See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/278021414

CONTAINER ARCHITECTURE IN THE HOT-HUMID TROPICS: POTENTIAL AND

CONSTRAINTS

Conference Paper · May 2015

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.1.1528.4322

CITATIONS READS

2 3,959

4 authors, including:

Karam M. Al-Obaidi
University of Malaya
42 PUBLICATIONS   217 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Journal of Architecture, City and Environment View project

Living Buildings: a Fundamental Solution to Implement Adaptive Wall System in The Tropics View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Karam M. Al-Obaidi on 26 June 2015.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 4ICERT
th
Proceedings of the
School of Industrial Technology 2015
International Conference on
Environmental Research and Technology

Exploring the Frontiers in Environmental

Science and Technology Research
27 - 29 MAY 2015 PARK ROYAL Penang Resort Malaysia

EDITORS: Teng Tjoon Tow

Yusri Yusup
Widad Fadhlullah
© School of Industrial Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia 2015

Perpustakaan Negara Malaysia Cataloguing-in Publication

Data

International Conference on Environmental Research and Technology

(2015: Pulau Pinang)
Proceedings of the 4th ICERT 2015: INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON
ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGY: Exploring the
Frontiers in Environmental Science and Technology Research, 27-29 May 2015,
Parkroyal Hotel Penang, Malaysia/ Editors: Teng Tjoon Tow, Yusri Yusup,
Widad Fadhlullah.
ISBN 978-967-394-211-4
1. Environmental Management—Malaysia—Congresses.
2. Environmental sciences—Malaysia—Congresses.
I. Teng Tjoon Tow. II. Yusri Yusup.
III. Widad Fadhlullah. IV. Title
363.70070595

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any
electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and
recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the
publisher.

Distributed & Published by:

School of Industrial Technology
Universiti Sains Malaysia
11800 USM, Penang, Malaysia
Tel: +604 653 2219 Fax: +604 653 6375
E-mail: icert2015@usm.my

Printed by:
Redhouse Business Solution
Bangunan A04 Rumah Merah PKAP, USM 11800 Penang.
T/F: 04-6584945
H/P: 012-4242288, 012-4542288
E-mail: redhouse.usm@gmail.com

Editors:
Professor Teng Tjoon Tow
Dr Yusri Yusup
Dr Widad Fadhlullah

ii
13 Effects of Temperature and Aeration Rate on Composting of Empty Fruit
Bunches (EFB) from Oil-alm
Vivienne Sim Jie Wei, Chua Han Bing, Agus Saptoro and Jobrun Nandong 91

14 Waste Management in the Construction Industry: A Review on the Issues

and Challenges
Mohd Reza Esa, Dr Anthony Halog and Farrah Zuhaira Ismail 99

15 Evaluation on the Addition of Polylactic Acid in Different Thickness Oil

Palm Particleboards
Mohana Baskaran, Rokiah Hashim and Othman Sulaiman 106

16 Preliminary Studies on Properties of Compressed Veneers from Oil Palm

Trunk Without Synthetic Adhesive
Norhafizah Saari, Rokiah Hashim, Othman Sulaiman and Masatoshi Sato 110

17 Total Phenolic, Flavonoid Content, and Antioxidant Activity of Gluta

torquata Extracts
Lily Zuin Ping Ang, Rokiah Hashim, Shaida Fariza Sulaiman, Ahmed Yacouba 115
Coulibaly and Othman Sulaiman

18 Extraction of Oil Palm Starch: A Comparative Study

Norani Abd Karim, Rokiah Hashim, Othman Sulaiman, and Salim Hiziroglu 120

18 Study on Flood Risk Assessment Using GIS Approach with Principal

Component Analysis in Kuantan
Haris Nizhomul Haq*, Ngahzaifa Ab Ghani, Noraniza Samat, Abbas S Lokman 125
and Luhur Bayuaji

