaker to obtain
maximum displacements at antinodes A and minimum displacements at nodes N
4. The average distance d between 2 adjacent antinodes is then determined
5. Wavelength of the sound = λ = 2d, hence velocity v = fλ = f(2d)
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Superposition
Principle of When two or more waves of the same kind meet at a point at the same time, the displacement of the
superposition resultant wave is the vector sum of the displacements of the individual waves at that point at that
time.
Stationary waves When two progressive waves of the same type of equal amplitude, equal frequency, equal
wavelength, equal speed travelling in opposite directions meet and undergo superposition with each
other, a stationary wave is formed.
Coherence Coherent waves have constant phase difference.
Path difference Extra distance that one waves travels compared with another wave
Fundamental The lowest frequency at which a stationary wave can vibrate
frequency
Overtone Higher frequency values at which a stationary wave can vibrate
Antinode A point on a stationary wave vibrating with maximum amplitude
Node A point on a stationary wave vibrating with zero amplitude
Diffraction Bending or spreading out of waves when they pass through a small opening or pass around an obstacle
into the geometrical shadow regions.
Diffraction is observed and is more pronounced when the size of the slit/aperture is of the same order
as the wavelength of the wave. It is still slightly observable when the aperture is smaller than the
wavelength in order.
Diffraction pattern: The central max is much brighter and broader compared to the maxima at the
sides, whereas the bright fringes are equally spaced
Interference Interference is an effect that occurs when two or more waves of the same type superpose to
produce a resultant wave, i.e. change in amplitude.
Constructive When two waves meet in phase, the resultant amplitude (maximum) is the sum of individual
interference amplitudes of the waves.
Destructive When two waves meet out of phase (180 deg), the resultant amplitude (minimum) is the difference
interference of the amplitudes of the waves. If the amplitudes of the two waves are the same, we obtain zero
resultant amplitude or complete destructive interference.
Two-source When waves from 2 sources overlap and superpose, they form a two-source interference pattern with
interference maximum intensities at some points when they meet in phase, and minimum intensities at other points
when they meet antiphase.
Diffraction grating A small sheet of glass or transparent plastic on which have been marked many hundreds of parallel
equally spaced lines.
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Progressive waves Stationary waves

Amplitude Same amplitude for all particles in wave motion Varies from 0 at the nodes to maximum at the anti-
nodes
Frequency All particles vibrate at SHM with same frequency All particles (except those at rest) vibrate at SHM with
same frequency
Wavelength Shortest distance between 2 adjacent particles that Twice the distance between a pair of adjacent nodes or
are vibrating in phase anti-nodes
Phase All particles within one wavelength have different Phase of all particles between 2 adjacent nodes is the
phases same. Particles in adjacent segments of half a
wavelength have a phase difference of π rad
Wave
Wave profile advances with the speed of wave Wave profile does not advance
Energy Energy is transported in the wave’s travelling Energy is stored within the vibratory motion of the
direction stationary wave
Stationary waves produced in stretched strings or microwaves (2 closed ends)

1. The progressive wave produced by the vibrator moves
towards the pulley with constant velocity.
𝜆
2. The wave is reflected at the closed pulley end and 𝐿=
travels backwards. 2
𝑉
3. The incident and reflected waves have the same speed, 𝑓=
2𝐿
frequency, wavelength and amplitude, and they travel
in opposite directions
4. Thus, they superpose and form a stationary wave.
2𝜆
𝐿=
Note: 2
2𝑉
Number of harmonic = Number of anti-nodes 𝑓=
Ends = Nodes 2𝐿
Nodes = Anti-nodes +1
Open = Always Anti-node 3𝜆

Closed/Wall/Reflection = Always Node 𝐿=
2
3𝑉
𝑓=
2𝐿
Stationary waves produced in air columns

1. When air is blown into the open end of the pipe, a wave travels from the open end toward the closed end
2. The wave is reflected when it hits the closed end wall
3. Incident and reflected waves superposed and thus forming a stationary wave
4. The closed ends form the nodes, and the open ends the anti-nodes
Note:
Fundamental mode = 1st Harmonic
1st Overtone = 2nd Harmonic
2nd Overtone = 3rd Harmonic These notes are shared on
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1 open, 1 closed end (closed pipes) Both open ends (open pipes)
𝜆
𝜆 𝐿=
𝐿= 2
4 𝑉
𝑉 𝑓=
𝑓= 2𝐿
4𝐿
1 (1A 1N)
3𝜆 2𝜆
𝐿=
𝐿= 2
4 2𝑉
3𝑉 𝑓=
𝑓= 2𝐿
4𝐿
3 (2A 2N) 3𝜆
𝐿=
5𝜆 2
𝐿= 3𝑉
4 𝑓=
5𝑉 Note:
2𝐿
𝑓= Number of harmonic = Number of nodes
4𝐿
5 (3A 3N) Ends = Anti-nodes
Anti-nodes = Nodes +1
Constructive interference Destructive interference

Path difference = 0, λ, 2λ, 3λ … Path difference = 0.5λ, 1.5λ, 2.5λ, 3.5λ …
Phase difference = 0, 2π, 4π, 6π … Phase difference = 1π, 3π, 5π, 7π …
Conditions for 2-source interference fringes to be observable (good contrast between brightest and darkest fringes)
Coherent sources (same frequency So that a constant interference pattern can be obtained
and constant phase difference)
Equal or approximately equal So that complete or almost complete cancellation is achieved at destructive
amplitudes interferences and brightest fringes can be observed
Polarized in the same plane If not, complete cancellation is not possible even at points where 2 waves are
completely antiphase
Young’s Double Slit Experiment

A single monochromatic light source provides light of a only 1 wavelength through the first single slit, and the waves superpose
after passing through the set of double slits.
Two different monochromatic light sources cannot be used because even if they have the same frequency, their waves are
not coherent (photos are emitted at random from the 2 different light sources, thus will not have a constant phase difference)
1. Distance, a, between slits decreased – Fringe separation x increases, while the intensity of fringes unaffected
2. Distance from slits to screen, D, increased – Fringe separation x increases. Intensity of fringes decreases as the distance
from the source increases given I = 1/r2
3. Light source from single slit moved closer to double slits – Fringe separation x is unaffected. However, intensity of fringes
increases since intensity of light through the double slits is now greater
4. One of the slits covered with transparent medium of higher refractive index – Fringe pattern will be shifted downwards,
whereas the fringe separation x remains the same. The intensity of fringes is also reduced due to the reduced light energy
passing through (some reflected/lost)
5. One of the slits is closed – There is no interference pattern, however, diffraction pattern is still seen. The central max is
much brighter and broader compared to the maxima at the sides, whereas the bright fringes are equally spaced.
6. White light, not monochromatic light, is used – Central fringe is white and the fringes on both sides will be coloured. Since
the wavelength of blue is smaller than that of red, the fringes towards the centre are bluish, whereas those further apart
are reddish (refer below)
7. Two lamps producing monochromatic light of same frequency are used as 2 light sources through each slit instead of
using a mono light source – Light source is not coherent, thus there is no interference pattern, with the screen evenly
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Constructive (bright fringes)

𝒂𝒙 Path Phase
𝝀= Order
Difference Difference
 Amplitude = 2A (double original amplitude) 𝑫
 Since 𝐼 ∝ 𝐴2 , intensity = Max = 4A2 D 2 2λ 4πφ
Destructive
 Amplitude = 0 1.5 1.5λ 3πφ
 Intensity = Min = 0 1 1λ 2πφ
x 0.5 0.5λ 1πφ
a 0 0λ 0πϕ
0.5 0.5λ 1πφ
1 1λ 2πφ
1.5 1.5λ 3πφ
2 2λ 4πφ
Diffraction Grating
Consists of a large number of fine equidistant and closely spaced parallel lines (multiple slits) of equal width.
Diffraction occurs at each of the slits, with the waves emerging from them being coherent, thus interference occurs when
they superpose
𝑑 sin 𝜃𝑛 = 𝑛𝜆
 d = distance between each slit, grating spacing
 θn = nth order angle, angle from the middle
Maximum detectable order

 When n is maximum, i.e. when sin 𝜃𝑛 is maximum (θn = 0.5π, sin 𝜃𝑛 >
𝑛𝜆 𝑑
⟹ when sin 𝜃𝑛 = 1, 𝑛 < )  Occurs when light passes straight
𝑑 𝜆
through the diffraction grating
Subsequent orders of maximum

 1st order maximum occurs when path difference from adjacent slits increase by λ
 Areas of bright and dark fringes can be seen more clearly with monochrome light
Characteristics of diffraction grating

