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‫‪Electrical Engineering‬‬
‫نظام المحاضرات االلكتروني‬

D.C motors
Basic construction of D.C motors .
The structure of D.C motor has two major components , stator and rotor separated by
the air cap .
Stator : This part of the motor does not move and normally is the
outer frame of the motor .
Rotor : This part of the motor is free to move and normally is the
inner part of the motor and contain a commutator .
D.C motor action.
Its action is based on the principle that, when a current- carrying conductor is placed in
a magnetic field , a mechanical force ( f ) is generated whose magnitude is given by :
f = B l I Newton where
B flux density
l length of conductor
i current pass through the conductor

When its field magnets are excited and its armature conductors are supplied with a
current from the main supply , a mechanical force is generated tending to rotate the
armature .This force produce a driving torque which sets the armature rotating .
Classification of D.C motors :

The field and armature winding can be interconnected in various ways to
provide a wide variety of performance characteristics Therefore there are
many types of D.C motor .
1.Separately excited D.C motor :The field winding is excited from a
separate source as shown in fig .1. If Ia
Separate V
source
‫نظام المحاضرات االلكتروني‬ Fig . 1

If It
2.Self excited D.C motor:
Ia
a- Shunt D.C motor :The field winding is
V
parallel connected to the armature winding
as shown in fig .2 .
I t= I a + I f Fig. 2
b- Series D.C motor : The field winding Ia
is connected in series with the armature

winding as shown in fig .3.
It=Ia=If
Fig. 3
C – compound D.C motor :In this type both shunt and series field winding are
connected to the armature winding .

Back e.m.f.
When the motor armature rotates , the conductors also rotate and hence cut the
flux .Therefore e.m.f induced in them whose direction is in opposition to applied
voltage .
When the motor armature rotates , the conductors also rotate and hence cut the
flux .Therefore e.m.f induced in them whose direction is in opposition to applied
voltage .
From the equivalent circuit of a motor which shown in fig.1 , it will be seen that :
Ia
Eb V
Fig. 1

net voltage
Ia = --------------------
resistance
V–Eb
Ia = -------------
Ra
Where
I a armature current
V applied voltage
E b back e.m.f
R a armature resistance
Eb =V-Ia Ra
*For shunt motor
I t= I a + I f
*For series motor
E b = V - I a (R a + R f )
It=Ia=If

Types of windings :
There are three types of windings:
1. Lap windings : In this type ,the two ends of each coil are taken to adjacent segment.
The number of parallel path equal to the number of poles .
ØZN P
Eb = -------------- X -------
60 a
a=P
ØZN
E b= -----------------
Where 60
Ø flux / pole ( weber ) .

Z number of conductors .
p number of poles .
a number of parallel paths in armature .
N speed of motor ( r.p.m ) .
2. Wave windings : In this type , the two ends of each coil are taken to segment some
distance a part . The number of parallel paths = 2 .
ØZNP
E b= -----------------
120
Effect of back e.m.f on speed of D.C motors :
it is seen that the speed is directly proportional to back e.m.f and inversely to the flux .
N2 E b2 Ø1
----- = ------ x -------
N1 E b1 Ø2

Example : A 4 – pole , 220 volt shunt motor has 540 lap – wound conductors.
It takes 32 A from the supply mains . The field winding takes 1 A.The
armature resistance is 0.09 Ω and the field flux per pole is 30mwb Calculate
the speed of the motor .
I a = I t – I f = 32 -1 = 31 A
Eb =V-Ia Ra
Eb = 220 – ( 31 x 0.09 ) = 217.2 V
ØZN P
Eb = -------------- X -------
60 a
30 x 10-3 x 540 x N
217.5 = -------------------------
60
N = 804 r.p.m

Starting of D.C motor
If a D.C motor is directly connected to a D.C power supply , the starting current will
be dangerously high .
V–Eb
I a = -------------
Ra
The back e.m.f ( E b ) is zero at starting , therefore
V
I a = ------
Ra
Since Ra is small , the starting current is very large . The starting current can be
limited to a safe value by the following methods :

Methods of starting :
The starting current can be limited to a safe value by the following methods :
1. Insert an external resistance ( R ae ) in series with the armature circuit at
the moment of starting .
2. Use a low D.C terminal voltage at the moment of stating , this requires a
variable voltage supply .
Starter connection :
For a D.C motor , the starter is connected as shown in fig attachment with
lecture . At start the handle is moved to position 1 , that is mean all resistance
R1,R2,R3 and R4 are connected in series with the armature resistance and
thereby limit the starting current . As the motor speed up , the handle is
moved to positions 2 ,3 ,4 and finally 5 .

