Chapter 4 – 2D and 3D Motion

I. Definitions

II. Projectile motion

III. Uniform circular motion

IV. Relative motion

 Motion in Two Dimensions

• Using + or – signs is not always sufficient to

fully describe motion in more than one
dimension
▪ Vectors can be used to more fully describe motion
• Still interested in displacement, velocity, and
acceleration
• Will serve as the basis of multiple types of
motion in future chapters
 Position and Displacement

• The position of an
object is described
by its position vector,
r
• The displacement of
the object is defined
as the change in its
position
Δr = r f - ri
 General Motion Ideas

• In two- or three-dimensional kinematics,

everything is the same as in one-
dimensional motion except that we must
now use full vector notation
Positive and negative signs are no longer
sufficient to determine the direction
 I. Definitions

Position vector: extends from the origin of a coordinate

system to the particle.

Displacement vector: represents a particle’s position

change during a certain time interval.
 Average Velocity
• The average velocity is
the ratio of the
displacement to the time
interval for the
displacement

The direction of the

average velocity is the
direction of the
displacement vector, Δr
 Average Velocity

• The average velocity between points is

independent of the path taken
This is because it is dependent on the
displacement, also independent of the path
 I. Definitions

Average velocity :
 Instantaneous Velocity

• The instantaneous velocity is the limit of

the average velocity as Δt approaches
zero
The direction of the instantaneous velocity is
along a line that is tangent to the path of the
particle’s direction of motion
 Instantaneous
velocity:

The direction of the instantaneous velocity of a particle is

always tangent to the particle’s path at the particle’s position
 Average Acceleration

• The average acceleration of a particle as

it moves is defined as the change in the
instantaneous velocity vector divided by
the time interval during which that change
occurs.
 Average Acceleration

• As a particle
moves, Δv can be
found in different
ways
• The average
acceleration is a
vector quantity
directed along Δv
 Instantaneous Acceleration

• The instantaneous acceleration is the limit

of the average acceleration as Δt
approaches zero
Instantaneous acceleration:
 Producing An Acceleration

• Various changes in a particle’s motion

may produce an acceleration
– The magnitude of the velocity vector may
change
– The direction of the velocity vector may
change
Even if the magnitude remains constant
– Both may change simultaneously
 Kinematic Equations for Two-
Dimensional Motion
• When the two-dimensional motion has a
constant acceleration, a series of
equations can be developed that describe
the motion
• These equations will be similar to those of
one-dimensional kinematics
 Kinematic Equations

• Position vector

• Velocity

• Since acceleration is constant, we can also

find an expression for the velocity as a
function of time:
vf = vi + at
 Kinematic Equations

• The velocity vector

can be represented
by its components
vf is generally not
along the direction of
either vi or at
 Kinematic Equations
• The position vector can
also be expressed as a
function of time:
rf = ri + v it + ½ at2
– This indicates that the
position vector is the
sum of three other
vectors:
• The initial position
vector
• The displacement
resulting from vi t
• The displacement
resulting from ½ at2
 Kinematic Equations

• The vector
representation of the
position vector
• rf is generally not in
the same direction as
vi or as ai
• rf and vf are generally
not in the same
direction
 Kinematic Equations, Components

• The equations for final velocity and final

position are vector equations, therefore
they may also be written in component
form
• This shows that two-dimensional motion
at constant acceleration is equivalent to
two independent motions
– One motion in the x-direction and the other in
the y-direction
 Kinematic Equations, Component
Equations
• vf = vi + at becomes
vxf = vxi + axt
vyf = vyi + ayt
• rf = ri + vi t + ½ at2 becomes
xf = xi + vxi t + ½ axt2
yf = yi + vyi t + ½ ayt2
At t = 0, a particle moving in the xy plane with constant
acceleration has a velocity of
and is at the origin. At t = 3.00 s, the particle's velocity is
. Find (a) the acceleration of the particle and (b)
its coordinates at any time t.
 Projectile Motion

• An object may move in both the x and y

directions simultaneously
• The form of two-dimensional motion we
will deal with is called projectile motion
 Assumptions of Projectile Motion

• The free-fall acceleration g is constant

over the range of motion
And is directed downward
• The effect of air friction is negligible
• With these assumptions, an object in
projectile motion will follow a parabolic
path
– This path is called the trajectory
 Verifying the Parabolic Trajectory

• Reference frame chosen

y is vertical with upward positive
• Acceleration components
ay = -g and ax = 0
• Initial velocity components
vxi = vi cos θ and vyi = vi sin θ
 II. Projectile
motion
Motion of a particle launched with initial velocity, v 0, and free
fall acceleration g.

