MECHANICAL OPERATIONS

(CHE1022)
Dr. Chandan Sharma
Assistant Professor (sr.)
Chemical Engineering Department,
SCALE

Contact information:
Room no. SMV G20
Open hrs: Mon 10.00 am - 11.30 am
Thurs 9.30 am – 11.30 am
Email: chandan.sharma@vit.ac.in
Dr. Chandan Sharma
• PhD and M. Tech from IIT Kharagpur

Area of Specialization:
1. Polymer rheology
2. Polymer nanoparticle interactions
3. Bio based polyurethanes
4. Membrane technology for waste water treatment

Current interest:
• Polymer nanoparticle dynamics at very high loading.
• Lithium salts aided polymer phase segregation.
• Membrane synthesis and modules for portable water.
Class representatives (CR)
• Boys – 1
• Girls – 1
• Create a google group – admin (CRs) and Me
• Add each and every student of this class to this group.
Subject
• Code: CHE1022
• Title: Mechanical Operations
• Credits: LTPJ : C 2024 : 4
• Prerequisites: NIL
Course objective:
To impart concepts of particulate solids, size reduction techniques, methods of
separation of particulate solids from liquids by classification, sedimentation,
filtration techniques and mixing of solids and fluids.

Syllabus
J component
• 10 Projects – 10 Groups
• Group size: ≤6 students
• Will generate google spreadsheet for allotment of project
titles and students.
• Link will be provided in the google group
Assessment
• CAT – I
• CAT – II
• FAT
• E-Quiz I, II & III (MCQ)
• Assignment - I and II (Problem + Design)
• J component
• Laboratory (To be discussed in Lab)
Evaluation
• Assignment:
• Submitted before deadline: eligible for 100% marks
• 1 week delay: eligible for 80% marks
• After that: eligible for 50% marks
• Project:
• Report: 50%
• Introduction 5
• Objective 5
• Methodology/design 5
• Procedure/materials methods 5
• Result and discussion 20
• Conclusion 5
• References 5
• Final Presentation: 30%
• Attendance (once in a week): 20%
Time Line

CAT I will be based on Module – 1 to 4

CAT II will be based on Module – 5, 6 and 8(IV)
J component projects

Theme
Eco-friendly

Power efficient
Books
Module 1
• Introduction to particulate solids
• Particle shape, size
• Mixed particle sizes
• Size analysis – cumulative and differential
• Various mean diameters
• Screen analysis
• Standard screens
• Various Industrial screens
• LO’s
• Will be able to use different size analysis methods to determine
particle size.
• Will be able to calculate the particle size distribution using screen
analysis.
Particulate – Assembly of small particles
They are characterized by
*Size
*Shape
*Density

Regular –specified by size, shape

Irregular-arbitrarily defined
Equivalent diameter (irregular shaped
particles)
•
• Sphericity (Φs)
𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒
𝜙𝑠 =
• 𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒
6𝑉𝑝 Sp
𝜙𝑠 =
𝐷𝑝 𝑆𝑝
where Vp is the volume of the particle, Ap is its
surface area, and Dp is the diameter of a sphere
with the same volume
Volume: V

Answer: 0.806
Particle size- specified by diameter.

Size expressed in different units according to size range

*coarse – inch (or) mm

*Fine - screen size (mesh)

*Very fine - µm (or) nm

*Ultra fine – m2/gm (specific surface area)

Mixture of particles (same size)

No. of particles in the sample

𝑚
𝑁=
𝜌𝑝 𝑣𝑝
Total surface area
6𝑚
𝐴 = 𝑁𝑆𝑝 =
𝜙𝑠 𝜌𝑝 𝐷𝑝
Specific surface of mixture(different size)

6𝑥1 6𝑥2 6𝑥𝑛

𝐴𝑤 = + +…+
𝜙𝑠 𝜌𝑝 𝐷𝑝1 𝜙𝑠 𝜌𝑝 𝐷𝑝2 𝜙𝑠 𝜌𝑝 𝐷𝑝𝑛

𝑛
6 𝑥𝑖
=
𝜙𝑠 𝜌𝑝 𝐷𝑝𝑖
𝑖=1

xi is the mass fraction

Volume shape factor:
Volume is proportional of cube of diameter, the constant of proportionality is
knows as volume shape factor (a).
a=π/6 for spheres