 Increase in number of slits: More light passes through grating, absolute intensities of maxima increases
Sharpness of maxima increases
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An experiment is conducted to obtain the displacement-time graph and displacement-distance graph of a sound wave. Suggest
an experimental method for obtaining the displacement-time graph. Discuss whether the same method could be used for the
displacement-distance graph. [6] N96/III/2
The displacement-time graph can be obtained by placing a microphone in the path of the sound wave, and connecting the
output from the microphone to an oscilloscope. The microphone acts as a transducer to convert sound energy into electrical
energy, such that the amplitude of the microphone’s voltage output is proportional to the amplitude of the sound wave. The
x-axis of the oscilloscope is the time base. The oscilloscope displays voltage-time graph of the microphone output, and thus
the displacement-time graph of the sound wave.
The same method cannot be used for the displacement-time graph because the oscilloscope’s horizontal axis is time and not
distance. Displacement-distance graph shows the displacement of all the particles along the wave at one instant in time. To
produce the displacement-distance graph, multiple microphones must be placed along the sound wave, and all the
microphone outputs connected to a data-logger which records all of their voltage outputs simultaneously. Their values are
then plotted against distance to obtain the displacement-time graph.
It is possible to use two separate oscillators feeding two loudspeakers to demonstrate interference of sound. It is not possible
to use two filament lamps, however similar, to produce interference of light. Explain the difference. How could you modify the
experiment in order to show interference of light? [4] J91/III/2
Provided the two sound oscillators are identical, they will maintain a constant phase difference. This ensures that both waves
are coherent – a condition for interference to occur. Light from a filament lamp is emitted in random pulses, with different
phases emitting from different parts of the filament. Even if two filament lamps emit the same frequency of light, their wave
trains are not able to maintain a constant phase difference between each other. Since they are not coherent, the two sources
of waves are not able to produce interference. Use a single light source and place a third slit behind the double slits. The third
slit ensures that the light waves arriving at the double slits are from a single point source and thus coherent. Alternatively,
laser light can be used since laser light is coherent.
Describe an experiment by which the frequency of a stationary wave can be accurately determined. [5] N90/III/3
Place a light gate transmitter-received pair across an antinode of the vibrating string. Connect the output of the light gate’s
receiver to a CRO. When the string is not blocking the light gate, the light gate receiver’s output is high hence the CRO displays
a high voltage. When the string passes through the equilibrium position and comes between the light gate’s transmitter and
receiver, the light is blocked. As a result, there is a brief drop in the light gate receiver’s output, resulting in a dip in the CRO’s
voltage display. The time-interval between two successive voltage drops is half a period. From the period T, the frequency
f=1/T.
Explain what is meant by interference with reference to a stationary wave on a stretched spring. [3] N95/III/3
When the string is plucked in its center, progressive waves emerge in both directions from the center of the string. When the
waves reach the ends of the string, they are reflected by a phase angle of 180˚ due to the ends being fixed. These reflected
waves, traveling in opposite directions, superpose with each other to produce a stationary wave. At locations where the
reflected waves are in phase with each other, they undergo constructive interference to produce antinodes with twice the
amplitude of vibrations of each wave. At locations where they are 180˚ out of phase with each other, they undergo destructive
interference to produce nodes with zero amplitude of vibration. Energy is redistributed from the minima to the maxima.
If Young’s double-slit experiment were conducted underwater, how would the observed interference pattern be affected?
The speed of electromagnetic radiation underwater will be much slower than that in a vacuum. The wavelength of the wave
will decrease and fringe spacing of observed interference pattern will decrease.
The speed v of a progressive wave is given by the expression v=fλ. A stationary wave does not have a speed. By reference to
the formation of a stationary wave, explain the significance of the product fλ for a stationary wave. [3] N04/II/4
A stationary wave is formed by the superposition of two progressive waves of the same type with equal speed, frequency,
wavelength and amplitude traveling in opposite directions. The product fλ in a stationary wave refers to theThese
speed
notesof
arethe two
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progressive waves that superpose to form the stationary wave. Due to the two waves having the same speed fλ but different
directions, their velocity vectors cancel out resulting in the stationary wave not traveling in either direction.
Explain why it is usually necessary to adjust either the vibrating length of the string or the frequency of the vibrator in order to
obtain observable stationary waves on the string. N95/III/3
Both ends of a stretched string are nodes since they are fixed in position and not able to move. In order for a stationary wave
to be set up in a stretched string, the length of the string must be an integer multiple of 0.5λ. If the frequency, and thus
wavelength, is fixed, then the length of the vibrating string must be adjusted to accommodate the condition that its length is
an integer multiple of 0.5λ. However, if the vibrating length of the string is fixed, then the wavelength can be adjusted to
accommodate the condition, by varying the frequency of vibration, since λ=v/f.
Suggest why two-source interference of water waves, using a double-slit arrangement, may not be observed when the slits are
wide but, when the slits are narrow, interference is observed. J96/III/3
When the slits are wide, the water waves do not diffract much. Their wavefronts pass straight through the slits and their paths
do not cross. Since their wavefronts do not meet, the two waves are not able to interfere with each other. When the slits are
narrow, the water waves diffract significantly. Their wavefronts spread out in a semi-circular profile. Where their wavefronts
meet, the two waves are able to interfere. At locations where the waves are in phase with each other, they interfere
constructively to produce intensity maxima. Where the waves are 180˚ out of phase, they interfere destructively to produce
intensity minima.
Diffraction gratings can be used to determine the wavelength of electromagnetic radiation. Suggest one advantage and one
disadvantage of obtaining the wavelength by using observations of the second-order diffracted light rather than the first-order
diffracted light. N95/III/3
Second order diffracted beams make larger angles with respect to the central axis. The percentage uncertainty in the
measured angle will thus be lower. Second order diffracted light has a lower intensity due to the diffraction envelope
constraint resulting from diffraction of light from each individual slit. This causes the diffracted beam’s intensity to be
progressively lower the further it is from the central axis, making observation of the maxima more difficult.
Describe briefly how you would confirm that the laser beam is plane-polarised. [2] JJC Prelims 08/III/2
Pass the laser beam through a polariser. As the polariser is rotated in plane perpendicular to the beam, the intensity of the
emerging beam should vary from a maximum to zero or vice versa.
Both diffraction and superposition of waves occur when a diffraction grating is used to produce a spectrum. The same principles
are involved when a compact disc is viewed in white light and is seen to produce multicoloured streaks of light. Explain how a
diffraction grating produces a spectrum and suggest what this implies about the nature of the surface of the CD. [5] N94/III/2
When white light passes through a diffraction grating, the light waves diffract and spread out from each of the many slits. The
spreading wave fronts then interfere with one another. At certain angles where the light waves are in phase, they interfere
constructively to produce intensity maxima. These angles where the maxima occur depends on the wavelength of the light
according to the equation dsinѳ=nλ where d is the slit separation and n the order of the maxima. Since white light comprises
a whole range of wavelengths, each wavelength of light will have its maxima at a different angle, thus producing a spectrum.
The fact that the CD is seen to produce a spectrum suggests that the surface of the CD has a diffraction grating-like structure.
The indentations on the surface of the CD must be regularly spaced just like a diffraction grating. Each indentation is a small
mirror and reflects white light incident upon it. The reflected light from all the indentations is similar to the multiple source of
light wave spreading out from the slits of the diffraction grating. They interfere with one another to produce a spectrum as in
the case of a diffraction grating.
Light from a laser is produced via stimulated emission, whereas light form a fluorescent tube is produced via spontaneous
emission. Compare the light from these two sources in terms of phase difference and deduce the effect this has on the
experimental setup for a double-slit interference experiment using laser light. [2] YJC Prelims 08/II/3
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All photons produced by stimulated emission in a laser have the same phase difference, whereas those produced by
spontaneous emission do not. Thus for a double-slit experiment, light from a single laser source incident on the double slits
will produce an interference pattern.
Explain why a stationary sound wave set up in a closed tube looks like a transverse wave although sound waves are longitudinal
waves. [2] N06/III/4
This is only a schematic graphical representation of the displacement of the air molecules in the sound wave. Since sound
wave is a longitudinal wave, the air molecules vibrate parallel to the axis of the pipe. The air molecules actually vibrate in a
horizontal direction (left and right) but the schematic graphical representation is such that a rightward displacement is
represented as positive while a leftward displacement is represented as negative.
The band is practicing in the band room down the corridor with the door left slightly ajar. Explain why notes of a certain range
of frequencies can be heard more clearly than others at the end of the corridor. [2] HCI Prelims 08/III/7
Low-pitched notes have longer wavelengths and undergo more diffraction through the door.
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Electric Fields
Electric field Electric field is a region of space in which a force acts on a stationary charge. Direction of electric
field is the direction of force on a positive charge.
Coulomb’s law of Electrostatic force between 2 point charges is directly proportional to the product of the charges and
electrostatic force inversely proportional to the square of their separation
Electric field The electric force per unit positive charge experienced by a small stationary test charge placed at that
strength point.
Electric potential The work done per unit positive charge in moving a small test charge from infinity to that point.
Electric potential Work done by an external force in bringing a charge from infinity to that point, without change in KE
energy
Equipotential Points equidistant from a point charge have the same electric potential, and this surface always cuts
surface the field lines at right angles
Electronvolt, eV A unit of energy equal to the energy gained by an electron when it is accelerated through a potential
difference of 1 volt.
Charged Parallel Plates Point Charges

Field Geometry Uniform Radial
V 𝑑𝑉 ∆𝑉 V
𝐸=− =
Potential-distance graph 𝑑𝑟 𝑟 𝑄
𝑉 = − න 𝐸 𝑑𝑟 =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
r r
E E
𝑑𝑉 𝑄
𝐸=− =
𝑑𝑟 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
Field-distance graph
𝑉 = − න 𝐸 𝑑𝑟 = 𝐸𝑟
r r
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Electric Field Gravitational Field