At position 5 all the resistance in the starter are taken out of the armature
circuit . The handle will be held in position 5 by electromagnet , which excited
by the field current .
R2 3
2 R3
R1
4
R4
5 Ia
1
OFF
handel Shunt field
If
+ electromagnet
v
-

Torque of D.C motor
Consider a pulley of radius (r) meters, shown in fig . 1 , acted upon by circumferential
force of (F) Newton which causes it to rotate at (N) r.p.s .
T =F x r F
r
Work done in one revolution = force x distance
N ( r.p.s )
= F x 2πr
Power developed = F x 2πr xN
Fig. 1
= (Fxr) x 2 π N
= T x 2πN

Armature torque :
Let T a be the torque developed by the armature of a motor running at N r.p.s , then
Power = T a x 2 π N watt
It is known that electrical power converted into mechanical power in the armature
which equal to E b I a .
Eb Ia
T a = -----------
2 πN
P
Eb =ØZN ------
A
1 P
T a = -------- Ø Z I a --------
2π a

Shaft torque :
The whole of the armature torque ( T a ) , is not available for doing useful work
because a certain percentage of this is required for supplying iron and friction losses in
the motor.
The torque which is available for doing useful work is known as shaft torque ( T sh ).
The horse – power obtained by using shaft torque called brake horse – power ( B. H.
P).
T sh x 2 π N
B.H.P = -----------------------
746
746 x B.H.P output power ( watt )

T sh = --------------------- = ------------------------------
2πN 2πN

D . C motor characteristic curves :
The characteristic curves of a motor are those curves which show relation between the
following quantities .
1. Torque and armature current Ta ∕ Ia
2. Speed and armature current N ∕ Ia
3. Speed and torque N ∕ Ta
It is useful to remember that
E
Ta ά ØIa and N ά --------
Ø
Characteristics of series motor :
1. T a ∕ I a characteristic
T a ά Ø I a , in this case as field winding also carry the armature current
Ø ά I a up to the magnetic saturation point .

T a ά I2 a
T a ∕ I a curve is parabola up to saturation point as shown in fig . 2 . After this point
the curve will be a straight line . It is clear that before point (s) the torque is directly
proportional to the I2a , therefore this type is used for loads which need high starting
Ta
torque .
2. N ∕ I a characteristic
Saturation point
Variation of speed can be deduced from the

S
formula
Ia
E
Fiig. 2
N ά -------
Ø
Change in E for various loads current is small .
With increased I a , the flux Ø also increased .

N
Hence , speed various inversely with armature
current as shown in fig .3 . When load is heavy ,
I a is large , hence speed is low . When Ia
falls to small value , speed become dangerously high . Ia
Series motor should never be started without some Fig. 3
mechanical load on it .
3. N ∕ T a
N
The relation between speed and torque can be
obtained from T a ∕ I a
and N ∕ I a characteristics .
It is found that when speed is high , torqueis low Ta
and vice versa as shown in fig . 4 . Fig. 4

Characteristic of shunt motor :
1. T a ∕ I a characteristic
Assuming the flux Ø to be constant ( though at heavy loads , flux decrease due to
increased in armature reaction ) .
Ta ά Ia
The relationship between T a and I a is a straight line through the origin as shown
in fig . 5 . Since a heavy stating load need a heavy starting current , shunt motor
should never be started on heavy load .
Ta
Ia
Fig. 5

2. N ∕ I a characteristic N
If the flux Ø assumed to be constant then N ά E.

As E is also practically constant , speed is for
most purpose constant .
In fact both Ø and E decrease with increasing Ia
load , therefore there is some decrease in speed as Fig. 6
shown in fig .6. Shunt motor is taken as a

constant speed motor .
N
3. N ∕ T a
It can be deduced from 1 and 2 above . The
relationship between N and Ta is shown in fig .7 .
Ta
Fig. 7
Speed control for D.C motor
Factors controlling the speed of D.C motor :
The speed of D.C motor is given by the relation :
V–Ia Ra a V–Ia Ra
N = -------------- x ---- = K ----------------
ZØ P Ø
From the above equation it is clear that the speed can be controlled by varying the
following :
i ) Flux Ø ( flux control ) .
ii ) Resistance R a of armature circuit ( rheostat control ) .
iii ) Applied voltage ( voltage control ) .

Speed control of shunt D.C motors :
1. Variation of flux or flux control method :
If It
The speed is inversely proportion to the flux ,
Ia
therefore the speed can be increased by decrease
Field rheostat
the flux and vice versa .The flux of D.C motor V
can be changed by changing the field current ( I
f) with the help of shunt field rheostat as shown

in fig attachment in the lecture .
2. Armature resistance or rheostatic control method :

As the supply voltage is normally constant , the voltage across the armature is varied
by inserting a variable resistance ( controller resistance ) in series with the armature
circuit

It
As a controller resistance increased , the If
Controller resist.
potential difference across the armature
Ia
decreased , therefore the armature speed
decrease. V
3. Voltage control method :

In this method the shunt field of the motor is connected to a fixed exciting voltage ,
while the armature is supplied with different voltages .