20 Variations in Water Quality at Cage Culture Sites in Batang Ai Reservoir,

Sarawak, Malaysia
Lee Nyanti, Teck-Yee Ling and Nurul Safinaz Mohamad Kamal 131

21 Assessment of Indoor Air Quality and Thermal Comfort Environmental

Factors in a Secondary School Located Close to an Industrial Zone in
Northern Peninsular Malaysia
Nurul Aqilah Alias, Mardiana Idayu Ahmad, Yusri Yusup, Norli Ismail, Haslan 136
Abu Hassan and Badrol Hisham Mohd Nowani

22 Container Architecture in the Hot-Humid Tropics: Potential and Constraints

Mazran Ismaiil, Karam M. Al-Obaidi, Abdul Malek Abdul Rahman and Mardiana 141
Idayu Ahmad

23 Heavy Metals (Lead, Arsenic & Cadmium) Concentration in Dried Seafood

and Potential Health Risk among Adults in a Fishing Village in Malacca
Saliza Mohd Elias, Nurumirah Ali and Ahmad Zaharin Aris 149

34 Behind the Beauty of Cities

Haliza Abdul Rahman 155

25 Determination of Origin of Edible Bird’s Nest by Stable Isotopes and

Minerals Analysis
Eng-Keng Seow, Syahidah Akmal Muhammad, Baharudin Ibrahim, Lam Hong Lee, 160
Ainolsyakira Mohd Rodhi and Lai-Hoong Cheng

vii
 International Conference on Environmental Research and Technology (ICERT 2015)

CONTAINER ARCHITECTURE IN THE HOT-HUMID TROPICS: POTENTIAL AND

CONSTRAINTS

Mazran Ismail1*, Karam M. Al-Obaidi2, Abdul Malek Abdul Rahman3 and Mardiana Idayu Ahmad4
1,2,3
School of Housing, Building and Planning, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 USM, Penang, Malaysia
4
Environmental Technology Division, School of Industrial Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 USM,
Penang, Malaysia
*Corresponding author email: mazran@usm.my

ABSTRACT

Current trends in building industry show that container architecture emerged as one of the simple yet practical
alternatives to fulfil the people’s needs for instant housing, comfortable workplace or even for recreational facilities.
This is due to the numerous benefits that have been associated with this type of architecture, which offers large useable
area within small building footprint and it can be provided with low construction cost at shorter time, but with huge
structural strength. In fact, the container also has advantages in terms of modularity and transportability, which make it
as a popular type of building used for retreat residence, cabin resort or site office. Despite these benefits, the tendencies
of the building consultants or end users to design it with a very weather-tight of solid steel envelop and minimal size of
openings for security and safety reasons in some ways have affected the quality of vistas towards or outwards the
container, its indoor environmental quality and occupants’ health and comfort on the whole. Therefore, a series of
literature surveys have been conducted to investigate the potentials and constraints of implementing this building
container as one of the contemporary architectural styles, particularly in the distressing atmosphere of the hot-humid
tropics. These potentials and constraints are discussed in this paper based on several main aspects that encompasses its
structural strength, modularity and transportability, cost and construction technique, and its compatibility with the local
climate condition.

Keywords: Cabin building, container architecture, green building, indoor environmental quality, thermal comfort.

INTRODUCTION

Due to the advantages of having the simplicity of construction and ideal strength to withstand extreme weather
conditions, container building has always been considered as one of the most appropriate type of architecture to fulfill
people’s need for emergency shelter and transportable workplace. However since the last decade, the container building
is no longer just associated with the temporary buildings, but it has emerged as one of the preferred architectural types
for various kinds of building including residential and dwellings, public buildings, and other types of non-permanent
structures like prototypes, mobile dwelling or portable units [1]. This is resulted from the risen awareness among the
environment-related researchers, building professionals, developers, builders and end-users that the advantages of the
container architecture should not only be limited to its prefabrication or modular characteristics, but should also be
associated with its other strength in terms of durability, availability, transportability and low cost factors. In fact,
various studies recognized its huge potential and benefit in prompting sustainable construction technique by the
recycling of used ISO shipping containers [2, 3].

