Working Principle of DC Motor

A DC motor is an electrical machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical

energy.

s
DC motor working is based on the principle that when a current carrying conductor is placed
in a magnetic field, it experiences a mechanical force.
The direction of the mechanical force is given by Fleming’s Left-hand Rule and its
magnitude is given by F = BIL Newton.
Working of DC Motor
Consider a single conductor placed in a magnetic field as shown in the Fig. 1.1(a).

Fig. 1.1(a)

Now this conductor is excited by a separate supply so that it carries a current in a particular
direction. Consider that it carries a current away from an observer as shown in the fig. (b).
Any current carrying conductor produces its own magnetic field around it, hence this
conductor also produces its own flux, around. The direction of this flux can be determined by
right hand thumb rule. For direction of current considered, the direction of flux around a
conductor is clockwise. For simplicity of understanding, the main flux produced by the
permanent magnet is not shown in the Fig. 1.1(b).
Now there are two fluxes present,
1. The lux produced by the permanent magnet called main flux.
2. The lux produced by the current carrying conductor.
These are shown in the fig.1.2(a).
On one side of the conductor, both the fluxes are in the same direction.
In this case, on the left of the conductor there is gathering of the flux lines as two fluxes help
each other.
As against this, on the right of the conductor, the two fluxes are in opposite direction and
hence try to cancel each other.
Due to this, the density of the flux lines in this area gets weakened.
So on the left, there exists high flux density area while on the right of the conductor there
exists low flux density area as shown in the Fig. 1.2(b).

Fig 1.2
This flux distribution around the conductor acts like a stretched rubber band under tension.
This exerts a mechanical force on the conductor which acts from high flux density area
towards low flux density area, i.e, from left to right or the case considered as shown in the
fig.1.2(b)
The direction of this force is given by Fleming’s left hand rule and magnitude is given by;
F = BlI newtons (N)
B = Flux density due to the flux produced by the field winding
l = Active length of the conductor
I = Magnitude of the current passing through the conductor
What is Back EMF in a DC Motor?
The electromotive force or EMF produce in the armature winding of a dc motor in opposite
direction to the applied voltage is called Back EMF. In fact, as the direction of Back EMF is
opposite to the applied voltage and gives back the energy towards the energy source, that's
why it is called back emf. It is also known as Counter EMF.
The equation of the back EMF is as given below.
Eb= ΦNZ/60 *(P/A)
Where, Φ= Flux /Pole
N = Armature Speed
Z = Total number of armature conductor
A = Number of parallel paths in the armature winding
At start when N=0, Eb=0 and the motor draw very high armature current. Due to an
interaction of the field flux and the armature current the torque is produced.
The back EMF starts to develop as the motor accelerates because the back EMF is
proportional to the speed of the motor. The magnitude of the back EMF is always less than
the applied DC voltage because IaRa drop in the armature.
Eb= (V-IaRa)
Characteristics and Properties of Back EMF
1. Back EMF always has the opposite direction to the Supplied Voltage.
2. Back EMF always lower than the supply voltage.
3. Back EMF always induced when the motor is running, there is no back emf induced when
the motor is not running.
4. Back EMF is dependent upon the speed of the rotor also, more speed more back emf.
5. Back emf also depends upon the strength of the magnetic flux produced by the stator field.
6. Back emf varies with the variation of load on the motor.
7. One thing is to be noted that the back emf of a dc motor determines or controls the current
drawn by the motor. If back emf is more, current consumption will be less and if the back
emf is low the current consumption will be more.
Importance and Significance of Back EMF
The main importance or significance of Back EMF is, it makes the DC motor a Self-
Regulating Machine.
State the equations for speed of a) DC series motor b) DC shunt motor

If a DC series motor has initial values of speed, flux per pole and back emf as N

Speed equation of DC motor

The speed equation is very essential to analyze the speed of rotation of the DC motor. As the
supply voltage given to the DC motor produces mechanical output. The output depends on
several parameters like input voltage, field current, armature resistance, etc.

the voltage equation of a DC motor, it is given by,

Eb = V- IaRa

Similarly, the back emf of a DC motor is given by,

∅ ZNP
Eb =
60 A

Equating the above two equations,

 ∅ ZNP
=V −I a R a
60 A

60 A(V −I a R a)
N= −−−−(1)
∅ZP

Eb 60 A
N= ×
∅ ZP

Eb
N=K −−−−(2)
∅

60 A
Where K is the proportionality constant K =
ZP

The above equation implies that speed of a DC motor is directly proportional to back emf and
is inversely proportional to the flux.