Example : A 250 V , D.C shunt motor has a shunt field resistance of 250 Ω and an
armature resistance of 0.25 Ω . It runs at 1500 r.p.m , drawing an armature current
of 20 A. If a resistance of 250 Ω is inserted in series with the field , the load torque
remaining the same and ( T ά Ø I a ) . Find out the new speed and armature current .
N2 E b2 Ø1
----- = ------ x --------
N1 E b1 Ø2
Since we have shunt motor , it means that the flux is directly proportional to field
current .
N2 E b2 I f1
----- = ------ x --------
N1 E b1 I f2
Load torque remain the same
T1 =T2
T 1 ά Ø 1 I a1 and T 2 ά Ø 2 I a2

Therefore :
Ø 1 I a1 = Ø 2 I a2
Ø1 I f1
I a2 = Ia1 ------ = I a1 -------
Ø2 I f2
250
I f1 = ------- = 1 A
250
250
I f2 = ----------------- = 0.5 A
250 + 250
1
I a2 = 20 x ------- = 40 A
0.5
E b1 = V – I a1 R a = 250 – ( 20 x 0.25 ) = 245 V
E b2 = V – I a2 R a = 250 – ( 40 x 0.25 ) = 240 V
N2 240 1
------- = -------- X ------ thus N 2 = 2939 r.p.m
1500 245 0.5

3. Speed control of D.C series motor :
1. Flux control method
Variation in the flux of a series motor can be brought about in any one of the following
ways :
A – Field diverter : Divertor
The series windings are shunted by a variable

resistance know as field diverter. Any desired
amount of current can be passed through
Series field
the diverter by adjusting its resistance .
Hence the flux be decreased and consequently V
the speed of the motor increased .

B – Armature diverter :
A diverter across the armature can be used . If the armature current is reduced due
to armature diverter the flux (Ø) must be increased . This results in an increase in
the current taken from the supply which increase the flux and a fall in speed is
achieved .
It
Ia Series field
Armat. divertor
V

Single phase induction motor
The majority of fractional horsepower motors are of the induction type. Induction motor
has cage rotor and a single phase distributed stator winding as shown in figure below.
This motor does not develop any starting torque .
Distributed
220 v stator wdg.
. .
. .
. .
Squirrel cage
rotor
When the rotor is stationary , the stator winding is connected to a single phase supply .
A pulsating flux ( Øs ) is established in the machine along the axis of stator winding .

The pulsating stator flux induced current in the rotor circuit which produced a
pulsating flux ( Ør ) acting along the same axis as the stator flux ( Øs ) . By Lenz law ,
these two fluxes tend to appose each other . Therefore no starting torque is developed .
Simplest method of starting a single phase induction motor is to provide an auxiliary
winding on the stator in addition to the main winding . The two windings are placed in
the stator with their axis displaced 90 electrical degrees in space .

P
Note : Electrical angle = ------- x mechanical angle
2
Where P is the number of poles .
Classification of a single phase induction motor

Single phase induction motors are known by various names . The names are
descriptive of the methods used to produced stating torque.

1. split – phase motor:
A schematic diagram of a split – phase induction motor is shown in figure below .The
auxiliary winding has a higher resistance to reactance ratio than the main winding , so
the two currents are out of phase as shown in figure below .
The higher resistance to reactance ratio is usually obtained by using finer wire for the
auxiliary winding . The centrifugal switch cuts the auxiliary circuit when the speed of
the motor reached about 75% of rated speed .
Auxiliary wdg.
i ia
im V
.
V Main wdg. . rotor
Centrifugal
switch
ia
.
im

The typical torque – speed characteristic of this motor is shown in figure below. motor
has low starting torque which depends on the two currents and the phase angle
between them .
T
Main wdg. only
Main + aux.
wdg.
300
Centrifugal
switch open
200
100
N
25 50 75 100
2. Capacitor – start motor :

Higher stating torque can be obtained if a capacitor is connected in series with the
auxiliary winding as shown in figure below. This increase in phase angle between the

two currents as shown in figure below .
Auxiliary wdg.
i ia ia
im V
.
capacitor
V Main wdg. . rotor i
. C.f. switch im
The typical torque – speed characteristic of this motor is shown in figure below .
T
Main + aux. Main wdg. only

wdg.
300
Centrifugal
switch open
200
100
‫نظام المحاضرات االلكتروني‬ 25 50 75 100

N
3. Shaded - pole induction motor :
These motors have a salient pole construction .A shaded band consisting of a short
circuited copper turn known as a shading coil , is used on one portion of each pole .
The main single phase winding is wound on the salient pole . The result is that the
current induced in the shading coil causes the flux in the shades portion of the pole to
lag the flux in the un shaded portion of the pole . Therefore , the flux in the shaded
portion reaches its maximum after the flux in the un shaded portion reaches its
maximum. It is similar to a rotating field moving from the un shaded to the shaded
portion of the pole . As a result the motor produces a starting torque .
T
The typical torque – speed characteristic is
shown in figure below . This motor is used 300
for the low horsepower rating up to about 200
1 ∕ 20 h.p .
100
‫نظام المحاضرات االلكتروني‬ 25 50 75 100