These advantages have prompted many building designers to construct various unique and outstanding examples of
container architecture worldwide, including those which have become landmark for certain places like Container City I
and II built in 2001 & 2002 as artist studios and dwellings in London, The Cubes as temporary house built in 2002 in
Scotland and Keetwonen Student Housing which was built in 2006 from 1000 units of reused containers in Amsterdam,
which all of these places are located in the humid temperate climate [1, 4]. In hot temperate climate, some famous
examples are two-storey Redondo Beach House which was built in 2006 in Southern California, US and Container of
Hope built in 2011 in San Jose, Costa Rica, while Chalet Du Chemin Brochu in Quebec, Canada and Nackros Villa in
Sweden are the innovative container buildings that have been constructed in the cold climate region [1]. Moreover,
several empirical studies have been conducted to investigate the suitability and effectiveness of the container
architecture in these types of climates. This includes the study by Kaveh and Mahdevi [5] which compared the building
performance between ordinary and container classrooms in Austria, and Silva [6] who investigated the potential of
using Intermodal Steel Building Unit (ISBU) as low-income housing unit in Puerto Rico. On the other hand, Bernardo
et al. [7] studied about the feasibility of the building container in terms of structural strength while Giriunas et al. [8]
investigated the structural limitations of the shipping containers by using finite element computer modelling in their
effort to develop structural guidelines for ISO containers used for non-shipping applications. In New Zealand, Olivares
[9] conducted a comparative life cycle analysis of the container architecture used for residential structures in
comparison with other traditional timber and concrete buildings.

Although the container building is widely accepted by the people and has been considered as a practical building type
for those climates, its implementation in the hot humid tropics is still not widely spread and not well recepted by the
locals. Several negative perceptions are associated with its suitability and acceptability to be adopted in tropical
climates like the uncertainties on the availability of the container sources that can influence the cost of construction, the

142!
!
 International Conference on Environmental Research and Technology (ICERT 2015)

compatibility of its construction technique with the knowledge and skills of the local builders and its effectiveness in
ensuring comfortable indoor environment in the distressing atmosphere of the hot-humid tropics. Therefore, this paper
discusses the potential and constraints of implementing the container architecture in this type of climate, covering the
aspects of its advantages and disadvantages in terms of strength, durability and life span; modularity and
transportability; availability, cost and construction technique; and its practicality as sustainable building that suits the
local climate conditions.

Types and physical features of containers

Since the first modern container was introduced by Malcolm McLean in 1956 to replace the ‘break bulk system’ and 58
units of such type containers were sailed by his ‘Ideal-X’, the first container vessel from the Port of Newark to Houston,
the container box and system has experienced some changes and development in terms of standard size and functions
[10, 11]. However, this intermodal freight container has not changed much since then in terms of physical features and
types, which generally can be classified into 6 main kinds i.e. end!opening, side!opening, open!topped, collapsible,
‘hangertaivers’, ‘flatracks’ and air conditioned!refrigerated ‘reefers’ [10].

In 1970 which is about 15 years after its invention, the modern shipping containers finally have been officially
standardized by the introduction of the International Standards Organization (ISO) which the most common sizes used
since then are 20’, 40’, 20’ High Cube (HC) and 40’ HC and 45’ HC [12, 13, 14]. To date, these standards are still
applicable worldwide which the exact dimensions and load capacities of some of common types ISO Containers are
shown in Table 1.

Table 1: Size and Dimensions of Common Types ISO Container (Steel Dry Container)

Length (m) Width (m) Height (m) Max

Empty
Volume gross Net load
Model In- Ex- In- Ex- In- Ex- Weight
(m3) mass (kg)
ternal ternal ternal ternal ternal ternal (kg)
(kg)
20’ 5.898 6.058 2.352 2.438 2.385 2.591 33.1 2400 30480 28080
40’ 12.032 12.192 2.352 2.438 2.385 2.591 67.5 4000 30480 26480
40’ HC 12.032 12.192 2.352 2.438 2.698 2.896 76.2 4200 30480 26280
45’ HC 13.556 13.716 2.352 2.438 2.698 2.896 86.1 4800 30480 25680
(Source: Based on the fact from Evergreen Marine Corp. [15])

Based on the Table 1, it is clear that although the 40’ ISO Container is relatively light compared to the combination of 2
units of 20’ ISO Containers, but its strength is found to be weaker and more fragile compared to the latter. This fact
plus the cheaper cost of the 20’ ISO Container might be the reason why the 20’ container is always be the preferred
choice for constructing building, although it is not the cheaper item in terms of cost of per square meter of floor area
[9]. Regarding the ideal height, most of the researchers and industry players recommended that the container with 8’9”
height (1’ higher than normal container height) or commonly known as high cube (HC) is more suitable to be used for
building since the space between the ceiling and the roof could be used for hiding the duct work, plumbing and
electrics, while at the same time can provide minimum clear ceiling height of 2.40m, which complies with most of the
worldwide national building by-law regulations [7].