The horizontal and vertical motions are independent from each

other.

Horizontal motion:
ax=0 vx=v0x
 II. Projectile
motion
Range (R): horizontal distance traveled by a projectile
before returning to launch height.
 II. Projectile
motion

Vertical motion: ay= -g

 Trajectory: projectile’s path.

We can find y as a function of x by eliminating time

Horizontal range: R = x-x 0;
Vertical displacement: y-y0=0.

(Maximum for a
launch angle of 45º )
Projectile Motion – Problem Solving
Hints
• Select a coordinate system
• Resolve the initial velocity into x and y
components
• Analyze the horizontal motion using constant
velocity techniques
• Analyze the vertical motion using constant
acceleration techniques
• Remember that both directions share the same
time
A rock is thrown upward from the level ground in such a
way that the maximum height of its flight is equal to its
horizontal range R. (a) At what angle is the rock thrown?
(b) Would your answer to part (a) be different on a different
planet? (c) What is the range Rmax the rock can attain if it is
launched at the same speed but at the optimal angle for
maximum range?
 A third baseman wishes to
throw to first base, 127 feet
distant. His best throwing
y
v0 speed is 85 mi/h. (a) If he
throws the ball horizontally 3
h=3f
t
ft above the ground, how far
B3 B1
x
from first base will it hit the
xmax
0 xB1 =38.7m ground? (b) From the same
initial height, at what upward
angle must the third baseman
throw the ball if the first
baseman is to catch it 3 ft
above the ground? (c) What
will be the time of flight in that
case?
 y
v0

θ=45 x=R=R’
x
º ?

N7: In Galileo’s Two New Sciences, the author states

that “for elevations (angles of projection) which exceed or
fall short of 45º by equal amounts, the ranges are
equal…” Prove this statement.
 A ball is tossed from an upper-story window of a
building. The ball is given an initial velocity of 8.00 m/
s at an angle of 20.0° below the horizontal. It strikes
the ground 3.00 s later. (a) How far horizontally from
the base of the building does the ball strike the
ground? (b) Find the height from which the ball was
thrown. (c) How long does it take the ball to reach a
point 10.0 m below the level of launching?
 A ball is tossed from an upper-story window of a
building. The ball is given an initial velocity of 8.00 m/
s at an angle of 20.0° below the horizontal. It strikes
the ground 3.00 s later. (a) How far horizontally from
the base of the building does the ball strike the
ground? (b) Find the height from which the ball was
thrown. (c) How long does it take the ball to reach a
point 10.0 m below the level of launching?
)
Uniform Circular Motion

Uniform circular motion occurs when

an object moves in a circular path with a
constant speed
 Uniform Circular Motion
Uniform circular motion occurs when
an object moves in a circular path with a
constant speed
• An acceleration exists since the direction
of the motion is changing
– This change in velocity is related to an
acceleration
• The velocity vector is always tangent to
the path of the object
 Changing Velocity in Uniform
Circular Motion

• The change in the

velocity vector is due
to the change in
direction

• The vector diagram

shows Δv = vf - v i
 Changing Velocity in Uniform Circular Motion

Two triangles are similar, so

we can write:

Dividing both parts by Δt and using

the definitions of acceleration and
velocity:
 Centripetal Acceleration

• The acceleration is always perpendicular

to the path of the motion
• The acceleration always points toward the
center of the circle of motion
• This acceleration is called the centripetal
acceleration
 Centripetal Acceleration

• The magnitude of the centripetal

acceleration vector is given by

• The direction of the centripetal

acceleration vector is always changing, to
stay directed toward the center of the
circle of motion
 Period
• The period, T, is the time required for
one complete revolution
• The speed of the particle would be the
circumference of the circle of motion
divided by the period
• Therefore, the period is
 Tangential Acceleration

• The magnitude of the velocity could also

be changing
• In this case, there would be a tangential
acceleration
 Total Acceleration

• The tangential
acceleration causes
the change in the
speed of the particle
• The radial
acceleration comes
from a change in the
direction of the
velocity vector
 Total Acceleration, equations

• The tangential acceleration:

• The radial acceleration:

• The total acceleration:

– Magnitude
 Total Acceleration, In Terms of Unit
Vectors
• Define the following unit
vectors

r lies along the radius

vector
θ is tangent to the circle
• The total acceleration is
Uniform circular motion. Summary
Motion around a circle
at constant speed.

Magnitude of velocity and

acceleration constant.
Direction varies continuously.

Velocity: tangent to circle in the direction of motion.