Universal, stepper and linear induction motor
Universal motors:
Single phase series motors can be used with either a D.C source or a single phase A.C
source , therefore they are called universal motors. They are widely used in fractional
horsepower ratings in many domestic applications such as drills , mixers ,and vacuum
cleaner .
Both stator and rotor structures are made of laminated steel to reduce core losses and
eddy current . For the same voltage and armature current the speed will be lower for
A.C excitation . A.C excitation produces pulsating torque , poor power factor.
Linear induction motor :
A linear induction motor can produce linear or translational motion . Instead of
squirrel – cage rotor , a cylinder of conductor enclosing the rotors ferromagnetic core
is considered . If the rotary machine is cut along the line and unrolled a linear

induction machine is obtained . Instead of the term stator and rotor , it is more
appropriate to call them primary and secondary member of the linear induction
machine . If one member is fixed and the other is free to move , the force will make the
movable member move .
Stepper motors :
A stepper motor rotates by a specific number of degrees in response to an input
electrical pulse . Typical step sizes are 2°, 2.5°, 5°, 7.5°, and 15° for each electrical pulse .
The stepper motor is an electromagnetic incremental actuator that can convert digital
pulse inputs to analog output shaft motion .
It is therefore used in digital control system . A train of pulses is made to turn the shaft
of the motor by steps . Typical applications of stepper motors requiring incremental
motion are printers , tape drivers , and disc drive .

Two types of stepper motors are widely used :
1. the variable – reluctance type .
2. the permanent magnet type .
Reluctance motors :
A single phase reluctance motor is essentially the same as the single phase induction
motor , except that some saliency is introduced in the rotor structure by removing
some rotor teeth at the appropriate places to provide the required number of poles .
The squirrel cage bars and end rings are left intact so that the reluctance motor can
start as an induction motor . The reluctance motor has a low power factor because it
requires a large amount of reactive current for its excitation . A reluctance motor is
several times larger than a synchronous motor with D.C excitation having the same
horsepower and speed rating .

Three phase system
Three phase system :
This type of network is very generally used in industrial purpose . However , most
three phase systems are approximately balanced , and if a system considered to be
balanced the resulting simplicity of analysis is very marked .
Interconnection of three phase :
There are two types of connection:
1. Star or Wye connection .
2. Mesh or delta connection .
1.Star connection :
In this type of connection ends of three coils joined together at point N . The point N is
known as star point or neutral point .This type is known as four wire three phase
system .

Star connection: This type of connection shown in figure below .
A I1
E AN Ra
IN
N
EC N
R
c b
R
EB
C N B
I2
I3
EAB = EBC = ECA = Line voltage ( VL )

EAN = EBN = ECN = Phase voltage ( Vph )

Line current = Phase current , IL = Iph
VL = 3 Vph
EAN = E / 0
EBN = E / - 120
ECN = E / 120
IN = I1 + I2 + I3
In case of balance load , the neutral current ( IN ) is equal to zero .

Delta connection : This type of connection shown in the figure below .
A IA
I3
I1
V AB
V CA
B
C
IB
I2 V BC
IC
VAB = VBC = VCA = line voltage = phase voltage
IL = 3 Iph
VAB = V / 0
IA = I1 – I3
IB = I2 – I1 VBC = V / - 120
IC = I3 – I2 VCA = V / 120

Three phase induction motor
Three phase induction motor :
Three phase induction motor is extensively used for various kinds of industrial drives .
It has the following main advantages and also some disadvantages .
Advantages :
i) Its cost is low and it is very reliable .
ii) It has sufficiently high efficiency . In normal running conditions, no brushes are
needed , hence frictional losses are reduced . It has a reasonably good power factor .
iii) It requires minimum of maintenance .
iv) Its starting arrangement is simple .
Disadvantages :
i) Its speed cannot be varied without sacrificing some of its efficiency.
ii) Its speed decrease with increase in load .

Construction :
An induction motor consists essentially of two main parts :
a) Stator
b) Rotor
a) Stator :
The stator of induction motor is , in principle , made up of a number of stampings
which are slotted to receive the windings . The stator carries a 3 – phase winding and
is fed from a 3 – phase supply . It is wound for a definite number of poles , the exact
number of poles being determined by the requirements of speed . Greater the number
of poles , lesser the speed and vice versa .
When the stator windings supplied with 3 – phase currents produce a magnetic flux
which is of constant value but which rotate at synchronous speed (given by Ns=120f∕ p).
This revolving magnetic flux induced an e.m.f. in the rotor by mutual induction

b) Rotor :
Almost 90 percent of induction motor are squirrel – cage type , because this type of
rotor has the simplest and most rugged construction and is almost indestructible . This
rotor consists of a cylindrical laminated core with parallel slots for carrying the rotor
conductors which, are not wires but consist of bars of copper , aluminum or alloys .
One bar is placed in each slot .The rotor bars are permanently short– circuited on
themselves hence it is not possible to added any external resistance in series with the
rotor circuit for starting purposes.
Running operation :
If the stator windings are connected to a three – phase supply and the rotor circuit is
closed the induced voltage in the rotor windings produce rotor currents that interact
with the air gap field to produce torque . The rotor , if free to do so , will then start
rotating .

According to Lenzs law , the rotor rotates in the direction of the rotating field such that
the relative speed between the rotating field and the rotor windings decreases . The
rotor will eventually reach a steady – state speed (N) that is less than the synchronous
speed (NS) at which the stator rotating field rotates in the air gap . It is obvious that at
N = NS there will be no induced voltage and current in the rotor circuit and hence no
torque .
The difference between the rotor speed (N) and the synchronous speed (NS) of the
rotating field is called the slip (S) and is defined as
NS – N
S = -------------
NS
The rotor was slipping behind the rotating field by slip r.p.m = NS – N = SNS
The frequency f2 of the induced voltage and current in the rotor circuit will
corresponding to the slip r.p.m , because this is the relative speed between the
rotating field and the rotor winding .