Basically, the ISO container is made of ‘COR-ten’ steel which is corrosion resistant steel, with the 2mm thickness of
corrugated steel panel walls and roof [14, 16], supported by four steel corner posts and I-beams structure for flooring
that is covered with a plywood [17]. For the refrigerated containers, the steel walls are replaced with the Fiberglass
Reinforced Panels (FRP). Typically, the opening with double leaf door of the ISO Container is located in one of the
smaller faces, as can be seen in Fig. 1.

143!
!
 International Conference on Environmental Research and Technology (ICERT 2015)

Fig. 1: Typical Shipping Container Exploded View. Source: [18]

In construction industry, there are many examples of the contemporary buildings worldwide which are constructed from
the refurbishment of the used ISO Shipping Container, or also known as cargo container or Conex Box [14]. Apart from
the re-used of shipping container, there is a specific type of container which is solely built for building construction and
storage, called Intermodal Steel Building Unit (ISBU) or GreenCube [14, 19]. Although this new and purpose-made
building container is not intended for shipping, but the ISBU is still comply with the standard platform of the ISO
Containers, but with some fabrications to suit typical spaces for human habitation [14, 20]. For this purpose, the
building container is usually modified to be combined with other units with partial removal of sidewall panels or
combined with other structures like open-plan steel frame. For this type of container, certain values of insulation layers
are usually installed outside or inside of the sidewalls for the purposes of indoor comfort, acoustic and fire protection.

Potential and constraints of container architecture in the tropics

After more than 6 decades of its development, the modern container has evolved from its primary function for shipping
goods, to storage products, and now as one type of the human habitation. Although there are quite a number of written
documents which discussed about its evolution and development [1, 9], but there is no strong evidence which clearly
shows who is the first person who have recycled the typical intermodal freight container into livable structure, or the
first one who introduced the concept of container architecture [9]. However, this uncertainty cannot restraint its
popularity to be one of the favorite architectural types nowadays, with various examples of containers buildings are
built worldwide based on the design by some renowned architects like the portable Nomadic Museum by Shigeru Ban
in 2005, ‘MySpacePod’ by Will Alsop in 2008 and Caterpillar House by Sebastián Irarrazaval in 2012 [21, 22].

Like other architectural types, the container building also has some advantages and disadvantages which determine its
potential and constraints to be used in particular areas. Based on the previous studies and its recent development, the
strength and weaknesses of the container architecture and its influence on the potential of its implementation in the hot-
humid tropics are discussed based on these specific factors:

i) Strength, Durability and Life Span

In terms of strength and durability, it is reported that the standard ISO container can withstand up to 6 units of fully
loaded 24-tons stacked containers [23]. This advantage makes it possible to be used for constructing multi-storey
building with low maintenance costs [24]. In tropical countries, the iconic buildings like Container Home which used 6
stacked 40’ recycled containers in Bukit Tinggi, Pahang, Malaysia and The Contertainer which consists of polyclinic
and library in East Java, Indonesia are some examples of the multi-storey bungalows and public buildings which are
built from the containers, as can be seen in Fig. 2.