Variation of field
1
strength with field strength ∝ 2 (inverse square law)
r
distance
Energy Both E-force and G-force are conservative forces
Considerations (Work done independent on path taken, only dependent on final and initial positions)
Force experienced by unit entity at a point = negative of potential energy gradient at that particular point r in
Relationship
the system
between force
𝑑𝑈
and potential 𝐹⃑ = −
energy 𝑑𝑟
Negative sign indicates force points in direction of decreasing potential energy
Vacuum Both fields act in vacuum
Magnitude of
Dependent on physical quantity of electric charge Dependent on physical quantity of mass
field strength
𝐹𝐸 𝑞𝑒 2
Magnitude of Using 2 electrons as comparison, = 4𝜋𝜀 2
= 4.17 × 1042
forces 𝐹𝐺 0 𝐺𝑚𝑒
E-force is significantly much larger than G-force
Nature Can be repulsive or attractive Attractive only
Origin Charge interaction Mass interaction
𝑄 𝑞 𝐺𝑀 𝑚
Force Law Coulomb’s Law: 𝐹𝐸 = 1 2 2 Newton’s Law of Gravitation: 𝐹𝐺 = 12 2
4𝜋𝜀 𝑟0 𝑟
Force experienced by unit charge, N C-1 or V m-1 Force experienced by unit mass, N kg-1 or ms-2
Field Strength in 𝐹𝐸 𝑄 𝐹𝐺 𝐺𝑀
radial field 𝐸= = 𝑔= = 2
𝑞 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2 𝑚 𝑟
Work done by external agent to bring unit charge q Work done by external agent to bring unit mass m
from infinity to particular point r in space from infinity to particular point r in space
Potential 𝑊𝐷 𝑄 𝑊𝐷 𝐺𝑀
𝑉= = 𝜙= =−
𝑞 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 𝑚 𝑟
Work done by external agent in bringing a charge q2 Work done by external agent in bringing a mass m2
Potential Energy
from infinity to particular point r in space from infinity to particular point r in space
of 2 masses or 𝑄1 𝑞2 𝐺𝑀1 𝑚2
charges 𝑈 = 𝑞2 𝑉 = 𝑈 = 𝑚2 𝜙 = −
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 𝑟
Gravitational field strength is the negative of
Electric field strength is the negative of electric
gravitational potential gradient at a particular point r
Relationship potential gradient at a particular point r in space
𝑑𝑉 in space
between field
𝐸=− 𝑑𝜙
and potential 𝑑𝑟 𝑔=−
𝑑𝑟
Negative sign indicates that force acts in direction of decreasing potential
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Explain why the electric potential on the surface of an isolated charged conductor is the same everywhere. [4] J88/III/5
The surface of a conductor has zero resistance, hence charges on it can flow freely. Any potential difference which develops
between two points on the surface will create an electric field between the two points. The field will produce a force which
causes the charges to move and redistribute themselves until there is no more potential difference between the two points.
Hence the electric potential on the surface must be the same everywhere.
Explain to what extent an isolate, positively charged conducting sphere may be considered to act as a point charge. [3]
J89/III/12
An isolated, positively charged conducting sphere may be considered to act as a point charge at distances equal to or greater
than the radius of the sphere. On the surface as well as outside the sphere, the electric field strength E=Q/4πε 0d²and electric
potential V=Q/4πε0d, where d is the distance measured from the center of the sphere. Hence, the sphere behaves like a point
charge of magnitude Q located at its center. Within the sphere, however, E=0 and V=Q/4πε0R everywhere in the sphere, where
R is the radius of the sphere, which is a constant. Hence within the sphere, it does not behave as a point charge. The reason
behind this is that the resistance of a conductor is zero and there can be no potential difference between any two points in
the sphere. Since electric field strength is the negative of the potential gradient, the electric field must be zero everywhere
inside the sphere.
Distinguish qualitative and quantitative aspects of electric field and gravitational field.
Both are inverse square law fields. Electric field acts on charges while gravitational field acts on masses. Field lines in an electric
field are always directed away from a positive point charge and towards a negative point charge. Field lines in a gravitational
field are always directed to a point mass. Electric forces can be attractive or repulsive while gravitational forces are always
attractive.
Suggest why, in the alpha-scattering experiment, a) gravitational effects are ignore; and b) when calculating electric potential,
the direction of approach of the alpha-particle to the nucleus need not be considered. [2] N98/II/2
a) The potential energy and force due to a gravitational field are many orders of magnitude smaller than the potential energy
and force due to an electric field, respectively.
b) Electric potential is a scalar quantity which has only magnitude but not direction. It is hence independent of the direction
of approach.
Explain why lightning is more likely to strike the tip of the lighthouse than any other places close to it. [1] IJC Prelims 08/III/4
Near the tip of the lighthouse, the equipotential surfaces are very close to one another. This means that the potential gradient
there is very strong and it is more likely to reach the threshold potential gradient before any other places for an electric
discharge to occur. There is a high concentration of charges at the tip of the lighthouse.
Explain the shape of the path followed by electrons as they pass between the deflecting plates.
A uniform electric field acts from the upper plate to the lower plate, hence a constant force exerted on the electron beam
causes it to curve up. The curve is parabolic.
State how the magnitude and direction of the electric field strength at any point between two charges can be determined by
their electric potential-distance graph. [2] RJC CT1 08/16
The magnitude of the electric field strength at any point between the two charges can be obtained from the gradient of the
potential-distance graph. The electric field strength acts from region of high to low potential.
Movement of electrons through a conductor is usually not as fast as calculated
 Joule heating (resistive heating) occurs. Electrons collide with ions, transferring KE/vibrational energy to ions,
causing them to heat up
 Used in electrical heating and incandescent light bulb (filament is so hot such that it glows white with
thermal/blackbody radiation) These notes are shared on
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Current of Electricity and DC Circuits