The revolutions per minute (N) of the traveling wave in a p – pole motor for frequency
(f) cycles per second is
120 f2
NS – N = ----------
P
P
f2 = -------- ( NS - N )
120
P
f2 = -------- S NS
120
f2 = S f1
where
f1 is the frequency of supply voltage .
f2 is the frequency of rotor circuit .
p is the number of poles .
S is the slip .

Torque of three phase induction motor
Torque of three phase induction motor :
T ά Er Ir cos Ø2 , Er ά Ø
T ά Ø Ir cos Ø2
Where ZR
Er = rotor e.m.f ∕ phase S X2
Ir = rotor current ∕ phase
Er = S E2
Er S E2 R2
Ir = -------- = --------------------------
Zr √{R22 + ( S X2 )2 }
From figure above
R2
Cos Ø2 = --------------------------
√ { R22 + ( SX2 )2
S Ø E2 R2 K Ø S E2 R2
T ά = -------------- = -------------------
R22 + (SX2)2 R22 + (SX2)2
But E2 ά Ø

K S E 2 2 R2
T = ---------------
R22 + (SX2)2
At standstill when S = 1 , obviously K E 2 2 R2

T = -----------------
R2 2 + X 2 2
Condition for maximum torque :
The torque of a rotor under running condition is
K Ø S E 2 R2
T = --------------------
R22 + (SX2)2
The condition for maximum torque may be obtained by differentiating the above
equation with respect to slip (S) and then putting it equal to zero .
Hence , torque under running conditions is maximum at that value of the slip (S) which
makes rotor reactance per phase equal to rotor resistance per phase .
K Ø S E2
Tmax = ---------------
2R2

Relation between torque and slip :
A family of torque ∕ slip curves is shown in figure below, for a range of S = 0 – 1 We have
seen above that
K Ø S E2 R2
T = --------------------
R22 + (SX2)2
It is clear that when S = 0 , T = 0 . Hence the curve starts from point 0. At normal speeds
, close to synchronism the term ( S X2 ) is small and hence negligible w.r.t R2 .
S
T ά -------
R2
If R2 is constant , then T ά S
Hence , for low values of slips , the torque ∕ slip curve is approximately a straight line .
As slip increase ( for increasing load on the motor ) the torque also increases and
become maximum when S = R2 ∕ X2 .

As the slip further increases ( i.e. motor speed falls ) with further increase in motor load
, R2 becomes negligible as compared to ( S X2 ) ,therefore
S 1
T ά ----------- ά ----------
( S X2 )2 S
Hence , the torque ∕ slip curve is a rectangular hyperbola . So ,we see that
beyond the point of maximum torque , any further increase in motor load
results in decrease of torque developed by the motor . The result is that the
motor slows down and eventually stops . The circuit – breaker will be tripped
and open the circuit . In fact , the stable operation of motor lies between the
values of S = 0 and that corresponding to maximum torque The operating
range is shown shaded in the next figure.

Maximum torque
6R
torque
4R
0.2 0
1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4
Slip

Starting of three – phase induction motor
Starting of three – phase induction motor :
Three – phase induction motor up to 7.5 h.p may connected directly across the
supply line . High starting current of order 500 to 800 percent of full load current . In
the case of induction motor of horsepower more than 7.5 h.p , this causes voltage
drop in the line and affect other drives connected to the line . Also if a large current
flows for a long time , it may overheat the motor and damage the insulation . In such
cases , reduced – voltage starting must be used . How we can reduce the voltage at
starting ?
1. A three – phase step – down autotransformer , as shown in figure below , may be
used as reduced voltage starter . As the motor approaches full speed ,the
autotransformer is switched out of the circuit

R
R
S
S
3 phase
supply S
R
I. M
S S
R
T
R : running cont.
S S S : starting cont.
Start : s closed
R open
Transformer
wdg. Run : s open
R closed

2. Star delta method of starting may also be used to reduced voltage at starting . In this
method the normal connection of the stator windings is delta while running . If these
windings are connected in star at start , the phase voltage is reduced , resulting to less
current at starting . As the motor approaches full speed , the windings will be
connected in delta as shown in figure below .
Stator wdg. of i. m
R
2 1
1 : star con.
3 phase S 2 : delta con.
supply 1
2
T
2 1

Electrical instruments and measurements
Electrical principles of operation :
All electrical measuring instruments depend for their action on one of the many
physical effects of an electrical current or voltage and are generally classified
according to which of these effects is utilized in their operation .
1. Magnetic effect , used for ammeters and voltmeters .
2. Electrodynamics effect , used for ammeters ,voltmeters and wattmeter.
3. Electromagnetic effect , used for ammeters ,voltmeters , wattmeter and watt – hour
meters .
Indicating instruments :
Indicating instruments are those which indicate the value of the quantity that is being
measured at the time at which it is measured . Such instruments consist of a pointer
which moves over a calibrated scale and which is attached to a moving system .