144!
!
 International Conference on Environmental Research and Technology (ICERT 2015)

Fig. 2: Multi-storey Container Buildings in Hot-Humid Tropics; Left) Container Home in Bukit Tinggi,
Malaysia, and Right) The Contertainer, East Java, Indonesia [Source: 25, 26]

However, although it is considered as a physically strength structure, but it has a constraint in term of freedom of
design, when previous reports recommended that in order to maintain its strength and to avoid torsion due to wind
loads, the vertically stacked containers should be placed along the same axis which in some ways has limited the
innovation and creativity in building design [27]. The studies also showed that the container architecture will lost its
inherent strength when its sidewalls need to be cut in order to be combined with other units of containers to fulfil
specific needs of internal spaces [24]. In fact, it also has some weaknesses in terms of life span when a number of
reports revealed that it can stand for only 15 to 50 years, which is only half of the conventional buildings [9, 28].
Another consideration that should be taken into consideration when converting the ISO Container to the habitable
building is the fact that in time, the flat roof of the container which is supposed to be water tight will get beaten in [29],
which the effect could be worsen in hot humid region where the rainfall is frequent.

ii) Modularity and Transportability

One of the major disadvantages that always be associated with the container building is about its uncompromising
aesthetic resulted from the steel-box looking feature which is look more like a product that maximize the function rather
than a building [1, 20]. This low aesthetical value and uninteresting appearance of this 8-sided rigid box is more
obvious when it stands alone. However, if some units of the container are combined, arranged and creatively composed
as a whole building, it has huge potential to be a unique and outstanding architectural feature [1, 19, 30]. In tropical
areas, some buildings like Bamboo Grove in Costa Rica and Container Hotel in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia are the
examples of how the modular characteristic has been positively employed by some architects. In fact, due to this
modular characteristic, the container building is relatively easier and faster to be assembled and dismantled compared to
the conventional buildings to fulfil the instance needs of the particular areas [13, 27]. In addition, it also has advantage
in terms of expandability, which it is not only can cater for specific need of the users and but also can allow high
density solution for particular community who are in dire need for dwelling [24].

Concerning transportability, various literatures clearly showed that one of the major advantages of container building is
it can easily be moved or transported from one site to other site in shorter time. This is resulted from the main intention
or objective of the invention of container itself, which is to ease and faster the movement of goods from one destination
to other destination by making it compatible with various modes of transport systems [11, 31]. Due to this advantage,
the container building has always been used as site office, emergency housing or even as a mobile clinic [32, 33]. In
US, its military has employed this transportability advantage of container since 1970’s when it was used as soldier
dwelling in Vietnam, and in 1991, the US military has used it as a transportable cell to transport Iraqi prisoners during
the Gulf War, with the hole is made to container for the ventilation purpose [14, 19]. In hot-humid tropics, the use of
container building is quite frequent in disasters areas, where it is usually used as NGO site offices or emergency shelters
for landslide, typhoon and flood victims. However, although the container building has advantages in terms of

145!
!
 International Conference on Environmental Research and Technology (ICERT 2015)

modularity, transportability and can practically be used in extreme environmental conditions prone areas [34], but
various reports showed that its suitability to be used in one particular area is also depends on the topography of the site,
where the sloping site is found to be not very suitable to place the container building [9].

iii) Availability, Cost & Construction Technique

Many studies showed that due to the imbalance trade, there is abundance of used containers left in the major ports
around the world, especially in the importing countries. This is because it is not economical to send the empty container
back to the origin countries since the cost of the new container, especially in Asia is relatively cheap compared to the
transportation cost of shipping it back [11]. Therefore, the availability of the ISO container in the importing countries
like US and Europe is highly available. This ISO Container has not only reduced almost 97% of the transportation cost
compared to the ‘break bulk’ or general cargo system [9], but also can potentially offer relatively low construction cost
due to the recycling of the used material if it is recycled to a habitable structure, as compared to conventional building
[35].

The relatively low building cost is also due to the simplicity of its construction, the mass production and its shorter
construction period which in turn could result in reducing the building cost on the whole [9]. However, in the hot-humid
region, the availability of the used ISO Container is quite uncertain and the cheap cost is unguaranteed, since many of
the countries in this region are the third world and exporting countries where huge portion of the world products are
manufactured there due to the cheap land and labour cost. In fact, numerous studies showed that the construction
technique of the container is not as simple as perceived, because it needs a lot of skilled workers for welding and steel
work, requires special machinery and also employs unconventional method like using a crane to place, assemble or lift
the containers [24]. This could be a constraint for some countries like developing nations in the hot-humid region where
such construction method and techniques are not a common skill among the contractors and builders who are
comfortable with the conventional construction method and intensive labour force. This new techniques in some ways
will increase the construction cost of the building container on the whole. Moreover, extensive refurbishment with the
installation of the insulation layers, finishes, fittings and services are needed to ensure the comfortable indoor
environment of the building containers in the hot humid tropics, and these modifications will surely need relatively high
cost of modification as compared to the container building in other climates.