Electric charge If the rate is constant or if the current is steady, then amount of charge (Q) passing through a given
section of a conductor is the product of the steady current I that flows past the section and the time
interval t during which the current flows.
Electric current Rate of flow of charged particles, which may be positively or negatively charged with respect to time.
Coulomb SI unit for charge. Amount of electric charge passing through a cross section of a conductor in 1
second when a constant current of 1 ampere flows through it
Ampere Amount of constant current in 2 straight conductors of infinite length placed at 1m apart which
produces an electric force per unit length of 2x10-7Nm-1 on each wire
Potential difference The work done per unit charge when electrical energy is transferred to non‐electrical energy when
the charge passes from one point to the other.
Volt The potential difference between two points in a circuit where work done per unit charge is one
joule per coulomb when electrical energy is converted to non‐electrical energy.
Electromotive force The work done per unit charge when non‐electrical energy is transferred into electrical energy when
(emf) / volt (emf) the charge is moved round a complete circuit.
Electrical resistance Ratio of the potential difference across the conductor to the current flowing through the conductor
(R = V/I)
Resistivity (p) The relationship between the dimensions of a specimen of a material and its resistance at constant
temperature. An intrinsic characteristic of a material (whereby R = pl/A)
Ohm The electric resistance between two points of a conductor when the ratio of potential difference to
current is one volt per ampere.
Ohm’s law The current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference applied
across the conductor provided that physical conditions (like temperature, stress etc) remains
constant.
Maximum power Max power is supplied to the external circuit components when the R of the external circuit = r of
theorem battery
Conservation of The total charge entering a junction per unit time (current entering) must equal to the total charge
charge in DC leaving the same junction per unit time (current leaving).
Conservation of The electrical energy produced by the source is equal to the sum of the electrical energy consumed
energy in DC by all the components in the circuit
Potential divider A circuit in which 2 or more resistors are connected in series with a supply voltage (emf) whereby the
resistors will divide the emf into fractions according to their resistance
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For a potential difference to exist, the component must either be a source (provides emf) or have a resistance, and current must
be flowing through the component.
A potentiometer can be used to measure potential differences, that is often more versatile and more accurate than a voltmeter.
 Potentiometer can measure emf (voltmeter measures terminal pd) and also does not draw current from circuit (unlike
voltmeter)
I-V characteristics
As potential difference across a material increases, its temperature increases, however 2 main scenarios can occur molecularly:
1. The number of free electrons or charge carriers increases, thus reducing the resistance of the material
2. The lattice vibration of the molecular structure increases, thus increasing the resistance of the material
Metallic conductor: At Filament lamp: As V increases, Semiconductor diode: As V increases Negative coefficient
constant temp, number I increases linearly till bulb (forward-biased region A), temp thermistor: As temp
of free electrons and lights up. However, as temp increases. Since the increase in increases, the R of
the rate of atomic increases, the rate of atomic charge carriers (electrons and holes) the thermistor
vibrations both remain vibrations predominates over is more significant and predominates decreases, thus I
constant  R remains the increase in free electrons over the increase in rate of atomic increases (similar to
constant with increase  R increases vibrations  R decreases semiconductor
in V. Thus, an ohmic Thus, further increase in V Further increase in V thus cause diode
conductor with R = V/I causes a less proportionate more than proportionate increase in characteristics)
increase in current I. current I
*Note: From an I-V graph, R cannot be calculated from the gradient, but from individual V and I points on the graph using R =
V/I
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Ideal Practical
Voltmeter Infinite resistance of the voltmeter will allow it to Has a finite internal resistance, thus draws a small current
not draw current from the circuit, allowing it to from the circuit (in parallel). Thus, voltmeter reads a
read a theoretical value of potential difference potential difference that is smaller than the actual
across the 2 points connected in parallel theoretical value
Ammeter Zero resistance of the ammeter allows 0 potential As a small internal resistance, thus has a potential
difference across its ends, thus allowing it to read divider across it. Therefore, it reads a current that is
the theoretical current value in the electrical path smaller than theactual theoretical value
Discuss 2 factors that affect the magnitude of current and hence the possible danger from electric shock.
A higher potential of the wire would result in a higher potential difference across the person, thus a higher current.
Furthermore, moisture on the human skin can also improve electrical contact between skin and wire, thus reducing R of
skin, increasing magnitude of current through the person.
How to achieve the greatest power dissipated to resistors connected to a power supply?
The max power is dissipated when the resistors are connected in parallel with the source, as this ensures that both resistors
have the same pd across them, same as the terminal pd, ensuring maximum power in terms of V 2/R.
Disadvantage of a voltmeter in circuit for temperature measurement?
Between 2.5C and 30C, the voltmeter reading only varies from 5.3V to 7.3V, which is a narrow range. Hence, the
voltmeter is not sensitive enough to show small temperature changes.
Discuss briefly whether it is practicable to suggest that power losses as heat can be reduced indefinitely by a suitable choice
of generator pd. N81/1/7
Theoretically, power loss can be reduced infinitely by increasing the generator pd by using step-up transformers at the
generator output. However, extremely high voltages tend to cause insulation breakdown between live and neutral wires /
insulation breakdown between windings in the high-voltage secondary coil of the transformer / electromagnetic interference
with the telecommunication equipment. Hence, there is a limitation to how high the voltage can be stepped up.
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Why do the I-V graphs of a filament of a torch bulb and a piece of intrinsic semiconductor differ in shape? N89/III/5
The resistance of a metallic conductor increases with temperature. As the voltage and current increase, the power
dissipated increases causing significant heating. This increases the ionic lattice vibration within the metal, causing increasing
collisions with the drifting free electrons. The drift velocity of the electrons decreases; the filament’s conductivity falls; and
resistance rises. Since R=V/I, this ratio increases thus causing the graph to concave downwards.
The resistance of a semiconductor decreases with temperature. As the voltage and current increase, the power dissipated
increases causing significant heating. This energy causes more electrons to be released from their bonds. The charge carrier
density of the semiconductor increases; its conductivity rises; and resistance falls. Since resistance R=V/I, this ratio decreases
causing the graph to concave upwards.
By taking the average value of power dissipated at different temperatures, energy supplied by battery during period which
temperature changes can be calculated. However, this calculation is only an estimate. Explain.
Since power does not vary linearly with resistance, this method will not yield an accurate value of power dissipated when
resistance changes.
Explain why power is required to maintain an electric current through a metallic conductor. [4] J98/III/2
The flow of current is a result of electrons drifting in the opposite direction. Electrons drifting through the conductor
constantly collide with the metal ions in the lattice, passing energy to the ions, causing them to vibrate, and resulting in a
rise in the temperature of the conductor. In order to prevent the electrons from slowing down after the collision, a
continuous amount of energy must be supplied by the potential difference across the conductor. This potential difference
creates an electric field which immediately accelerates the electrons back to their terminal drift velocity after each collision
with the ionic lattice. In this way, the power supplied by the potential difference balances the power dissipated as heat by
the vibrating ionic lattice, in accordance with the law of conservation of energy.
In using a simple slide-wire potentiometer circuit, a large protective resistance is sometimes connected in series with the
galvanometer. Why is this done? Explain how the presence of this resistance affects a) the position of the balance point, b)
the precision with which it may be found. J84/I/7
This resistance limits the current flowing through the galvanometer, preventing it from being damaged. When the
potentiometer is still far from its balance point, there could be a large potential difference across the galvanometer. Since
the galvanometer’s resistance is low, the current flowing through it could be extremely high if not limited by the protective
resistance. This protective resistance does not affect the position of the balance point. At the balance point, there is no
potential difference across the galvanometer. The current will thus be zero whether or not the protective resistance is
present. However, this protective resistance reduces the precision with which the balance point may be found. This
resistance reduces the current through the galvanometer, thus making it less sensitive to small changes in potential
difference. To overcome this problem, a dual-resistor system is used whereby the protective resistance is switched to a lower
value when the jockey is near the balance point. By then, the potential difference across the galvanometer will be quite
small.
Explain the use of a thermistor and a light-dependent resistor in potential dividers to provide a potential difference which is
dependent on temperature and illumination respectively.
A thermistor is sensitive to temperature changes. When temperature increases, resistance decreases. Hence current from
the DC source will increase. Hence, the potential difference across the resistor increases. A light dependent resistor is
sensitive to illumination. When illumination increases, resistance decreases. Current from the DC source will increases.
Hence, the potential difference across the resistor will increase.
Use Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction to explain why a transformer will operate for an alternating voltage input
but not for a direct voltage input. [2] AJC Prelims 08/III/3
An alternating voltage input causes a changing magnetic flux which links the primary coil to the secondary coil. As a result of
electromagnetic induction, a changing emf is produced in the secondary coil. A direct voltage input does not provide a
changing magnetic flux and thus, no emf is induced in the secondary coil.
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In a potentiometer setup, the instructions suggested that the galvanometer be set to different resistance levels (high or low)
for the initial estimation of balance length and for the final, more accurate verification. Suggest which resistance levels should
be chosen for each measurement. Explain your answer. [4] AJC Prelims 08/III/6
Initially, high resistance is necessary to protect the meter against possible high current. For final verification, a change from
high to low resistance means that there will be a current flowing through the galvanometer even at the balance point that
has been determined initially. Hence, a more accurate balance point can be determined with fine adjustment till the
galvanometer reflects null deflection again.
If the equation V=IR is used to define resistance, why is it not possible then to use the same equation to define potential
difference? [1] CJC Prelims 08/II/4
Resistance of a resistor is defined as the ratio of potential difference across the resistor to the current through it. Therefore,
potential difference cannot be defined using resistance. This is because physical quantities must be defined in sequence.
Explain why a railway employee who touches the track through which there is a current of 180A does not get an electric
shock. [2] N98/III4
This is because there is no potential difference between the railway employee and the track. Electric current flows from a
region of higher to lower electric potential. Both the railway employee and the track are in contact with the earth, and thus
are grounded at the same earth potential. Since the employee and the track are at the same potential, current will not flow
either way.
Explain why a high voltage supply is essential for a railway system. [2] N98/III/4
High voltages result in lower transmitted current, since I=P/V where transmitted power is a constant. A lower current reduces
the power loss as Ploss=I²R where R is the resistance of the transmission cable. A lower current either increases the efficiency
of transmission or, if efficiency is to be maintained, allows a thinner wire with higher resistance to be used, thus saving on
cabling costs.
Explain why a different current is needed when the train is climbing a hill from that required when traveling at the same speed
on the flat. [2] N98/III/4
When climbing a hill, additional work needs to be done against gravity which is converted into potential energy of the train.
Engine power P=IV=Fv where F is force exerted and v the speed of the train. Since speed v is constant but a greater force F
has to be exerted to overcome gravity, a greater current I has to be drawn to provide the additional power required. This is
in accordance with the law of conservation of energy.
Describe electrical conduction in a metal. [1] N99/III/5
When a potential difference is applied across the ends of a metal, an electric field is set up. This field exerts an electric force
on the free electrons, causing them to drift towards the higher potential end.
Discuss two factors which affect the magnitude of the current and hence result in the possible danger of electric shock. One
obvious safety precaution is to keep live wires well insulated. What other safety precautions do you suggest? [4] N2000/III/4
One factor is the resistivity of the skin, which is affected by its moisture. Wet skin has lower resistivity and hence resistance,
thus increasing the danger from electric shock. Another factor is the thickness of the skin. If the skin is thinner, the resistance
will also be lower, increasing the danger from electric shock.
The other safety precautions are 1) wear thick rubber boots to reduce current flowing through the body into the earth in the
event of an electric shock; 2) connect an Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker in the electric circuit to cut off the power supply the
moment current is diverted into the earth wire.
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Electromagnetism and Electromagnetic Induction

Magnetic field (B- A region of space where a magnetic pole, a current-carrying conductor, or a moving charge particle will
field) experience a magnetic force (B)
Magnetic flux Force per unit length per unit current acting on a straight conductor placed normal to the magnetic
density (B) field
Tesla SI unit for magnetic flux density; if a long straight conductor carrying a current of 1A is placed normal
to a uniform magnetic field of flux density of 1T, then the force per unit length on the conductor is
1N/m
Magnetic flux The product of the magnetic flux density and the area normal to the magnetic field through which
the field is passing (BA)
Weber SI unity for magnetic flux; the magnetic flux if a uniform flux density of 1T passes perpendicularly
through an area of 1m2
Magnetic flux Product of the magnetic flux passing through the coil and the number of turns on the coil (NBA)
linkage
Faraday’s law of The magnitude of induced emf in a conductor is directly proportional to the rate of change of magnetic
magnetic induction flux linkage of the conductor.
Lenz’s law Induced emf is in a direction so as to produce effects to oppose the change causing it
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Explain why wires with current flowing in opposing direction repel away from each other.
The current in the left AB produces a magnetic field into the page according to RH grip rule, which causes the force on CD to
be directed to the right according to Fleming’s LH rule. Similarly, the force on AB due to CD’s magnetic field is to the left, thus
both AB and CD move away from each other in a repulsive manner.
Discuss how the combination of magnetic and electric fields in the crossed-field region allows particles of only one speed V to
pass through the slit.
Based on Fleming’s LH rule, the electromagnetic force on the negatively charged particles is to the left, while the electric force
on the negatively charged particles is to the right since the electric field is directed to the left. When both magnetic force and
electric force is of the same magnitude but opposing direction, there is 0 resultant force, thus the charged particles do have a
net acceleration, thus travel with a constant velocity in a straight line by N1L. Since the magnetic force depends on the speed
of the charged particles (v), there is only one speed in which the magnetic force acted on the charged particles is exactly equal
to the electric force.
Explain emf induced due to cutting of magnetic flux (motional emf).
When a conductor (wire) moves at a constant velocity in a uniform magnetic field, the moving conductor cuts the magnetic
flux, leading to an induced emf. In the conductor moving to the right, the electrons are moving to the right, so the conventional
current is flowing to the left. Based on Fleming’s LH rule, each electron experiences a downward magnetic force, F B = Bqv.
Under the influence of this force, the electrons move to the lower end of the conductor and accumulate there, leaving a net
positive charge at the upper end. As a result of this charge separation, an electric field E (directed downward) is produced
inside the conductor. The charges accumulate at both ends until the downward magnetic force on charges remaining in the
conductor is balanced by the upward electric force, FE = qE. Thus the electric force is equal to the magnetic force. Since the E
field is constant in the conductor, the emf or pd across the conductor of length L is equal to EL = BLv.
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Examples of Faraday’s law and Lenz’s law