The moving system is subjected to the following three torques :
i) A deflecting ( or operating ) torque .
ii) A controlling ( or restoring ) torque .
iii) A damping torque .
deflecting torque :
The deflecting toque is produced by utilizing one of the physical effects mentioned
before , ( magnetic , electrodynamics or electromagnetic effect ).
The deflecting torque causes the moving system to move from zero position to another
position .
Controlling torque :
This torque opposes the deflecting torque and increases with the deflection of the
moving system . The pointer is brought to rest at apposition where the two opposing
torques are equal .
In the absence of a controlling torque , the pointer would not return to zero position .
The controlling torque is obtained by a spring or by gravity .

Damping torque :
A damping force is one which acts on the moving system only when it is moving and
always opposes its motion . This force is necessary to bring the pointer to rest quickly ,
otherwise due to inertia of moving system , the pointer will oscillate about its final
deflected position for some time
The damping force can be produced by :
i) Air friction .
ii) Eddy currents .
iii) Fluid friction .
ammeter and voltmeter :
1. Moving – iron type :
Used for both A.C and D.C measurements . The operation of this type depends on the
attraction of a single piece of soft iron into magnetic field .

The necessary magnetic field is produced by ampere turns of a current – carrying coil .
In case of ammeter , the coil has a few turns of thick wire so that the ammeter has low
resistance because it is connected in series with the circuit In case of voltmeter , the coil
has high resistance ( it has large number of turns of thin wire ) . It is connected in
parallel with the circuit .
Advantages and disadvantages :
The advantages of this type are , such instruments are cheap and robust , give reliable
service and can be used for A.C and D.C circuits The disadvantage of this type is that ,
because of hysterics in the iron paths of the moving system the readings are higher for
descending values but lower for ascending values .
2. Moving – coil type :
There are two types of such instruments :
i) Permanent – magnet type . ii) Dynamometer type .

permanent – magnet type :
This type is used for D.C circuit only . The operation of this type is based upon the
principle that when a current – carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field , it is
acted upon by a force which tends to move it to one side and out of the field . it is
consist of a permanent magnet and rectangular coil of many turns wound on a light
aluminum or copper former inside .
Advantages :
1. Their scales are uniform and can be designed to extent over an arc of 270o .
2. They can be modified with the help of shunt resistance to cover a wide range of
current and voltage .
3. They have no hysterics loss .
Disadvantages :
1. The cost is higher than that of moving – iron type .
2. This type used for D.C circuit only .
3. It has some errors because of permanent magnet .

Dynamometer type :
This type is used A.C and D.C circuits . In this type the operation field is produced ,
not by a permanent magnet but by another fixed coil . This instrument can be used
either as ammeter or as voltmeter .
The fixed coils are usually arranged in two equal sections placed close together and
parallel to each other . The two fixed coils are air – cored to avoid hysterics effect .
This make the magnetic field in which the moving coil , more uniform . Such
instruments are free from hysterics error .
Ohmmeter :
For constant voltage , the current through the meter will vary if the resistance varies .
An ohmmeter is always constructed by a set of fixed swichable resistances and a
battery that provides a known constant voltage By selecting the resistances , the meter
will give indications in ohms over any desired range .

Usually zero on the meter is assigned the value of infinity ohms . The full – scale value is set at a
certain minimum . It is necessary that the battery be exactly the right kind and provides
appropriate voltage .
Induction wattmeter :
This type is used on A.C circuit only , while the dynamometer wattmeter can be used
both on A.C and D.C circuits .
Induction wattmeter is useful only when the frequency and supply voltage are
constant . The wattmeter has two laminated electromagnets , one of which is excited
by the current in the main circuit , its windings being joined in series with the circuit .
The other is excited by current which is proportional to the voltage of the circuit Its
windings being joined in parallel with the circuit . A thin aluminum disc is so mounted
that it cuts the fluxes of both magnets.
Hence two eddy currents are produced in the disc . The deflection torque is produced
due to interaction of these eddy currents and the inducting flux.

Contactor and relay
Contactor :
The contactor consists of a coil , main contacts and auxiliary contacts . The main
contacts is always normally open while the auxiliary contacts may be normally open or
closed .
The main contacts is closed to complete the circuit to the load , while auxiliary
contacts used to control the operation of other device .
The operation of contactor is based on electromagnetism . When coil section of
contactor is energized , an electromagnetic field causes an assembly within the
contactor to pull down allowing the voltage to bridge across the main contact points .
The most common type of contactor used in air conditioning systems is a contactor
whose coil operated on 24 volt .
Contactor may be single , two or three phase depending on the application and type of
equipments .

Why contactor fail ?
1. A break may occur in the coil wiring , resulting in an open coil that cannot
provide a magnetic field to operate the armature
2. A coil may become shorted .
3. The contact points may become badly burnt due to repeated arcing that
occur naturally when the contactor makes a circuit to a load .
4. Insufficient voltage may be applied to contactor coil due to a poor
connection somewhere in the low voltage circuit or due to incorrect voltage
applied to the primary of transformer . If the correct voltage is not applied to
the transformer primary , it can not deliver the correct voltage from its
secondary winding.
The figure below shows a schematic diagram of air condition unit with a
contactor controlling the compressor and outdoor fan motor .