iv) Sustainable Building & Indoor Comfort

A plethora of projects have shown the potential and suitability of the container to be a practical and outstanding
architectural feature, especially in the temperate and cold climate regions. This architectural type is widely accepted by
the end-users in those regions and often regarded as one of the sustainable or green architectural alternatives that can
provide low carbon footprint building due to the recycling of used ISO Containers [20]. This recycling approach is not
only has reduced the numbers of steel container waste in their major ports [36], but also has been considered as a
significant strategy to reduce embodied energy for construction materials [37]. However, recent studies showed that the
advantage of container architecture in terms of reducing embodied energy, especially by the recycling of used ISO
Shipping Container is uncertain since major refurbishments which require energy like the replacing of floor,
sandblasting of the structure and the cutting of steel for openings are needed before one used-container can be
comfortably lived by human [27]. In fact, by comparing it with traditional timber and concrete buildings in New
Zealand, Olivares [9] revealed that the usage of the ISO shipping containers in buildings consumed higher energy (per
square metre) and released more carbon dioxide (CO2) into the atmosphere (per square metre) as compared to both
traditional buildings.

Moreover, although the container architecture is highly accepted in the western countries, some studies showed that its
effectiveness in terms of providing comfortable indoor environment in the hot-humid tropics is not very convincing due
to its compatibility with the local climate conditions. Be it the ISO Container or purpose-made building container unit,
both types of container in their standard form are mainly made of steel, which factually has a high heat conductivity and
prone to condensation due to high moisture content if it is not sufficiently insulated [24]. This means that in the hot and
humid conditions of the tropics which governed by the high humidity level of more than 70% in average and hot
outdoor air temperature which easily can exceed 32°C during daytime [38, 39, 40], major modification works are
needed to ensure thermally comfortable indoor environment of such type of architecture. For this purpose, it should be
refurbished not only by installing appropriate layers of insulation for controlling thermal, acoustic and fire protection,
but also by equipping it with suitable vapor barriers, internal fittings and finishes that suits the local climate [41].
Moreover, some steel cutting and welding works are also needed to provide sufficient openings for cross ventilation,
especially if the container building are intentionally built for the low income group in the tropics who usually do not
resort to air-conditioning for cooling, but only depends on natural ventilation with the assistance of mechanical fan to
reduce the cost of living. Alternatively, Al-Obaidi et al. [42, 43] revealed that using reflective surface with hybrid
turbine ventilator for roof without insulation constructed from aluminum sheets in hot and humid region helped to
reduce the attic air temperature as well as the load of heat gain at the indoor environment. Therefore, this indication can
give a good example to improve the using of natural ventilation in the container buildings in the region of hot and
humid tropics.

146!
!
 International Conference on Environmental Research and Technology (ICERT 2015)

CONCLUSION

Literature surveys have showed that the container building has huge potential to be one of the major architectural types
that can offer durable, practical, cheaper and comfortable living space in shorter construction period, particularly in
temperate and cold climate regions. However in the hot-humid tropics, its implementation is still not widely spread due
to the several uncertainties regarding the availability of the ISO container sources that can affect the capital cost, its
specific construction technique which is quite unfamiliar with the common skills of the local builders, and its physical
features which is not only very compatible with the hot and humid conditions of the region. However, these constraints
that limit its potential to become one of the preferred architectural alternatives in the tropics could be outweighed by its
advantages in terms of modularity, transportability and durability, provided that appropriate installation and
modifications are made to the container building to ensure its comfortable indoor environment, especially for those who
are in dire need for habitable space.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors would like to thank Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM) through its Short Term Research Grant Scheme
(304/PPBGN/6312072) for the financial support provided for this research project.