𝑣𝑝 = 𝑎𝐷𝑝3

Number of particles in Mixture (Different sizes)

𝑛
1 𝑥𝑖 1
𝑁𝑤 = 3
=
𝑎𝜌𝑝 𝐷𝑝𝑖 𝑎𝜌𝑝 𝐷𝑣 3
𝑖=1
Average particle size
Volume – Surface mean diameter

6
𝐷𝑠 =
𝜙𝑠 𝐴𝑤 𝜌𝑝

1
𝐷𝑠 = 𝑥𝑖
𝑛
𝑖=1 𝐷𝑝𝑖
Arithmetic mean diameter

𝑛 𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑁𝑖 𝐷𝑝𝑖 𝑖=1 𝑁𝑖 𝐷𝑝𝑖
𝐷𝑁 = 𝑛 =
𝑖=1 𝑁𝑖 𝑁𝑇
Mass mean diameter

𝐷𝑤 = 𝑥𝑖 𝐷𝑝𝑖
𝑖=1
Volume mean diameter
Determining Particle Size:
Various methods are used for measurement of particle size.
These depends on size range, the physical properties and the
condition of dryness or wetness.
The following methods are used in laboratory.
1. Microscope
2. Screening
3. Sedimentation
4. Elutriation
5. Centrifuging
Screening (Sieving)

Importance of screening:
• Removes the fine from the feed material before a reduction equipment.
• Prevents oversized material to enter into unit operations.
• Produce a process grade material to meet specific feed size.
• Removes fines from finished product before packing.
Types of standard screens:
1. Tyler standard screen series
2. Indian standard test sieves

Types of Screen/sieve analysis

1. Differential Analysis
2. Cumulative Analysis
Particle size distribution
(a) Differential (b) Cumulative
 Differential

Mesh Screen Avg. Particle Weight

Openings, size, μm fraction Find: diameters
μm retained, mg • Surface mean
• Mass mean
6/8 2362 2845 0.017
• Volume mean
8/10 1651 2006 0.235 • No. of particles
10/14 1168 1410 0.298 • Specific surface area
14/20 833 1000 0.217
20/28 589 711 0.105
28/35 417 503 0.062
35/48 295 356 0.028
48/65 208 252 0.017
65/100 147 178 0.010
100/150 104 126 0.005
150/200 74 89 0.002
Pan 0.004
1.0
Cumulative

Mesh Screen Weight fraction

Openings, μm retained, mg
6 3327 0.00
8 2362 0.017
10 1651 0.252
14 1168 0.55
20 833 0.767
28 589 0.872
35 417 0.934
48 295 0.962
65 208 0.979
100 147 0.989
150 104 0.994
200 74 0.996
Pan 1.0
Screening Equipment
• Screening Effectiveness: is a measure of the
success of the screen in closely separating undersize and
oversize, materials.

• See book for derivation

• F: feed
• D: overflow
• B: underflow
A dolomite mixture having the following screen analysis
through a standard 100 mesh screen. Calculate the
effectiveness of the screen and the mass ratio of
overflow and underflow to feed.
Mesh Feed Oversize (wt.%) Undersize (wt.%)
35 7.07 13.67 0.00
48 16.60 32.09 0.00
65 14.02 27.12 0.00
100 11.82 20.70 2.32
150 9.07 4.35 14.32
200 7.62 2.07 13.34
- 200 33.80 0.00 70.02
100 100 100

Mass ratio of overflow: 0.517, Mass ratio of underflow: 0.483, E=91.31

Screening Equipments

1. Grizzlies
2. Trommels or revolving screen
3. Vibrating screen
4. Shaking screen
5. Oscillating screen
6. Reciprocating screen
7. Gyratory screen
Grizzlies
Screening of lumps
Stationary(angle 20-50 degree)
Vibrating (back and forth movement)
Flat(bars are horizontal)
Trommels
Screening of relatively large particles
Rotating cylinders of perforated sheet or wire screen ,
5-10degree inclination,15-20 rpm
Operatting conditions of various screens
apparatus Particle size efficiency capacity
Grizzlies 20mm-300mm Low Very high
Trommels 6mm-55 mm Average Low
Vibrating screens 4 mesh-325 mesh High High
Gyratory screens 6 mm-40 mesh Very high Low
Banana screens 100mm high high
Module 2: Particle separation
• Introduction to Particle Separation
• Electrostatic Precipitation and Magnetic Separation
• Storage of Solids

• LO’s:
• Will be able to comprehend the working principle of ESP and
Magnetic separation units.
• Will be able to know about how solids are stored, and various
problems related to it.
Introduction
• Screening is effective method for separating relatively
coarse particle according to size.
• For very fine particles: according to terminal falling
velocity.
• Please read about: classification; cyclone separator;
Jigging; froth flotation.
Electrostatic separation
• It is a method of separation based on attraction or
repulsion of charged particles under electric field.