L2 L1
COMP.
C C
LI–l2 Main voltage
Comp. compressor
C.F.M Condenser fan C.F.M

motor
Coil of
C contactor C
Control
C contact H.P L.P voltage
H.P High pressure

switch
L.p Low pressure

switch Schematic diagram of an A/C unit with a contactor controlling
the compressor and outdoor fan motor

Relay :
A relay operates in the same manner as a contactor . Its coil is energized through the
control circuit to control another circuit to a load .
While the main contacts on a contactor are always normally open and are closed
when the coil energized , a relay will commonly have both normally open and
normally closed contacts . Therefore a relay can simultaneously control two separate
circuits , making one when the coil energized and the other when the coil de
energized .
A relay may be used to control a multi – speed fan motor in a combination heating ∕
cooling unit . The indoor fan motor runs on a lower speed for heating mode and a
higher speed for the cooling mode
Figure below illustrated a relay controlled a multi – speed fan motor .

L2 L1
IFR
low
IFR Coil of indoor fan relay
I.F.M
Com.
High
IFR
Contact of indoor fan relay ( n . c )
IFR
ON Contact of indoor fan relay ( n . o )

IFR IFR
Control Auto.
I.F.M Indoor fan motor , 2 speed
voltage
Via thermost. Main voltage
L1–L2
Electrical representation of a control rlay

Time delay relay :
It is used in several applications . It can be used to create a delay before the fan in gas
furnace start . It also used to protect compressor in the event of a short – term power
outage , it will not allow the compressor to restart until the control voltage has been
restored .
Sequencer :
Like a time delay relay , a sequencer prevents a load from being energized until a
specified time has occurred . The sequencer differs from a relay in that it may control
two or more loads in a sequence such as the heating elements in electrical furnace .
Magnetic starter :
It consists of a contactor and overload protection . Magnetic starters are used in a
large commercial refrigeration equipments that operates on three phase power .
Most starters are equipped with a manual reset .

The figure below illustrated a schematic diagram of magnetic starter .
3 phase supply voltage
L1 L2 L3
L2
From control
L1
C C C
O.L O.L O.L
L1 L2 L3
Load
C
Coil of contactor
Contact of contactor
Overload

Fuse and circuit breaker
1. Construction of fuse.
2. Construction and types of circuit breaker .
A‐ Know what is contactor.
B‐ Know contactor application in refrigeration unit.
C‐ Know what is relay .
D‐ Know relay application in refrigeration unit .
E‐ Know how to choose fuse and circuit breaker rating .
F‐ Know the effect of voltage drop and choose cable size .

Diode
1. Diode characteristic.
2. Diode applications .
A- Know diode characteristic.

B- Know the application of diode.
C- Know half wave rectifier .
D- Know the efficiency of half wave rectifier .

‫‪A‬‬ ‫‪Anode‬‬ ‫‪A‬‬
‫‪P‬‬ ‫‪+‬‬
‫‪I‬‬ ‫‪Vf‬‬
‫‪N‬‬ ‫‪-‬‬
‫‪K‬‬ ‫‪Kathode‬‬ ‫‪K‬‬

Full – wave rectifier
1. Full – wave rectifier .
2. Types of full – wave rectifier .
Center – tapped full wave rectifier :

A center – tapped full wave rectifier uses two
diodes connected to the secondary of a center –
tapped transformer as shown in figure below .

Vm(sec)
Vout = ------------------ - 0.7 volt
2
2 Vout
Vd.c = Vav = -----------
Π

Vout = Vm(sec) - 1.4 ( because two diodes conduct at the same time)
2Vout
Vav = ----------
π

Bipolar junction transistor
1.Construction of bipolar junction transistor .
2. Biasing of bipolar junction transistor
Bipolar junction transistor ( BJT ) :
The ( BJT ) is constructed with three doped semiconductor regions
separated by two P‐N junctions . The three regions are called
emitter , base and collector .
One type consists of two N regions separated by a P region ( npn ) ,
and the other type consists of two P regions separated by an N
region ( pnp ) as shown in the Fig. below .

Bipolar junction transistor
1. Input resistance at the transistor base.
2. Voltage – divider base circuit .

Vin
Rin(base) = ------
Iin
Vin = VBE + IE RE
With the assumption that VBE << IE RE

Vin = IE RE
Now since IE ≈ IC = βDC IB

Vin = βDC IB RE
The input current is the base current
Vin βDC IB RE
Rin(base) = ---------- = ---------------
Iin IB
Rin(base) = βD.C RE

Analysis of a voltage – divider base circuit :
+ V CC
R1
VB
R2 RE
From figure above , the total resistance from base to ground is :

R2 ⁄ ⁄ βD.C RE

D.C load line and transistor as switch
1. D.C load line.