REFERENCES

[1] Kotnik, J. (2008) Container Architecture: This Book Contains 6441 Containers. Barcelona: Links International

[2] Vijayalaxmi, J. (2010) Towards sustainable architecture - A case with Greentainer. Local Environment: The
International Journal of Justice. 15(3), pp. 245-259.

[3] Lun, Y. H. V. (2011) Green management practices and firm performance: A case of container terminal. Resources,
Conservation and Recycling, 55(6), pp. 559-566.

[4] Cookson, R. (2009) Hotel changes the landscape of building. Financial Times.

[5] Kaveh, P. and Mahdavi, A. (2014) A Performance Comparison of Ordinary and Container Classrooms in Austria.
Asian Journal of Civil Engineering, 15(3), pp. 383-390.

[6] Silva, J.B. (2013) Intermodal steel building units as an alternative for building low-income housing units in Puerto
Rico. PRAXIS@FAE, pp. 17-24.

[7] Bernardo, L.F.A., Oliveira, L.A.P., Nepomuceno, M.C.S. and Andrade, J.M.A. (2013) Use of Refurbished
Shipping Containers for The Construction of Housing Buildings: Details for The Structural Project. Journal of
Civil Engineering and Management. iFirst, pp. 1-19.

[8] Giriunas, K., Sezen H. and Dupaix, R. (2012) Evaluation, modeling, and analysis of shipping container building
structure. Engineering Structures, 43. pp. 48-57.

[9] Olivares, A.A.P. (2010) A Comparative Life Cycle Analysis of Container Architecture for Residential Structures.
A M.Arch Thesis submitted to the Victoria University of Wellington.

[10] Davies, C. (2005) The Prefabricated Home. London: Reaktion Book Ltd.

[11] Levinson, M. (2006) The Box. How the Shipping Container Made the World Smaller and World Economy Bigger.
New Jersey: Princeton University Press.

[12] International Organization for Standardization (ISO) (1995) ISO 668:1995. Series 1 - Container shipping.
Classification, dimensions and calculations. Geneva, Switzerland.

[13] Sawyers, P. (2008) Intermodal Shipping Container Small Steel Buildings. Kentucky. Paul Sawyers

[14] Intermodal Steel Building Units and Containers Homes (ISBU) (2009) ISO shipping container specifications/
materials. Cheyenne, WY: ISBU Association.

[15] Evergreen Marine Corporation (2012) Container Specifications. [Online], Available: http://www.evergreen-
marine.com/tei1/jsp/TEI1_Containers.jsp [03 Nov 2014]

[16] Urban Space Management (2010) Container City. [Online], Available:

http://www.zen17279.zen.co.uk/images/CCFREQUENTLY%20ASKED%20QUESTIONS.pdf [20 May 2012]

[17] Burg, G. V. (1975). Containerisation and other unit transport. London : London : Hutchinson, 1975.

147!
!
 International Conference on Environmental Research and Technology (ICERT 2015)

[18] Residential Shipping Container Primer (2013) Shipping Container Structural Components and Terminology
[Online], Available:
http://www.residentialshippingcontainerprimer.com/CONTAINER%20COMPONENTS%20AND%20TERMINO
LOGY [18 Nov 2014]

[19] Brandt, K.A. (2011) Plugging In: Reinterpreting The Traditional Housing Archetype Within A Community Using
Shipping Containers. A M.Sc Thesis submitted to the University of North Carolina at Greensboro.

[20] Robinson, A. and Swindells, T. (2012) Customized Container Architecture. ACSA Fall Conference 2012. Pp.64-
69.

[21] Webb, M. (2006) Container art: Shigeru Ban’s inventive yet frugal nomadic museum berths on the Santa Monica
Beachfront. Architectural Review, 219(1311), pp. 48-53.

[22] Murdock, J. (2009) Now shipping to a site near you: Cargo container offices. Architectural Record, 197(10), pp.
34.

[23] Naber, G., Duken, U., Mast, E. W. and Schieder, U.P. (2013) The GDV Container Handbook - Cargo Loss
Prevention Information from German Marine Insurers, Munich: Deutschen Versicherungswirtschaft.