• Charging of particle is done by

• Contact electrification
• Electrification by conductive induction
• Electrification by bombardment
Electrostatic separator
• 1 : ESP
• 2 : How to make lab scale ESP
Magnetic separator
• Separation by means of magnetic field
• Diamagnetic solids: repelled by magnetic field
• Paramagnetic: attracted

• Video 1
• Video 2
• Wet Drum magnetic separator
Storage of solids
1. Bulk storage
2. Bin storage

Bin - not so tall but usually wider

Silo – tall and relatively small in diameter
Hopper - vessel with sloping at the bottom
Flow out of Bins
Mass flow-All the material moves whenever any is withdrawn
Funnel flow- Only a portion of the material flows when any is withdrawn

• Common flow problems

The following are used for designing the storage vessel.
1.Angle of Repose
2.Angle of Slide
3.Angle of internal friction

1. Silo design for cement storage

Best flow depends on the following physical characteristics of
materials.
1. Particle size
2. Moisture content
3. Temperature
4. Age
5. Oil content.
LO’s:
• Will be able to use crushing laws to find power requirement in comminution
• Will understand the difference in various size reduction equipment

MODULE 3: SIZE REDUCTION

Principles of comminution
Energy and power requirements in comminution
Mechanical efficiency
Laws of crushing
Size reduction equipment's
Crushers
Grinders
Cutting machines
Open and closed circuit operation
Size reduction
Process of converting large size to small size.
Large size ore - workable size
Plastic sheet - small pieces
Crystal - powder

Advantages:
1. Increases the reactivity of solids
2. Permits easy separation of unwanted materials
3. Easy handling and easy waste disposal
Comminution
Solids are broken in many ways.
The four methods are commonly used.

1. Compression - coarse
2. Impact - coarse, medium, fine
3. Attrition (or) Rubbing - very fine
4. Cutting - definite shape
Characteristics of Ideal size reduction equipment

1. Have large capacity

2. Require small power input/unit product
3. Yield a product of single size (or) desired size.

Energy and power requirement:

Energy fed to machine - to create new surface
- friction in bearing, moving part
- heat
Crushing Efficiency (ηc):
𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐴𝑤𝑏 −𝐴𝑤𝑎
𝜂𝑐 = = 𝑒𝑠
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑊𝑛

• Where, es is the surface energy per unit area and W n is the energy absorbed.

Mechanical Efficiency (ηm):

It is the ratio of surface energy absorbed to energy input (W).
𝑊𝑛
𝜂𝑚 =
𝑊
𝐴𝑤𝑏 − 𝐴𝑤𝑎
𝑊 = 𝑒𝑠
𝜂𝑐 𝜂𝑚
• Grinding energy used per unit mass

𝑷 𝑾 𝟔𝒆𝒔 𝟏 𝟏
= = −
𝒎 𝒎 𝜼𝒄 𝜼𝒎 𝝆𝒑 𝝓𝒃 𝑫𝒔𝒃 𝝓𝒂 𝑫𝒔𝒂

• Where, m is the mass of material being ground

𝑫𝒔𝒂 , 𝑫𝒔𝒃 = Volume-surface mean diameter of the feed and
product, respectively
𝝓𝒂 , 𝝓𝒃 = sphericity of feed and product, respectively
𝝆𝒑 = particle density