Based on the obtained equation, the DC motor speed can be controlled by varying the
magnetic flux and by varying the armature voltage. Accordingly, the dc motor speed control
methods are the flux control method and armature control method or voltage control method.

Speed relation for series and shunt motor

Let the initial flux for the DC motor be φ1. The armature current(Ia1) in the series motor is
proportional to the flux produced, Hence φ1 α Ia1. The speed thus produced be N1 rpm.

So the speed equation(2) becomes,

Eb 1
N1 α −−−−(3)
∅1

Now if the flux is reduced to φ2. The armature current(Ia2) and speed(N2) vary corresponding
to the magnetic flux in the field winding.

The speed equation changes as follows,

Eb 2
N2 α −−−−(3)
∅2

Dividing both equations (3) and (4), we get,

Eb 2
∗∅ 1
N 2 ∅2
=
N1 Eb 1

For shunt motor, the flux is practically constant, i.e., φ1 = φ2

Therefore, the speed relation becomes,

N 2 Eb2
=
N 1 E b1

Torque and speed equation of DC motor

We have derived the speed equation as,

Eb
Nα
∅

The torque equation of a DC motor has been derived as,

T α ∅ Ia

From the above equations, it can be observed that, increase in flux would increase the torque
but decreases the speed of the motor. But it is not possible, because torque is the rotation
force, which tends to rotate the motor. Hence increase in torque always increase the speed of
the motor. This inconsistency can be reconciled in the following way.

Let us assume that the motor is operated at a steady speed. Let the flux(φ) of the motor is
decreased by decreasing the field current.

The decrease in flux will drop the back emf(Eb = Nφ/K) instantly, causing the armature
current to increase because the voltage equation of DC motor is given by Ia = (V – Eb)/Ra.
Thus, a small reduction in flux will cause the armature current to increase heavily.

Hence, in the torque equation, T α φIa, the decrease in flux is counterbalanced by a huge
increase in armature current. This will increase the net torque T, which increases the speed of
the motor.

Compare DC shunt motor and DC series motor

S.No. Parameters DC shunt motor DC series motor

1 Connection of field Field is in parallel Field is in series with armature
winding with armature
2 Type of starter Three point Four point
3 Field winding resistance High Low
4 Field current Low High
5 Torque developed Low High
6 Speed Almost constant Not constant
7 Applications Machine tool, Electric trains, Crain, Hoists,
printing, paper conveyers
machine
Specification of DC motor:
1. Motor rating (KW or KVA)
2. Motor speed (rpm)
 3. Motor current (A)
4. Motor voltage (V)
5. Type of insulation used
6. Weight of the motor
Necessity Of Starter For A DC Motor
The starter is nothing but a variable resistance. Which is connected in a series with armatures
winding in dc motor. Its main function is to reduce the starting current of the motor to its safe
value.
While starting the DC motor, it draws the heavy current which damages the motor.
The starter reduces the heavy current and protects the system from damage.
Necessity of starter
When the motor is in off condition, the armature is stationary and the back EMF which is
proportional to speed is also zero.
In Motor armature resistance is very low. If the rated voltage is applied to the armature, it
will draw heavy current many times that of full load current. And there is more possibility of
damaging the armature due to heavy starting current.
This high staring current may result in
1. Damage to the armature winding and insulation due to over heating
2. Heavy sparking at the commutator and brushes and may flash over
3. Damage to rotating parts of the motor
4. Large dips in supply voltage
So, we need to limit the starting current to its safe value. This is possible by inserting a
resistance in series with the armature at the time of starting for a short period.
As the motor gains rated speed, back EMF is built up in it, and then the starting resistance
could be gradually cut off in step by step.
Single Phase Induction Motor and Its Working
The single phase motors are simple in construction, cheap in cost, reliable and easy to repair
and maintenance.
Due to all these advantages, the single phase motor finds its application in vacuum cleaners,
fans, washing machines, centrifugal pumps, blowers, washing machines, etc.
Construction of Single Phase Induction Motor
Stator:
It is stationary part of the motor as shown in fig(1)
It has three main parts
1. Outer frame
2. Stator core
3. Stator winding
1. Outer frame
Outer body of the motor to support the stator core and the stator windings.
2. Stator core:
The stator core is built up of thin sheets laminations which are usually 0.3 to 0.5 mm thick.
The stator core carries the alternating flux which produces eddy current and hysteresis losses.
Stator winding:
The stator core carries the stator winding is connected across a single phase AC supply which
produces a rotating magnetic field.