When coil is pulled out of field, magnetic flux linkage through coil decreases, thus according to
Lenz’s law, the induced emf will produce an induced current in a direction to produce effects to
oppose this decrease and thus flow ccw to produce its own magnetic field out of the page.
When the loop drops between the magnetic poles from above, there is an increase in flux linkage
through the loop, thus inducing emf according to Faraday’s law. By Lenz’s law, the current due to the
induced emf flows in a direction such that it produces magnetic fields to oppose the increase in flux,
thus clockwise to produce a magnetic field pointing opposite to the magnetic field of the magnet.
When a string is attached and the loop is raised upwards from below the magnet, there is an increase
in flux linkage through the loop thus inducing emf that produces a current in the loop in the direction,
according to Lenz’s law, such that the coil experiences a downward magnetic force to oppose the
upward motion of the loop. This causes the tension T of the string to be greater than the weight W of
the loop (T = W + FB).
When the switch is closed, the increase in current leads to a magnetic field to be produced in the
wire coil and in the iron rod, thus increases the magnetic flux linkage through the metal ring,
inducing emf in the metal ring according to Faraday’s law. According to Lenz’s law, a current is
produced due to the induced emf in a direction that produces its magnetic field that opposes the
increase in magnetic flux in the iron rod, thus opposite to the direction of the field in the iron
rod, repelling the ring into the air.
When the magnet drops down the conductive copper pipe, there is a change in magnetic flux
linkage in the pipe, by Faraday’s law, an emf is induced. According to Lenz’s law, eddy currents
are induced in the pipe that flow in a direction that create a magnetic field that opposes the
change in magnetic flux, thus forming their magnetic fields that oppose and slow down the
downward motion of the magnet.
If the copper pipe is changed to a copper solenoid, when the magnet is completely inside the
solenoid, the induced emf above and below the magnet are opposing in direction, thus there
is a 0 net emf induced, resulting in 0 net induced current in the solenoid, thus the magnet
does not experience any opposing force when it is inside the solenoid. However, the speed is
still slower than through an insulating pipe due to the opposing motion at the point of entry
and exit of the solenoid due to a net emf induced at both points.
Discuss Lenz’s law and conservation of energy.
Consider moving a magnet towards the face of a solenoid. Suppose the induced currents' directions were opposite to those
prescribed by Lenz’s Law, the north pole of an approaching magnet would induce a south pole in the near face of the solenoid.
The attractive force between these poles would accelerate the magnet's approach and make the magnetic field increase more
quickly. This in turn would increase the current induced in the solenoid, strengthening the magnetic field, increasing the
attraction and acceleration, and so on. Both the kinetic energy of the magnet and the rate of energy dissipation in the solenoid
(due to heat dissipation) would increase. A small energy input would produce a large energy output, violating the law of
conservation of energy.
Explain eddy currents and ways to reduce them.

A conductor with a shape of a loop will have its induced current flowing around the loop, however, for a solid conducting
plate, when it enters a magnetic field and cuts the magnetic flux, the changing magnetic flux linkage induces an emf in the
plate. The cutting of flux is not uniform across the plate and the rate of cutting is not the same over the whole plate, thus
different emfs are induced, leading to the formation of eddy currents that flow in swirls in different parts of the plate.
Force approach: By Lenz’s law, the induced eddy currents swirl in a way to create magnetic fields to oppose the change causing
it, thus opposing the motion with magnetic repulsive forces  magnetic braking
Energy approach: By conservation of energy, eddy currents convert useful kinetic energies in the plate to heat energy that is
dissipated as heating in the plate  magnetic braking
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Eddy currents can be reduced by eliminating paths of current flow by cutting slits in the plate (preventing large eddy currents).
Explain why induced emf is max when magnetic flux linkage in a generator is 0.
When the coil rotates in a uniform B-field, an emf is induced

according to Faraday’s law. According to Faraday’s law, the
induced emf is equal to the negative of the gradient of the flux
linkage against time graph. Thus, when the coil is perpendicular
to the B-field, despite having a max magnetic flux linkage (max A
 BA), the rate of change in magnetic flux is 0, thus the emf
induced is 0 (min emf). When coil is parallel with the B-field,
magnetic flux linkage is 0, thus the rate of change in magnetic
flux linkage is max given the max negative gradient (steepest), thus the induced emf is also max.
Explain the potential danger associated with switching off the current in a large electromagnet.
When a large current is switched off, there is a large decrease in flux linkage through the coil, thus inducing a large back emf
in the circuit that can cause electric arcing across the open switch, leading to electrical breakdown of air when the voltage
applied exceeds the breakdown voltage.
Why is there no induced emf in the secondary coil if there are 2 primary coils (A and B) facing each other in a transformer?
Since both primary coils A and B have the same number of turns and they are wound in opposite directions on the core, the
magnetic flux due to A completely cancels out that due to B, thus there is always 0 net magnetic flux linkage through the
secondary coil, thus there is no emf induced in the secondary coil according to Faraday’s law.
A copper disc spins freely between the poles of an unconnected electromagnet. Describe and explain what will happen to the
speed of rotation of the disc when direct current is switched on in the electromagnet. [4] J91/II/5
The copper disc will slow down and then come to a halt. When a direct current is switched on, a magnetic field is created
perpendicular to the plane of the copper disc. The rotation of the disc causes the disc to cut these magnetic field lines.
According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, a change in the magnetic flux linking the disc will result in an emf
induced across its axle and rim. This emf will cause a current to flow in the disc. According to Lenz’s Law, this current will flow
in such a direction as to oppose the change in magnetic flux linkage, hence creating an opposing force. This opposing force
will slow down the disc. By the Law of Conservation of Energy, the mechanical energy of the rotating disc is converted into
electrical energy and then dissipated as heat in the disc.
State the effect on the magnetic flux density along the axis of a solenoid in the presence of a ferrous core. [1] H1 Specimen
Paper 06/II/4
In the presence of an Fe core, the magnetic flux density will be increased a few thousand times since the permeability of iron
is approximately 5000 times that of free space. There will be many more magnetic field lines which are more closely spaced.
Solenoid
1. For an ideal solenoid where the loops are closely spaced and the length is
much greater than the radius of the loops, the B-field is uniform over a great volume
in the whole inner region, and the B-field is almost zero outside the solenoid, except
near the ends.
2. The B-field can be greatly increased by the insertion of a ferromagnetic
material such as iron, cobalt or nickel into its core. The ferromagnetic material is
magnetised in the solenoid, thus increasing the net magnetic field over a large area.
3. B field can be increased by increasing current, increasng N turns/multiple
layers, and adding a ferromagnetic material core (iron core).
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A step-down transformer is used to charge a rechargeable battery. The secondary circuit consists of a diode, a resistor, and the
battery to be recharged. a) Suggest why the diode is necessary in the secondary circuit. b) Suggest why the resistor is necessary
in the circuit. [4] J2000/II/5
a) The diode ensures current is always in one direction so that battery will not discharge. There will be times when the charging
voltage falls below the emf of the battery. During such instances, the diode prevents the current from reversing, out of the
battery into the transformer which will cause the battery to be discharged.
b) The resistor limits the current in the circuit to protect the battery and the diode. This is because the resistance of the diode
and internal resistance of the battery are both very small. If there is no resistor to limit the current, the current could become
very high, causing damage to the battery and diode.
A long bar magnet is suspended from a helical spring so that one pole of the magnet lies within a short cylindrical coil. The
magnet is given a small vertical displacement and is then released so that one pole of the magnet oscillates within the coil.
Explain the nature of the magnet’s oscillations when no resistor is connected; a large resistor is connected and a low resistor is
connected. J94/III/3
With no resistor, although an emf is induced across the coil due to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, the current
cannot flow hence no magnetic field can be created to oppose the motion of the oscillating magnet. The magnet thus oscillates
freely with constant amplitude. With a large resistor, the induced emf is able to drive a small current through the coil.
According to Lenz’s Law, the current will flow in such a direction as to oppose the change in magnetic flux linkage. This
opposing field slows down the oscillating magnet. Light damping occurs. With a small resistor, a large current is able to flow.
The opposing field is strong, and the magnet experiences heavy damping.
In the second and third case, the mechanical energy of the oscillating magnet is converted into electrical energy, then
dissipated as heat in the resistor in accordance with the Law of Conservation of Energy.
Describe and analyse deflections of beams of charged particles by uniform electric and uniform magnetic fields.
Beams of charged particles entering a perpendicular uniform electric field are deflected in parabolic paths. Beams of charged
particles entering a perpendicular uniform magnetic field are deflected in circular paths. The direction of the centripetal force
is given by Fleming’s left hand rule.
Explain why a charged particle moves in a spiral path when it is projected into a magnetic field.
When it enters the uniform magnetic field at an angle, instantaneous velocity

can be resolved into 2 components – one parallel to the magnetic field and
the other perpendicular to the magnetic field. The parallel component
remains unchanged because there is no force along the magnetic field,
resulting in a translational motion. The perpendicular component causes a
magnetic force to act perpendicular to both the magnetic field and velocity
which compels the particle to move in a circular path. The resultant motion is
a spiral path.
A charged particle enters a region of uniform magnetic field directed into the plane of the paper. The tracks of such particles
can be made visible by an apparatus known as a bubble chamber, in which the particle is made to pass through a liquid close
to its boiling point. Thus tiny bubbles are formed along the path of the particle’s motion, allowing us to observe the particle’s
trajectory. Such a track is observed to spiral. Briefly explain why the path deviates from uniform circular motion. [2] HCI Prelims
08/III/6
Due to collisions between the particle and the medium of the bubble chamber, the particle loses kinetic energy and thus slows
down. Since r=mv/Bq, the decrease in speed results in a decrease in r, thus resulting in the inward spiraling trajectory.
A beam of electrons of speed v passes undeflected through superimposed uniform magnetic and electric fields of magnitudes
B and E respectively. How must the fields be related in both magnitude and direction? N98/III/6
In order for there to be no deflection, the force exerted by the electric field must be equal but opposite to that exerted by the
magnetic field. The two fields must be crossed fields. They must be placed perpendicular to each other, and both fields must
be perpendicular to the direction of the electron’s velocity. If the electric field is downwards, the magnetic field should be into
the plane of the paper. If the electric field is upwards, the magnetic field should be out of the paper. Since magnetic force =
electric force, Bqv=qE thus v=E/B. The ratio of the electric field to magnetic field should be equal to the velocity of the electron.
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A coil, consisting of many turns of insulated metal wire wrapped around a soft-iron core, is connected in series with a battery,
a switch and a lamp. State what happens to the magnitude of the magnetic flux in the coil as the current increase from zero
when the switch is closed. Hence explain why an emf is induced in the coil as the current increases. Hence explain why there is
noticeable delay before the lamp lights up after the switch is closed. State and explain what will happen to the length of the
delay if the soft-iron core is replaced by one made of wood. [6] J95/II/14
The magnetic flux increases. According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, an emf will be induced in the coil when
there is a change in the magnetic flux linking the coil.
According to Lenz’s law, the induced emf will be in such a direction as to oppose the change. The induced emf is initially equal
but opposite to the battery’s emf, thus canceling it out, resulting in there being no net emf in the circuit. Gradually, this induced
emf decreases due to the reduction in the rate of change of magnetic flux, thus allowing the battery to drive a current through
the circuit.
The delay will be shorter. Wood does not encourage magnetic flux as well as soft-iron. Therefore, the change in the magnetic
flux linkage in the coil will be lower. This induced emf which opposes the battery’s emf will be thus lower. Hence the delay will
be shorter.
An electron is projected in a vacuum along the axis of a current-carrying solenoid. Describe and explain its motion. N81/I/8
The electron will pass straight through undeflected, without any change in speed. The magnetic field in a solenoid is parallel
to its axis. When an electron travels along the axis of the solenoid, the angle between the direction of the magnetic field and
that of the electron’s velocity is zero. Therefore, the force acting on the electron will also be zero. With no resultant force
acting on the electron, it will not undergo any acceleration and thus will travel with uniform speed in the same direction, in
accordance with Newton’s first law of motion.
Briefly explain the working principles of a current balance. [2] NJC Prelims 08/III/6
The magnetic field produced a magnetic force which results in an anti-clockwise moment about XY to counter the anti-
clockwise moment due to the weight of the rider.
Explain simple applications of electromagnetic induction.