𝑷 𝒅𝑫𝒔
𝒅 = −𝒌 𝒏
𝒎 𝑫𝒔
Kick’s Law, n = 1
Work required for crushing a given mass of material is
constant for the same reduction ratio.
𝑷 𝑫𝒔𝒂
= 𝑲𝒌 ln
𝒎 𝑫𝒔𝒃
Rittinger’s Law, n = 2
Work required for crushing is proportional to new
surface created.
𝑷 𝟏 𝟏
= 𝑲𝒓 −
𝒎 𝑫𝒔𝒃 𝑫𝒔𝒂
Bonds law, n = 3/2
It states that power required for crushing is proportional to the
square root of the surface to volume ratio of the product.
𝑷 𝑲𝒃
=
𝒎 𝑫𝒑
𝑲𝒃 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 , 𝑾𝒊 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟏𝟔𝟐𝑾𝒊
𝑷 𝟏 𝟏
= 𝟎. 𝟑𝟏𝟔𝟐𝑾𝒊 −
𝒎 𝑫𝒑𝒃 𝑫𝒑𝒂

Work index – It is defined as gross energy requirement in kW

hr/ton of feed needed to reduce a very large size to such a size
that 80% of the product passes through 100μm screen.
What is the power required to crush 100 ton/h of limestone if
80 % of the feed passes a 2-in screen and 80 percent of the
product a 1/8-in screen?
Crushers (coarse and Grinders (intermediate
Ultrafine grinders
fine) and fine)

Hammer mills
Hammer mills;
Jaw crusher with internal
impactors
classification

Rolling-compression mills
• Bowl mills
Gyratory crusher Fluid-energy mills
• Roller mills

Crushing rolls Attrition mills Agitated mills

Tumbling mills
• Rod mills
• Ball mills; pebble mills
• Tube mills; compartment mills
1.Crushers
Primary 150-250 mm
Secondary 6mm
2.Grinders 74 µm
3.Ultra fine grinders 1-50 µm

Video 1
Product size 250-50 mm
Video
Swinging jaw 20-30o
Jaws close & open 250-400 times/min
125-425 gyrations/min
Feed rate 4500 ton/hr

Capacity depends on
impact strength of feed
and speed
Trap rock is crushed in a gyratory
crusher. The feed is nearly uniform 2-
in. spheres. The differential screen
analysis of the product is given
below. The power required to crush
this material is 400 kW/ton. Of this 10
kW is needed to operate the empty
mill. By reducing the clearance
between the crushing head and the
cone, the differential screen analysis
of the product becomes (given in
column 2). From (a) Rittinger’s law
and (b) Kick’s law, calculate the
power required for the second
operation. The feed rate is 110 ton/h
Roll dia 600 mm max size of product 2d
Product size 12-1 mm cos α = (r + d) / (r + R)
Angle of nip (α)
It is the angle formed by the tangents to the roll faces at a
point of contact with a particle to be crushed.

𝝁 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜶
𝒓+𝒅
𝑪𝒐𝒔 𝜶 =
𝒓+𝑹
What should be the diameter of a set of rolls to
take feed of size equivalent to 38 mm spheres
and crush to 12.7 mm? Coefficient of friction is
0.35.
• Answer:

• Diameter: 400 mm
Capacity 500 ton/hr
Particles are broken by impact alone.
Grind fibrous solid, steel turnings, sticky clay
Primary reduction machine for rock and ore, processing up to
600ton/hr
It gives more equidimensional particles
Reduction of lime stone
Cement clinker, coal
Feed rate 50 ton/hr
Product size
99% pass thro’200mesh
Single runner mill 350-700 rpm
Double runner mill 1200-7000 rpm
Reduction of starch, insecticide powders
Half of its volume is filled by balls
Conical grate-prevents small balls comes out the mill

Video
At critical speed
Centrifugal force = centripetal force
Feed rate 6000 kg/hr
Oval loop- 25 to 200 mm dia
Product size ½ -10 μm
6-9kg air/kg of product
1-4kg steam/kg of product

video
Grind hard materials such as silica or titanium oxide
Grinding medium is suspended in the liquid which
contains hard materials. It is taken in agitated vessel
and vibrated about 20 Hz.
product is withdrawn through a screen at the bottom. It
gives a product size of 1µm or finer
Clearance -25µm
Capacity
Small mill 3lit/min
Large mill 440lit/min
Knife Cutters
Rotor speed 200-900 rpm
Knife attached to rotor 2-12
Bed knife 1-7

Used in the manufacture of

Rubber or plastic.