[24] Botes, A.W. (2013) A Feasibility Study of Utilising Shipping Containers to Address the Housing Backlog in South
Africa. A M.Eng Thesis submitted to Stellenbosch University.

[25] Homedeco.2u (2011a) Upcycled Container House in Bukit Tinggi, Pahang, [Online], Available:
http://www.homedeco2u.com/ideas-and-inspirations/2011/06/28/upcycled-container-house-in-bukit-tinggi-pahang/
[24 Aug 2012]

[26] Homedeco.2u (2011b) Container Building in Indonesia, [Online], Available: http://www.homedeco2u.com/ideas-

and-inspirations/2011/10/18/container-building-in-indonesia/ [20 Sep 2012]

[27] Pagnotta, B. (2011) The pros and cons of cargo container Architecture, [Online]. Available:
http://www.archdaily.com/160892/the-pros-and-cons-of-cargo-container-architecture/ [22 Aug 2011].

[28] Nunes, N. C. G. 2009. Exploitation of shipping containers for housing. A Master Thesis. University of Beira
Interior, Portugal

[29] Runkle Consulting Inc. (2011) Shipping Container Building Design and Construction, [Online], Available:
http://www.runkleconsulting.com/Shipping%20Container%20Houses/shipping_container_building_design_and_c
onstruction.html [15 May 2012]

[30] Alter, L. (2011) Design / Modular Design: Does shipping container Architecture make sense? [Online]. Available:
http://www.treehugger.com/modular-design/does-shipping-container-architecture-make-sense.html [17 Nov 2011].

[31] Slawick, H, Bermann, J. Buchmeier, M. and Tinney, S. (2010) Container Atlas: A Practical Guide to Container
Architecture. Berlin. Gestalten.

[32] Christensen, P. and Worzala, E. (2010) Teaching Sustainability: Applying Studio Pedagogy to Develop an
Alternative Post-Hurricane Housing Solution Using Surplus Shipping Containers. JOSRE, Vol. 2 No.1.

[33] Containers to Clinics (2010) Clinics shipped from US to Haiti. [Online]. Available: http://containers2clinics.org/ [2
Nov 2011]

[34] Marshall, S. (2009) Sustainable Design and Construction of a Library for Disabled Children of Jamaica.
International Journal of Service Learnin, Vol 4, No1, pp. 1-19

[35] Pauli, G. (2010) The Blue Economy. 1st ed. s.l.:Paradigm Publications.

[36] Pisinger, D. (2002) Heuristics for the container loading problem. European Journal of Operational Research,
141(2), pp. 382-392.

[37] Zal, F.H. and Cox, K. (2008) Pre.Fab: Myth, Hyoe + Reality. ACSA Conference 2008.

[38] Malaysian Metrological Department (MMD) (2013) Wind flow. [Online]. Available: http://www.met.gov.my [15
Feb 2014]

[39] Al-Obaidi K.M., Ismail M., Abdul Rahman A.M. (2014) A review of the potential of attic ventilation by passive
and active turbine ventilators in tropical Malaysia. Sustainable Cities and Society, vol. 10, pp. 232-240.

148!
!
 International Conference on Environmental Research and Technology (ICERT 2015)

[40] Al-Obaidi, K. M., Ismail, M., & Rahman, A. M. A. (2014). Design and performance of a novel innovative roofing
system for tropical landed houses. Energy Conversion and Management, 85, 488-504.

[41] Robinson, A., Austen, S. and Gibb, A., (2011) Design and Building Performance of Intermodal Shipping
Container Construction. 10th International Detail in Design in Architecture Conference, Istanbul.

[42] Al-Obaidi, K. M., Ismail, M., & Rahman, A. M. A. (2014). A comparative study between unvented and vented
attics powered by the hybrid turbine ventilator in Malaysian houses. International Journal of Sustainable Energy,
(ahead-of-print), 1-13.

[43] Al-Obaidi, K. M., Ismail, M., & Rahman, A. M. A. (2014). Passive cooling techniques through reflective and
radiative roofs in tropical houses in Southeast Asia: A literature review. Frontiers of Architectural Research, 3(3),
283-297.

! !

149!
!

View publication stats