Turbine generator – the coil of the turbine is positioned in a strong magnetic field. The turbine uses
force to turn its coil. Hence, its coil experiences changing magnetic flux linkage. According to
Faraday’s law, emf is induced.
Electric guitar – the vibrating string induces an emf in the coil. The pickup coil is placed near the
vibrating guitar string which is made of a metal that can be magnetized. The permanent magnet
inside the coil magnetizes the portion of the string nearest the coil. When the guitar string vibrates
at some frequency, its magnetized segment produces a changing magnetic flux through the pickup
coil. The changing flux linkage induces emf in the coil. Subsequently the emf is fed to the amplifier and speaker system to
produce sound.
 As the string oscillates towards and away from the coil, by Lenz’s law, the polarity of the induced e.m.f. changes, causing
the current which it produces to change direction at the same frequency as the string’s oscillations. This relays the
frequency of oscillation to the amplifier and speaker.
 Since the oscillation of the string is very small, the rate of change of magnetic flux linkage is very small, thus very small
induced emf. As such, the signal must be amplified using an amplifier before displaying out from the loud speaker.
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Alternating Current
Alternating current An electric current that periodically reverses its direction in a circuit with a frequency
Amplitude Maximum value of the alternating current in either direction of zero value in a periodic cycle
Peak to peak value Difference between the positive peak value and the negative peak value of the AC within a cycle
Peak voltage / Maximum value of the voltage / current in a varying power supply
current
Root-mean-square RMS current of an AC is the value of the steady direct current that would dissipate energy at the
value of an AC same average rate in a given resistor
Eddy currents Induced currents as a consequence of the alternating primary voltage and primary current. They
waste energy through electrical heating in the iron core of the transformer.
Rectification Means by which alternating current is converted to direct current
Half wave rectifier Current flows through the resistor only during one half of every generator’s voltage cycle (a single
diode is used for half wave rectification)
Turn ratio of a Ratio of the number of turns in secondary coil to number of turns in the primary coil
transformer
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Solutions to counter power loss in transformers

1. Resistive heating in the coils Use thick copper wires of low resistance to reduce power loss
2. Eddy currents induced due to change in magnetic flux linkages which result in eddy heating Laminate iron core of the
transformer to reduce the flow of eddy currents
3. Hysteresis loss Use soft iron core
4. Magnetic flux leakages (not all flux will be linked in the coils) Iron core to be used to maximize flux linkage
Half-wave rectification
For half cycle, diode allows the current to pass, but the other half cycle current is too small due to the high resistance in the
reverse bias of the diode (refer to Semiconductor notes on diodes reverse bias)
Purpose of high voltage transmission in transmission lines

High voltage transmission – When electrical power is transmitted over large distance, it is economical to use high
transmission
voltage and hence low current. Hence, less power dissipated is as heat in the transmission lines (P loss = I2R).
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Quantum Physics
Photoelectric effect The emission of electrons from a cold metal surface when electromagnetic radiation of a sufficiently
high frequency falls on it
Stopping potential Minimum potential difference between the cathode and the anode that will prevent the most
(Vs) energetic photoelectron emitted from the cathode from reaching the anode
Photon A discrete packet/quantum of energy of electromagnetic radiation
Work function Minimum amount of energy required to remove the least tightly bound electron from the surface of a
metal
Threshold Minimum frequency an EM radiation must possess to remove an electron from the surface of a metal
frequency to cause photoelectric emission
Wave-Particle Matter behave like waves in some situations and like particles in others (Photoelectric effect provides
duality the particulate nature; interference patterns produced in double-slit experiment explains wave nature)
de Broglie Wavelength associated with a particle that is moving

wavelength
Energy level The energy of an electron in an isolated atom is quantised. The electron is allowed to exist in specific
energy states known as energy levels.
Emission spectral A series of separate, differently bright coloured lines on a black background corresponding to the
lines wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation emitted by atoms when excited electrons in the atoms
return to their ground states.
Absorption spectral The spectrum produced when light from a hot body passes through a cooler gas; it appears as a
lines series of separate black lines on a continuous spectrum.
Ground state Electrons in the most stable lowest energy state/level (in an atomic orbit, according to Bohr’s atom
model)
X-ray spectrum has Broad continuous spectrum (due to slowing down of incoming colliding electrons) and the
2 distinct characteristic x-ray peaks (peaks of the sharply defined wavelengths due to electron transitions from
components higher to lower energy levels)
Bremsstrahlung EM radiation (photons) is produced whenever a charged particle is accelerated. Wavelength depends
spectrium on magnitude of acceleration. Electrons have a distribution of accelerations so continuous spectrum.
Heisenberg If a measurement of the position of a particle is made with uncertainty ∆x and a simultaneous
Uncertainty measurement of its linear momentum is made with precision ∆p, then the product of the 2
Principle uncertainties can never be smaller than h/4π (or ℏ/2π)  ∆x∆p ≥ h/4π
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What are the 4 results of the photoelectric effect experiments?

1. Current is proportional to intensity. This result can be explained using wave nature and particulate nature of light.
2. For every material of cathode irradiated, there is a threshold frequency below which no electrons would be emitted from
the cathode regardless of light intensity. This result can be explained using the particulate nature of light only.
3. The maximum kinetic energy of emitted photoelectrons depends only on the frequency of the incident radiation, and not
its intensity. This result can be explained using the particulate nature of light only.
4. The emission of photoelectrons starts with no observable time lag, even for very low intensity of incident radiation. This
result can be explained using the particular nature of light only.
Explain why, for a particular metal and for incident light of suitable frequency, emission of photoelectrons begins almost
instantaneously even if the light has low frequency. [2] ACJC Prelims 08/II/4
For light of different intensity but same frequency, the energy of the photon remains the same. Photoelectron emission is the
result of direct interaction between each photon and an electron and the entire energy hf of the photon is absorbed by the
electron instantaneously. The photon then ceases to exist. Hence, instantaneous emission of photoelectrons occurs.
Suggest whether light incident on a metal surface exerts a pressure on the surface.
Singe light possesses momentum p =h/λ, when light is incident on a metal, its momentum changes. According to Newton’s
laws of motion, light will exert a force on the metal proportional to the rate of change of momentum, and this area acts on an
unit area of the metal, thus exerting a pressure.
Describe and interpret qualitatively the evidence provided by electron diffraction for the wave nature of particles.
When a beam of electrons passed through a thin film of crystal, the dispersion pattern of the emergent electrons produced
on a screen is observed to be similar to the diffraction pattern produced by a beam of X-ray. This phenomenon provides
evidence for the wave nature of particles like electrons.
Distinguish between ionization energy and work function energy.
Work function energy is the minimum amount of energy required to remove a free electron from the surface of a metal.
Ionisation energy is the minimum amount of energy required to remove an electron completely from an isolated atom.
ii) Metal A with photocurrent with stopping voltage of 1.5v

iv)Metal B with a greater work function
v) Metal B now with twice the intensity of light shone on it
 twice the amount of photocurrent
Slope represents that the photocurrent decreases with

increasing negative PD across electrodes
Reasons why photoelectrons emitted per second per photons incident per second is lower than expected (theoretical):
1. Most of the photos are reflected from the metal surface
2. Atoms are made up of mostly empty space, thus probability of a photon hitting a surface electron is very small; Photons
may hit electrons deeper below the surface, and these electrons may lose all its KE before it reaches the surface due to
collisions
3. Electrons emitted may travel at an angle away from the normal and may not be directly collected at the anode
Ionisation, excitation, and de-excitation in a Bohr atom
Ionisation – Process of creating charged particles