Gives product of cube, squares

depending upon knife angle
Calculate the operating speed of the ball mill if
the diameter of the mill is 500 mm, diameter of
the ball is 40 mm and the operating speed is
50% of the critical speed of the mill.
• Answer 31 rpm
Equipment Operation
Requirements for good performance
1. Feed suitable size and enters at uniform size
2. Product removed as soon as possible
3. Unbreakable material kept out of the machine.
4. Heat generation in the mill should be removed

Open circuit operation - no oversize particle returned to

the mill
Closed circuit grinding

Closed circuit operation- oversize particle returned to the mill

Open circuit grinding
Disadvantage:
More power requirement because more energy is wasted in
regrinding the particles that are already fine enough
Mill Discharge:
• In continuous mill to avoid buildup of material
rate of discharge = rate of feed
• Discharge rate must be such that the working parts of the mill
can operate most effectively on particle.
• If particles are crushed more than needed, then more energy
will be wasted. This type of crushing operation is called
choke crushing.
- It requires more power - May damage the mill
• If particles are readily dropout of the machine and screened
to separate particle oversized, then this goes as recycle, this
kind of operation is called free discharge crushing or free
crushing.
• The product usually drops out the bottom of the mill. In
revolving mill it escapes through openings in the mill wall
at one end of the cylinder- peripheral discharge.

• If crushed particles are lifted by scoops and dropped

into a cone that directs it out through a hollow trunnion-
trunnion discharge.
Energy consumption
Size reduction is the most inefficient of all unit operations.
99% of the energy goes to operating the equipment,
producing undesirable heat and noise, leaving less than 1%
for creating new surface.
Removal of heat
• Cooling water is circulated through coils in the mill
• Sometimes air is blown through the mill
• Solid CO2 (dry ice) is admitted with the feed
• Liquid N2 also used to bring more drastic
temperature reduction.
 Module 4
Particulate solid flow
> Motion of a Particle through a Fluid.
> Terminal Velocity
> Free and Hindered Settling
> Classification
> Cyclone Separator

• LOs
• To understand the behavior of particle moving through a fluid and effect of various
parameters.
• To utilize the concepts for designing the classifiers and cyclone separator
 Particle Dynamics

Study of particle dynamics is important in many mechanical operations

- Sedimentation
- Classification
- Elutriation
- Filtration
 Assumptions

1. The particle is spherical

2. The particle is non porous, incompressible and chemically inert with fluid.
3. Density , viscosity of the fluid are constant
4. Particles is falling freely (under gravity)
5. There is no wall effect, particle is far away from wall
6. Particle is larger in size than the mean free path of fluid molecules, so slip
between particle and fluid molecules.
 Motion of a Particle through a Fluid
• When a particle falls in a liquid, the forces acting are:
(m/ρs) ρfg (buoyancy)
Force balance:

FR (friction)
𝒎
𝒎𝒂𝒆 = 𝒎𝒈 − 𝝆 𝒇 𝒈 − 𝑭𝑹
𝝆𝒔

mg (gravity)
 𝒎
𝒎𝒂𝒆 = 𝒎𝒈 − 𝝆 𝒇 𝒈 − 𝑭𝑹
𝝆𝒔

ae is effective acceleration
FR is frictional drag with in the velocity of particle

At a particular point, when total downward force is equal

To the upward force. Then the particle will move with a
constant velocity or zero acceleration.
This velocity is known as terminal settling velocity Vt
 𝝆𝒇
𝒎𝒈 𝟏 − = 𝑭𝑹
𝝆𝒔
Assuming particle to be spherical
𝝅𝒅𝟑𝒑 𝝆𝒇
𝝆𝒔 𝒈 𝟏 − = 𝑭𝑹
𝟔 𝝆𝒔
The kinematic force 𝑭𝑹 can be expressed in general as
𝑭𝑹 = 𝑨𝑲𝒇
where, A = characteristic area of the system
K = characteristic kinetic energy per unit volume
f = a dimensionless parameter
 24
Within stokes law, 𝑓𝐷 = , for laminar regime
𝑅𝑒𝑝

• where, Rep = (dp Vt ρf)/ μf and is called particle Reynolds number.

• Rep < 0.1 : laminar settling zone (Stokes law is applicable)
• Rep > 1000 Turbulent settling zone, fd is constant and its independent of Rep
• 0.1 > Rep < 1000 transition zone
𝑏1
𝑓𝐷 = 𝑛
𝑅𝑒𝑝
 video
Hindered settling

• Small particle tends to get dragged downwards by large ones.