Acceleration:
centripetal

Period of revolution:
 54. A cat rides a merry-go-round while
turning with uniform circular motion. At
time t1= 2s, the cat’s velocity is:
v2 v1= (3m/s)i+(4m/s)j, measured on an
horizontal xy coordinate system. At
x time t=5s its velocity is: v2= (-3m/
s)i+(-4m/s)j. What is (a) the magnitude
v1 of the cat’s centripetal acceleration?
y
 Figure represents the total acceleration of a particle
moving clockwise in a circle of radius 2.50 m at a certain
of time. At this instant, find (a) the radial acceleration, (b)
the speed of the particle, and (c) its tangential acceleration.
 A ball swings in a vertical circle at the end of a rope 1.50 m
long. When the ball is 36.9° past the lowest point on its way up,
its total acceleration is . At that instant,
(a) sketch a vector diagram showing the components of its
acceleration, (b) determine the magnitude of its radial
acceleration, and (c) determine the speed and velocity of the
ball.
 Relative Velocity
• Two observers moving relative to each other generally
do not agree on the outcome of an experiment
• For example, observers A and B below see different
paths for the ball
 Galilean Relativity

▪ The observer in the

truck throws a ball
straight up
– It appears to move
in a vertical path
– The law of gravity
and equations of
motion under
uniform acceleration
are obeyed
 Galilean Relativity

▪ There is a stationary observer on the ground

– Views the path of the ball thrown to be a parabola
– The ball has a velocity to the right equal to the
velocity of the truck
 Galilean Relativity – conclusion

▪ The two observers disagree on the shape of the

ball’s path
▪ Both agree that the motion obeys the law of
gravity and Newton’s laws of motion
▪ Both agree on how long the ball was in the air
Conclusion: There is no preferred frame of
reference for describing the laws of mechanics
 Relative Velocity
• Reference frame S is
stationary
• Reference frame S’
is moving at vo
– This also means that
S moves at –vo
relative to S’
• Define time t = 0 as
that time when the
origins coincide
The coordinates of some event in frame S are (x,y,z,t).
Now what are the coordinates of the event (x,y,z,t) in S'?
It's easy to see t' = t - we synchronized the clocks when O‘
passed O. Also, evidently, y' = y and z' = z, from the figure.
We can also see that x = x' +vt. Thus (x,y,z,t) in S
corresponds to (x',y',z', t' ) in S', where

That's how positions transform - these are known as the

Galilean transformations.
What about velocities ? The velocity in S' in the
x' direction

This is just the addition of velocities formula

How does acceleration transform?
 Since v is constant we have

the acceleration is the same in both frames. This

again is obvious - the acceleration is the rate of
change of velocity, and the velocities of the same
particle measured in the two frames differ by a
constant factor - the relative velocity of the two
frames.
 Relative motion
Particle’s velocity depends on reference frame

1
D

Frame moves at constant velocity

Observers on different frames of reference measure the same

acceleration
for a moving particle if their relative velocity is constant.
75. A sled moves in the negative x direction at speed vs while
a ball of ice is shot from the sled with a velocity v0= v0xi+ v0yj
relative to the sled. When the ball lands, its horizontal
displacement Δxbg relative to the ground (from its launch
position to its landing position) is measured. The figure gives
Δxbg as a function of vs. Assume it lands at approximately its
launch height. What are the values of (a) v0x and (b) v0y? The
ball’s displacement Δxbs relative to the sled can also be
measured. Assume that the sled’s velocity is not changed
when the ball is shot. What is Δxbs when vs is (c) 5m/s and
(d) 15m/s?
120. A hang glider is 7.5 m above ground level with a velocity of 8m/s at
an angle of 30º below the horizontal and a constant acceleration of 1m/s2,
up. (a) Assume t=0 at the instant just described and write an equation for
the elevation y of the hang glider as a function of t, with y=0 at ground
level. (b) Use the equation to
determine the value of t when y=0. y
(c) Explain why there are two
30º
solutions to part (b). Which one 0 v = 8m/s
h=7.5
represents the time it takes the m
hang glider to reach ground level? 0 x
(d) how far does the hang glider
travel horizontally during the interval between t=0 and the time it reaches
the ground? For the same initial position and velocity, what constant
acceleration will cause the hang glider to reach ground level with zero
velocity? Express your answer in terms of unit vectors.
40. A ball is to be shot from level ground with certain speed.
The figure below shows the range R it will have versus the
launch angle θ0 at which it can be launched. The choice of θ0
determines the flight time; let tmax represent the maximum
flight time. What is the least speed the ball will have during its
flight if θ0 is chosen such as that the flight time is 0.5tmax?
R(m
)
240
20
0

10
0

θ0