As its name indicates stator is a stationary part of induction motor. A single phase AC supply
is given to the stator of single phase induction motor.
Rotor:
It is rotating part of the motor as shown in fig (2).
This rotor is called squirrel cage, as appear like cage.
The rotor has aluminium or copper bars which are permanently circuited at both ends by
conducting end rings.
The rotor is a rotating part of an induction motor. The rotor connects the mechanical load
through the shaft. The rotor in the single-phase induction motor is of squirrel cage rotor type.
Working of Single-phase Induction Motor
Single-phase AC supply is given to the stator winding (main winding). The alternating
current flowing through the stator winding produces magnetic flux. This flux is known as the
main flux.
Now we assume that the rotor is rotating and it is placed in a magnetic field produced by the
stator winding. According to Faraday’s law, the current start flowing in the rotor circuit it is a
close path. This current is known as rotor current.
Due to the rotor current, the flux produced around the rotor winding. This flux is known as
rotor flux.
There are two fluxes; main flux which is produced by stator and second is the rotor flux
which is produced by the rotor.
Interaction between main flux and rotor flux, the torque produced in the rotor and it starts
rotating.
Applications of Single Phase Induction Motor
Single phase motors are not self starting and less efficient than three phase induction
motor and available in 0.5HP to 15HP and still they are widely used for multiple purposes
such as:
 Clocks
 Refrigerators, freezers and heaters
 Fans, table fans, ceiling fan, exhaust fans, air coolers and water coolers.
 Blowers
 Washing machines
 machine tools
 Dryers
 Type writers, Photostats and printers
 Water pumps and submersible
 Computers
 Grinders
 Drilling machines
 Other Home instrument, equipment and devices etc.
Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor - Construction & Working
It’s an electromechanical energy conversion device, which converts electrical energy to
mechanical energy.
In stepper motor, the rotor coils are not excited, instead, we use permanent magnets.
Construction :
It consists of two fundamental parts.
The stationary part also called the stator.
The rotor is made of permanent magnets
The stator is a multi-polar (having a number of poles for different steps) type. The rotor may
be a salient pole type.
A permanent magnet stepper motor with a stator having 4-poles. Around the poles, the
exciting coils are wound. The rotor has 2 poles.

The voltage signals for different stator windings are given by using a driving circuit (used to
control the motor). The driving circuit for a four-phase (four stator windings) permanent
magnet stepper motor is shown in the below figure.
Operation:
When the input pulse is given to the motor with the help of a driving circuit, the motor starts
rotating in step movements.
Case - 1
Here the switch SW1 is closed and the supply is connected across the terminals of A1 and
A2 due to its magnetic field a pole N is established on phase A. The rotor already consists of
poles N and S. Due to torque developed, the rotor starts rotating to adjust its axis of poles as
unlike poles attract and like poles repel each other i.e., the S pole of the rotor is aligned with
A of the stator.
Case - 2
Now the supply is disconnected from phase A and it is connected across phase B by SW2 i.e.,
to the terminals B1 and B2. Due to this, phase A is de-energized and phase B is energized.
Here, again a magnetic pole N is established in phase B. Therefore the rotor further rotates
with an angle of step movement according to the pole axis of phase B.
Similarly, in cases 3 and 4 when the phases C and D are connected to the supply sequentially.
The rotor further changes its motion with an angle according to its respective pole axis. We
can see that the motion of this rotor is in step movement.
 The major limitation of this type of motor is small step movements are impossible because
the number of poles that can be made on the stator is limited.

The major limitation of this type of motor is small step movements are impossible because
the number of poles that can be made on the stator is limited.

Advantages:

 Its main advantage is the presence of a decent torque.

 The motor has full torque at standstill (if the windings are energized).
 Excellent response to starting/stopping/reversing.
 Very reliable since there are no contact brushes in the motor. Therefore the life of the
motor is simply dependent on the life of the bearing.
Disadvantages:

 Low torque to Inertia ratio.

 Acceleration is slow.
 Very slow dynamic response.
 The step angles are of high range i.e., 30° to 90°.