• Effective density and viscosity of concentrated suspension (ρb and μb,
commonly called bulk density and bulk viscosity) are much larger than clear
liquid.
• Particles get closer and flocculation takes place. Each flocks now behaves as
a coarser particle and settles at a high velocity.
The bulk density of a suspension can be computed as
𝜌𝑏 = 𝜌𝑠 1 − 𝜀 + 𝜌𝑓 𝜀
where, 𝜀 is volume fraction of liquid in the suspension.

Bulk viscosity in suspension can be estimated as

𝜇𝑏 101.82(1−𝜀)
=
𝜇𝑓 𝜀
Substituting in Stokes law, we get
𝜌𝑠 − 𝜌𝑏 𝑔𝑑𝑝2
𝑉𝐻 =
18𝜇𝑏
𝜌𝑠 − 𝜌𝑏 𝑔𝑑𝑝2 𝜀2
=
18𝜇𝑓 101.82(1−𝜀)
= VtFs
Vt the free settling velocity.
 Problem

• A glass sphere (RD = 2.60) 2.0 mm in diameter is observed to have a fall

velocity of 1.25 cm/s in oil of density 917 kg/m3. Estimate the coefficient of
dynamics viscosity of the oil.

0.293 Pa.s
 Effect of particle shape
• The sphericity is considered.
• Empirical correlation: Pettyjohn and Christiansen; for Rep<0.05,
𝜌𝑠 −𝜌𝑓 𝑔𝑑𝑣2
• 𝑉𝑡 = 18𝜇𝑓
𝐾1 ; 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐾1 =
𝜙𝑠
0.843 log10 0.065

• For turbulent settling zone at Rep>2000,

• 𝑓𝐷 = 𝐾2 = 5.31 − 4.88𝜙𝑠
1

• 𝑉𝑡 = 4 𝜌𝑠 −𝜌𝑓
3 𝜌𝑓
𝑔𝑑𝑣 2
𝐾2
 Problem

• Compute the maximum velocity at which particles of silica 0.04 mm in

diameter (sp. Gr. 2.65) will fall through water that fills a 50 mm ID glass
cylinder, if
• The slurry is so dilute that free settling prevails
• The mass ratio of water to silica is 2.0
• 1. Assume the particles to be essentially spherical.
• 2. Assume particle to be cube of side length 2 mm.
 Classification

• The term classification is used for separation of solid particles based on

difference in their terminal settling velocities in a fluid.
• Sizing: particle of same density are separated according to their size.
• Sorting: material of same size are separated according to density.
• Particles (say, A and B) having the same terminal velocity in a fluid are called
“equally falling” particles.
• Ratio of sizes when they are equally falling is called the settling ratio.
• Derivation see book - student task.
• da/db in laminar and turbulent settling zone.
• Read about Elutriators, rake classifier and double cone classifier.
 Embedded video

Cyclone separator

• Uses centrifugal force without having any moving or rotating part.

• The dust laden gas is admitted tangentially into the cyclone separator.
• Gas-solid separation
• Particle size range > 5-10 μm
• Separation efficiency : 98%
 Hydro cyclone