Excitation – Process whereby atoms absorb energy without ionization; through 2 main sources of energy:
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1. High speed particle collision  colliding particle can transfer part/all its energy to electron (E can be equal/more
than energy level differences, as long as sufficient to allow transfer to higher E level)
2. Photons  photon energy must be exactly equal to the energy difference between the 2 E levels; if not the same,
all energy will be transmitted and not absorbed
De-excitation – Excited electrons, after absorption of energy, will eventually return back to the ground state and release excess
energy via photon emission
Explain how spectral lines show discrete energy levels in an atom.
An emission spectrum consists of a set of discrete wavelengths. A photon is emitted from an isolated atom when one of its
electrons transits from a higher to a lower energy level. Energy of the photon is equal to the energy difference between the
two levels involved in the transition.
State the conditions under which atoms are sufficiently isolated so that line spectra can be observed.
The atoms must be vapourised in gaseous form, and the gas must be cool and at a low pressure so as to ensure the atoms are
far apart and isolated so that they do not interact with each other.
Explain how frequencies of light from the hydrogen lamp shown by small circles on the graph show the existence of discrete
energy levels in hydrogen atoms.
The discrete number of frequencies obtained in the range shows that the photos emitted from the hydrogen lamp has discrete
energy values. Since energy of emitted photon is equal to the difference in energy level between 2 energy levels, this implies
the existence of discrete energy levels in hydrogen atoms.
Explain why it is that although there are an infinite number of lines in the hydrogen spectrum, the spectrum is nevertheless
seen as a line spectrum.
At the low integer values of n, the calculated wavelengths form distinct lines for each n value. As m increases towards large
values, the difference between the adjacent spectral lines decrease, and the wavelength eventually converges to the minimum
wavelength value, thus converging to form one discrete line.
Distinguish between emission and absorption line spectra.
An emission line spectrum of an element consists of coloured lines on a dark background while an absorption spectrum
consists of dark lines on a coloured background at the same discrete wavelength positions for the same element. For emission
spectra, electrons transit from a higher energy level to a lower energy level. For absorption spectra, electrons transit from a
lower energy level to a higher energy level.
Explain the difference between how the emission and the absorption line spectrum are produced.
 The emission line spectrum is produced by electron transitions within individual gas atoms as the electrons move from
higher to lower energy levels after being excited by high voltage (collided by electrons via a discharge tube) or heated.
These excited electrons only remain there momentarily before de-excitations through photon emission back to a lower
energy/ground state, forming a series of lines on a spectrum. Since electrons exist only at specific energy levels in the
atom, only photons of specific frequencies are observed when viewed through a spectroscope (spectrum with discrete
bright lines of different colours on a dark background)
 The absorption line spectrum is produced by passing a continuous spectrum of white light through a cool vapour of gas
with low pressure. As the white light passes through the gas, certain frequencies of light are temporarily absorbed by the
gas molecules and re-emitted in random directions, thus black lines are observed when the spectrum is viewed through
a spectroscope (spectrum with dark lines distributed against a bright background)
Explain what can be deduced from observing the line spectrum.

The line spectrum shows only photons of specific frequencies are emitted or absorbed by the gas, implying that only specific
energy transitions can take place in a gas form, thus, it can be deduced that electrons exist at discrete energy levels in the
atom
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Explain how the photoelectric equation expresses the application of the principle of conservation of energy to this process. [2]
SAJC Prelims 08/II/6
The energy of the incident photon is used to do work to release an electron from the atom and to provide the electron with
kinetic energy.
Suggest a practical application of observing the line spectrum.
It can be used to identify gases as each gas produces its own set of unique line spectrum
Explain the origins of the features of a typical X-ray spectrum using quantum theory.
It is produced in an X-ray tube where fast electrons strike a metallic target. The spikes are due to characteristic radiation of
the target metal in which electrons transit from very high to low energy levels. The continuous spectrum is due to losses of
various energies when fast moving electrons collide with atoms of the metallic target.
 The Brehmsstrahlung continuum (braking radiation curve) can be

explained by classical mechanics, but the sharp peaks of
characteristic x-rays can only be explained using quantum physics.
 The line does not touch 0 on the extreme right
 Ka should be drawn higher than Kb in intensity of characteristic x-
ray emitted
1. The broad continuous spectrum:

 Formation: Electrons emitted by the heated filament are made to
accelerate through a high PD before they collide with the metal
target with very high speeds  interactions with the nuclei of the
target atoms, thus electrons lose KE  KE lost converted to energy
of x-ray photos radiated from the target; different electrons slowed
to different extent  energies of x-ray photons produced take a
continuous of values  continuous spectrum formed
2. The sharp characteristic peak (unique for each element)

 Occurs when bombarding electron colliding with a target atom has enough energy to remove an inner-shell electron from
the atom
 Existence of Ka and Kb values: Incoming electron knocked off an electron in the n = 1 level (K-shell), in which the vacancy
in this shell is then filled by an electron from the n = 2 L-shell, an x-ray photon of the Ka characteristic x-ray is emitted;
For Kb, when the vacancy in the K-shell is filled by an electron dropping from the n = 3 M-shell, x-ray photon of the Kb
characteristic x-ray is emitted
 Why is the intensity of the Ka characteristic x-ray > Kb characteristic x-ray: Electrons in the n = 2 L-shell are nearer to the
n = 1 K-shell, thus there is a greater probability that the vacancy in the K-shell is filled by an electron from the L-shell than
the n =3 M-shell.
Other x-ray notes:

 Same target material  characteristic x-rays produced have same wavelengths  energy levels of target atoms are the
same
 Higher voltage applied in x-ray tube  minimum wavelength of x-rays produced is lower  bombarding electrons
produced by tube have higher initial KE ( with higher voltage applied)
Show, with the aid of a diagram, what is meant by a potential barrier. Discuss how the wave nature of particles allows particles
to tunnel through such barrier.
 A potential barrier is a region where there is a sudden increase in potential due to a field of force (usually electric) that
exists and opposes the motion of a particle through the region.
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 By considering an electron as a wave, the square of the amplitude of the wave function gives the probability of finding
the electron. Applying the Schrodinger equation, the electron wave function
(is):
o Sinusoidal with large amplitude between the barrier
o Decays exponentially within the barrier
o Sinusoidal with a very much smaller amplitude outside the atom
 Since the square of the amplitude of the wave function gives the probability
of finding the electron at a point, this means that the electron has a non-
zero probability of existing outside the potential well!
Explain qualitatively the phenomenon of quantum tunneling of an electron across a potential barrier.
An electron is considered as a wave function. The probability of finding an electron is directly proportional to the square of
the amplitude of the wave function. When the wave function of an electron encounters a potential barrier, its amplitude
decreases exponentially. For a narrow barrier, the wave amplitude may not become zero after the electron passes through
the barrier. Hence, there is a non-zero probability that the electron will be found beyond the barrier. This process is called
quantum tunneling.
Describe the application of quantum tunneling to the probing tip of a scanning tunneling microscope.
 The conductive probe of an STM (with a very sharp tip) is positioned at a very small distance above the conducting sample
surface which represents the width of the potential barrier.
 Electrons can cross the potential barrier between the tip and the surface with an empty space barrier through the process
of quantum tunneling
 A small potential difference is applied between the tip and the surface to produce tunneling current.
 The electron wave function, thus its tunneling current I, decreases exponentially with the tip surface distance d (decay
length of order 0.1nm; thus for distances of >1nm, no tunneling takes place), so a small change in d will induce a large
change in I.
 By varying the tunneling current with horizontal position of the material, we can obtain highly resolved images of the
material’s surface at the atomic scale after a series of scans
Explain whether protons of identical kinetic energy as the electron would make a more or less effective probe of small-scale
structures. [2] HCI Prelims 08/II/5
Protons are more effective. They have a larger mass and thus a smaller de Broglie wavelength. The associated wavelength
should be of the same order of magnitude as the dimensions of the observed object for good resolution of image. Thus for
small objects, we need the associated wavelength to be small as well.
At low temperatures, the absorption line spectrum of hydrogen shows only the spectral lines of the Lymen series. At higher
temperatures, it also displays other series. Explain the above observation. [2] IJC Prelims 08/II/6
At low temperatures, the hydrogen atoms are mostly in the ground state. Hence only transitions corresponding to the Lymen
series are obtained. At higher temperatures, hydrogen atoms in higher excited states are present. Hence transitions
corresponding to the Balmer and Paschen series are obtained.
Why is it that sound waves are not normally considered as having particle-like properties, nor raindrops as having wave-like
properties? [6] J89/II/12
The wavelength of a wave is related to its momentum and the Planck constant by the equation =h/mv. For sound waves,
their wavelength is too long hence the sound particles have too little momentum to exhibit particulate properties. For
raindrops, due to their large mass and hence momentum, their wavelength is too short for them to undergo significant
diffraction. Diffraction can only be observable if the dimension of the aperture is comparable to the wavelength of the wave.
It has been said that the ground-state energy in the hydrogen atom can be precisely known but that the excited states have
some uncertainty in their values. Is this consistent with the energy-time uncertainty principle? Explain. [3] PJC Prelims 08/III/5
Electron in the ground state is stable and stays there for a long time. Hence the lifetime t is large and from the expression
Eth/4, E will be small. However, in the excited state, electron is unstable and stays here for a short time. Lifetime t
will be small and hence E will be large. Hence the statement is consistent with the uncertainty principle. These notes are shared on
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Discuss the relationship between ground-state energy and the uncertainty principle. Serway Q41-3
Consider a particle bound to a restricted region of space. If its minimum energy were zero, then the particle could have zero
momentum and zero uncertainty in its momentum. At the same time, the uncertainty in its position would not be infinite, but
equal to the width of the region. In such a case, the uncertainty product xp would be zero, violating the uncertainty
principle. This contradiction proves that the minimum energy of the particle is not zero.
It is said that a helium atom in state E3 can collide with a neon atom in its ground state and raise the neon atom to state E 2.
The energy of helium state E2 (20.61ev) is close to, but not exactly equal to, the energy of neon state E2 (20.66ev). How can the
energy transfer take place if these energies are not exactly equal? Halliday Q40-13
In addition to quantized energy, a helium atom has kinetic energy; its total energy can equal 20.66eV.
The absorption or emission spectrum of a gas consists of lines that broaden as the density of gas molecules increases. Why do
you suppose this occurs? Serway Q42-19
At low density, the gas consists of essentially separate atoms. As the density increases, the atoms interact with each other.
This has the effect of giving different atoms levels at slightly different energies, at any one instant. The collection of atoms can
then emit photons in lines or bands, narrower or wider, depending on the density.
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Nuclear Physics
Nucleus Central core of an atom which contains protons and neutrons
Proton number Number of protons in the nucleus
(atomic number)
Nucleon number Number of nucleons (protons + neutrons) in the nucleus
(mass number)
Nuclide A particular type of nucleus that is specified by its proton and neutron number
Isotopes Nucleus of the same element with the same number of protons but different number of neutrons
Atomic mass unit One u is 1/12 the mass of a carbon-12 atom
(u)
Binding energy Minimum energy required to completely separate the nucleus into its constituent protons and
neutrons to infinity
Mass defect Difference in mass between the mass of a nucleus and the total mass of its constituent nucleons
Binding energy per The binding energy of a nucleus divided by the number of nucleons in the nucleus (higher BE/A = higher
nucleon stability)
Nuclear fission Nuclear fission is the splitting of a nucleus of high nucleon number into two smaller nuclei of
approximately the same mass with the release of energy and neutrons. The nuclei produced have
greater binding energy per nucleon.
Nuclear fusion The combining of two nuclei of low nucleon number to produce a larger nucleus with the release of
energy.
Radioactive decay Spontaneous and random disintegration of the unstable nucleus, emitting some/all of nuclear
radiations like alpha particles, beta particles, and gamma radiations
Spontaneous decay Decay occurs without external stimuli and is not affected by external or environmental factors
Random decay Nucleus has a constant probability of decay per unit time, and the time of decay cannot be predicted
Background Radiation detected by a radiation counter when no radioactive source is nearby
radiation
Penetrating power The ability of the number of particles, or of the number of photons to pass through materials.
Ionisation The process whereby neutral atoms lose electrons to become charged particles or ions.
Activity of the Number of nuclear disintegrations per unit time (or rate of decay of nuclei) of the nuclei, in Bq or Ci
radioactive nuclide
Decay constant The constant probability of decay of a nucleus per unit time
Half-life Average time taken for the initial number of nuclei (or activity) of that particular radioactive nuclide to
reduce to half of its initial value
Becquerel (Bq) SI unit for activity. One Becquerel of radioactive activity is one disintegration per second.
Count rate Rate at which emissions from a radioactive source are detected
Chain reaction A series of similar reactions in which one of the products of a reaction causes further reactions to occur
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Nuclear force:
An attractive short-range force between all nucleons and is independent of the charge (does not affect electrons, only
nucleons)
Rutherford alpha-particle scattering experiment:

1. A radioactive source that emits alpha particles must be used (Uranium-235)
2. Vacuum in the apparatus is necessary to prevent particle collisions with air particles
3. Gold foil is used because it is malleable and it is stable (does not decay easily) and the foil is thin to allow a few layers of
atoms lining up as possible
4. Observation and conclusions:
a. Most of the particles were deviated through small
angles – Size of nucleus is small compared to the
atom (atom made up of mostly empty space)
b. A smaller but significant % of particles were
deflected through large angles (>90deg) – Mass of
atom is concentrated in the nucleus and the nucleus
is positively charged
Why does a release of energy occur when there is an increase in binding energy?
Binding energy is the energy to be added to separate a nucleus into its individual protons and neutrons. An increase in BE
corresponds to the decrease in rest mass energy of the fission fragments compared to the parent nucleus as the rest energy
is released and converted to kinetic energy of the fission fragments.
Binding energy is negative; it is the amount of energy needed to be supplied endothermically to overcome the nuclear forces.
Thus when fission or fusion takes place, binding energy of the products is higher than the BE of reactants, thus energy is
released (exothermic). The more exothermic a reaction, the more stable the product is, thus more tightly bound together
compared to before. The increase in BE corresponds to a decrease in rest energy (products have lower rest energy than
reactants).
State and explain if mass if conserved in radioactive decay processes. [2] N01/III/6
Mass is not conserved as shown by the mass defect because some of it is converted into energy. However, mass-energy is
conserved.
Explain the relevance of binding energy per nucleon to nuclear fission and fusion.
The higher the binding energy per nucleon of a nuclei, the more stable the nuclei is. In nuclear fission or fusion, the products
have higher binding energy per nucleon than the reactants. Hence, they are more stable than the reactants. Therefore, these
processes release energies.
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Explain why more energy per nucleon is released in the fusion process than in the fission process.
Energy released in a nuclear reaction is equal to the difference in binding energy between products and reactants. As indicated
by the steep slope of the binding energy curve for light nuclei, the change in binding energy is much larger for fusion reactions
involving lighter nuclei, as compared to that for fission processes that involve larger nuclei. Therefore more energy per nucleon
is released in a fusion reaction than in fission reaction.
Alpha, beta, and gamma radiations
Alpha particle Beta particle Gamma radiation
1. Helium nuclei, 42𝐻𝑒 1. Electron, e 1. Short-wavelength EM
2. Positive charged (+2) 2. Negative charged (-1) radiation
3. Characteristic emissions (4 – 9MeV) 3. Continuous spectrum (0.01 – 5MeV) 2. Photons emitted when a
4. Speed: 0.05c – 0.1c 4. Speed: up to 0.9c nucleus changes from an
5. Deflected by E-field, towards the 5. Deflected by E-field, towards excited * state to a lower
negative; parabolic positive; parabolic, larger deflection energy state
6. Deflected by B-field, anti-clockwise than alpha particles due to small m 3. No charge
in the B-field into the plane; circular 6. Deflected by B-field, clockwise in the 4. Characteristic emissions (K
7. Most ionizing power; large number B-field into the plane; circular – MeV)
of ion pairs per unit length of its 7. Less ionizing 5. Speed: c
path 8. More penetrating 6. No deflection by B or E-field
8. Range in air: 5cm 9. Range in air: few metre 7. Least ionizing
9. Penetration up to a few paper 10. Penetration of few mm of Al sheet 8. Most penetrating
sheets 11. Tracks of electrons are thin 9. Range in air: very long
10. Tracks of alpha particles are thick (moderate ionizing) and are of 10. Penetration of a few cm of
(strongly ionizing) and are of similar varying radius of curvature Pb lead
lengths with well-defined energies (continuous range of E) 11. Affects photographic rate
(discrete E) 12. Affects photographic rate 12. Sometimes alpha/beta
11. Affects photographic rate though 13. Can be emitted with a neutrino particles emitted together
they will not penetrate glass so 14. Beta particles emerge from a weak
source must be virtually in contact decay process when a neutron inside
with the photographic emulsion the nucleus decays to produce a
12. In an alpha decay, a radioactive proton, the beta electron, and anti-
isotope emits an alpha decay to electron neutrino
form another nucleus of a different
element
𝑍
𝐴
𝑋 → 𝐴𝑌 + 0𝑒 + 𝑣
𝑍+1 −1 𝑍
𝐴
𝑋 ∗→ 𝐴𝑋 + 𝛾
𝑍
𝐴 𝐴−4 4
𝑍𝑋 → 𝑍−2𝑌 + 2𝐻𝑒
Hazards:
 Ionizing radiations carry enough energy to liberate electrons from atoms, thus breaking some bonds; body may not
be able to repair damage (can be too widespread); mistakes made in the natural repairing process can lead to the
cancerous cells spread
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 Genetic damage, somatic damage, cell deaths, mutation, etc.

 Alpha particle of little of a hazard since it is absorbed by the outermost skin layer, however, if inhaled, living tissues
can still be ionized by the strongly ionizing particles
 Beta particles can burn skin, once ingested/inhaled can cause great harm
 Gamma particles pass through body in large amount, but can excite electrons in cells, ionizing our tissues
What are the applications and dangers of radioactivity?
Radiation therapy. Tracers and imaging in research and medicine. Damage in biological organism due to ionization produced
in cell. Damage to DNA. Metal and other structural material becomes brittle and their strength is weakened if the radiation is
very intense.
Why are gamma emitters preferred over alpha / beta emitters for medical purposes?
Gamma photons are more penetrating, so the radiation can be easily detected by detectors outside the body and so less
amount of radioisotopes are required.
Radioactivity characteristics:
 Spontaneous – Nuclear decay occurs without the presence of any external influence, and not affected by chemical
reactions or factors like temperature, B/E-fields, and pressure
 Random – Impossible to predict which particular nucleus in the sample is going to decay next (each nucleus in a sample
has the same probability of decay per unit time)
Will half-life change if a sample of a greater mass is decayed, and if the temperature of the sample is increased.
Radioactive decay is random, the probability that any X atom will decay is constant, thus the half-life remains the same for
greater mass, and will also not be affected by external factors like temperature or pressure.
Describe how you would demonstrate that radioactive decay is a random process. [1] CJC Prelims 08/III/8
It may be demonstrated by placing a detector such as a Geiger-Muller tube connected to a counter near a radioactive source.
The fluctuations in count rate show that decay is random.
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Physics (Ver 2)

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Physics (Ver 2)

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H2 Physics (9749) Qualitative Notes Ver 2.

Qualitative Questions: An Introduction

Useful techniques in tackling definition questions

1. Remember (memorise) them

2. Explain physics formulas in words

3. Group similar definitions together

These notes are shared on

Useful techniques in tackling other qualitative questions

1. Explain physics formulas and equations in words

2. Utilise physics laws and concepts

These notes are shared on

These notes are shared on

Quantization error (rounding-off error), where the reading is rounded up or down.

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Distance Total length travelled by an object

These notes are shared on

Max height reached is

With AR present (B):

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It helps us define the starting point for measuring any quantity

Constant acceleration and linear motion.

How do you reduce air resistance?

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Action-reaction pair forces characteristics:

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Describe the circumstances under which a body is said to be weightless. J79/I/1

Describe the concept of weight as the effect of a gravitational field on a mass.

Explain the conservation of momentum due to N2L and N3L:

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Field of force A region of space where a force is felt

Comparisons between the moment of a force and the torque of a couple:

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Similarities: Both forces are resistive forces which oppose motion.

State the origin of upthrust.

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Work, Energy, Power

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For a cyclist/car/bus going around a level bend or a banked bend:

Body on surface of earth vs. satellite

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Why is it incorrect to call g “gravity”? [2] J94/II/2

Explain why gravitational potential has a negative value? [2] N94/III/1

What are the features of a geostationary satellite?

Explain why a geostationary satellite is often used in telecommunications.

What are the advantages of a low orbit satellite?

Since h<<R (assumed h = small distance compared to R of Earth), then (R+h) ≈R

Why are we weightless in satellites?

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g field strength = gradient of the potential graph

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Water Celcius scale Absolute/Thermodynamic scale

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Isobaric process Change at constant pressure

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List the basic assumptions of the kinetic theory of gases. J77/I/16

Explain what is meant by an ideal gas. N07/III/6

What are the assumptions for an ideal gas?

How may an isothermal compression of a gas be achieved in practice? N78/I/15

Explain the cooling effect accompanying evaporation.