2. Transistor as switch

‫‪Transistor as switch :‬‬

Thyristor
1. Construction of thyristor .
2. Thyristor characteristics
The basic thyristor is 4 – layer devise with two terminals , anode

and cathode . The pnpn structure can be represented by an
equivalent circuit consisting of a pnp transistor and an npn
transistor as shown in figure below . The upper pnp layers form Q1
and the lower npn layers form Q2 , with the two middle layers
shared by both equivalent transistors .

Silicon – controlled rectifier ( SCR )
An SCR ( silicon – controlled rectifier ) is a thyristor with three
terminals , anode , cathode and gate . The basic structure of SCR
and the schematic symbol is shown in figure below .

SCR application
1. Switching applications .
2. Half – wave power control
1. ON – OFF control of current :

+V
RL
SW 2
RG
SW 1
+
-

‫‪2. Half – wave power control :‬‬

SCR applications
1. DC motor start/stop control circuit .

2 Crowbar circuit used in DC power supply
A-DC motor start/stop control circuit

B-Crowbar circuit used in DC power supply

Triac and diac
1. Triac application.
2. Diac application .
Triac

TRIAC phase-control of power

DIAC
DIAC improves symmetry of control

•Chopper
1. Principle of Step Down operation.
2. Principle of Step Up operation .
Principle of Step Down operation :
io
+ S
Chopper L a
+
V S
R a
vo
+
– E a Tm
–
–
m

Principle of Step Up operation:
+ vL –
L S
I S
+ + L a
S R
V S v o
a
– – T m

Integrated circuit
1. Principle of integrated circuit.
2. Classification and selection of integrated circuit .

Operational amplifier 741
1. Principle of operational amplifier 741.
2. Application of operational amplifier 741 .

Operational amplifier 741
The circuit symbol for an op-amp is shown to the right, where:
: non-inverting input
: inverting input
: output
: positive power supply
: negative power supply

Applications
•audio- and video-frequency pre-amplifiers and buffers
•voltage comparators
•differential amplifiers
•differentiators and integrators
•filters
•precision rectifiers
•precision peak detectors
•voltage and current regulators
•analog calculators
•analog-to-digital converters
•digital-to-analog converter
•voltage clamps
•oscillators and waveform generators

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‫‪Electrical Engineering‬‬

‫نظام المحاضرات االلكتروني‬

‫نظام المحاضرات االلكتروني‬

Classification of D.C motors :

‫نظام المحاضرات االلكتروني‬ Fig . 1

b- Series D.C motor : The field winding Ia

is connected in series with the armature

‫نظام المحاضرات االلكتروني‬

‫نظام المحاضرات االلكتروني‬

‫نظام المحاضرات االلكتروني‬

Ø flux / pole ( weber ) .

‫نظام المحاضرات االلكتروني‬

‫نظام المحاضرات االلكتروني‬

‫نظام المحاضرات االلكتروني‬

‫نظام المحاضرات االلكتروني‬

handel Shunt field

‫نظام المحاضرات االلكتروني‬

‫نظام المحاضرات االلكتروني‬

‫نظام المحاضرات االلكتروني‬

746 x B.H.P output power ( watt )

‫نظام المحاضرات االلكتروني‬

T a ά Ø I a , in this case as field winding also carry the armature current

Ø ά I a up to the magnetic saturation point .

‫نظام المحاضرات االلكتروني‬

Variation of speed can be deduced from the

‫نظام المحاضرات االلكتروني‬

Series motor should never be started without some Fig. 3

and vice versa as shown in fig . 4 . Fig. 4

‫نظام المحاضرات االلكتروني‬

‫نظام المحاضرات االلكتروني‬

If the flux Ø assumed to be constant then N ά E.

load , therefore there is some decrease in speed as Fig. 6

shown in fig .6. Shunt motor is taken as a

‫نظام المحاضرات االلكتروني‬

can be changed by changing the field current ( I

f) with the help of shunt field rheostat as shown

2. Armature resistance or rheostatic control method :

‫نظام المحاضرات االلكتروني‬

3. Voltage control method :

‫نظام المحاضرات االلكتروني‬

‫نظام المحاضرات االلكتروني‬

E b1 = V – I a1 R a = 250 – ( 20 x 0.25 ) = 245 V

E b2 = V – I a2 R a = 250 – ( 40 x 0.25 ) = 240 V

1500 245 0.5

‫نظام المحاضرات االلكتروني‬

The series windings are shunted by a variable

the speed of the motor increased .

‫نظام المحاضرات االلكتروني‬

‫نظام المحاضرات االلكتروني‬

‫نظام المحاضرات االلكتروني‬

the stator with their axis displaced 90 electrical degrees in space .

Classification of a single phase induction motor

‫نظام المحاضرات االلكتروني‬

‫نظام المحاضرات االلكتروني‬

2. Capacitor – start motor :

‫نظام المحاضرات االلكتروني‬

Main + aux. Main wdg. only

‫نظام المحاضرات االلكتروني‬ 25 50 75 100

for the low horsepower rating up to about 200

‫نظام المحاضرات االلكتروني‬ 25 50 75 100

‫نظام المحاضرات االلكتروني‬

‫نظام المحاضرات االلكتروني‬

‫نظام المحاضرات االلكتروني‬