• Liquid – solid particle suspension

• Liquid – liquid separation
• For effective separation
• Upward force on the particles should be as large as possible.
• The particles get along the wall, the gas comes out clean.
• Upward force on the particle (centrifugal force)
𝒎𝑽𝟐𝒈𝒕
= 𝒓
2
𝑉𝑔𝑡 is the tangential velocity of the gas.
m = mass of the particle.
r = radius of rotation of the particle.
• Inward drag on the particle (estimated by Stokes Law)
= 3𝜋𝜇𝑔 𝐷𝑝 𝑉𝑟
Where, Dp = diameter of the particle.
𝜇𝑔 = Viscosity of gas.
Vr = radial component of the velocity of gas
• At equilibrium
𝒎𝑽𝟐𝒈𝒕
𝒓
= 3𝜋𝜇𝑔 𝐷𝑝 𝑉𝑟
Assuming particle to be spherical
𝑽𝟐𝒈𝒕 𝟏𝟖𝜇𝑔
= 𝟐 𝑽𝒓
𝒓 𝑫𝒑 𝝆𝒔
Terminal velocity of particle, laminar free settling by Stokes law
𝑽𝒕 = 𝝆𝒔 − 𝝆𝒈 𝒈𝑫𝟐𝒑 /𝟏𝟖𝜇𝑔
Since, particle density is much greater than air density,
𝝆𝒔 − 𝝆𝒈 ≈ 𝝆𝒔
𝑽𝒕 = 𝝆𝒔 𝒈𝑫𝟐𝒑 /𝟏𝟖𝜇𝑔
𝟏𝟖𝜇𝑔 𝒈
𝟐
=
𝑫𝒑 𝝆𝒔 𝑽𝒕
 𝑽𝟐𝒈𝒕 𝑽𝒓
= 𝒈
𝒓 𝑽𝒕
On working further: see book
𝟎. 𝟐𝑨𝒊𝟐 𝑫𝟎 𝝆𝒈 𝒈
𝑽𝒕 𝒎𝒊𝒏 =
𝝅𝒁𝑫𝑮
D0=Diameter of top outlet
Z= depth of the separator
D = diameter of the cyclone
G = mass flow rate of gas
Ai = Area of cross section of gas inlet
Vt = minimum terminal velocity
• If gravitational free settling velocity of the particle is equal or more than
(Vt)min. Separation will take place.
• Therefore,
𝟐
𝝆𝒔 𝒈 𝑫𝒑
𝒎𝒊𝒏
𝑽𝒕 𝒎𝒊𝒏 =
𝟏𝟖𝝁𝒈
𝟏
𝟐 𝟐
𝟑. 𝟔𝑨𝒊 𝑫𝟎 𝝆𝒈 𝝁𝒈
𝑫𝒑 =
𝒎𝒊𝒏 𝝅𝒁𝑫𝝆𝒔 𝑮
 Problem 1
• A cyclone separator 1.0 m in diameter and 3.0 m in depth has been used to
handle 144,000 kg/day of dust-laden gas. The gas inlet is 0.3 m square and
gas outlet in 0.4 in diameter. If the size distribution of the particles (sp. Gr.
1.2) in the feed gas is as given below, estimate what percent of particles will
be separated from the gas stream:
Particle size (microns) Mass fraction
- 11.7 + 8.3 0.098
- 8.3 + 5.9 0.234
- 5.9 + 4.2 0.277
- 4.2 + 2.9 0.149
- 2.9 + 2.1 0.101
- 2.1 0.141

Viscosity of gas = 0.03 centipoise and its specific gravity = 0.001

• Ai = (0.3x0.3) = 0.09m2
• Do = 0.4 m
• ρg = 1.0 kg/m3
• µg = 3 x 10-5 kg/m.s
• Z = 3.0 m
• D = 1.0 m
• ρs = 1200 kg/m3
• G=144000/(24 x 3600) = 1.667 kg/s
• (Dp)min = 4.3 microns
 Module 5

HYDRO-MECHANICAL SEPARATIONS

LO’s:
• You will be able to apply the mechanism for particle separation
• Will be able to differentiate among different hydro-mechanical separation units
 Terminologies

 Dewatering- separation of a slurry into two parts, one

of which is dense and relatively liquid free and the other
being dilute and relatively solid free.
 Draining- removal of water from relatively coarse
solids, for example, sands.
 Sedimentation- when the heavier component in a
mixture settles (after leaving it undisturbed for
sometime) the process is called sedimentation.
 Drying- removal of relatively small amounts of water
from the solid particles is known as drying.
 Decantation - process of removal of water above the
sediment is called decantation
 Filtration - separation of finer impurities from the
decant using filter medium is called filtration
Sedimentation method is further divided into two
operations
(i) Thickening- increase the concentration of solids
(ii) Clarification - removal of small quantity of
suspended solids from the liquid to get a clear liquid
 Gravity Settling Processes

Particles heavier than the suspending fluid may

be removed from a gas or liquid in a large settling
tank.

A settler that removes all the particles from a

liquid – clarifier
A settler that separates the solids into two
fractions – classifier
Gravity Classifiers - Devices that separate particles of
same density
Sorting Classifiers - Devices that separate particles of
differing density.
It uses one or the other of two principal separation methods.
1. Sink and float method – It uses a liquid sorting medium,
the density of which is intermediate between that of the
light material and that of the heavy. Then the heavy particles
settle through the medium and the lighter ones float. Also
called heavy fluid separation.
2. Differential settling method – utilizes the
difference in terminal settling velocities between
different density materials.
Disadvantage: mixture of materials to be separated
covers a range of particle sizes, the larger, lighter
particles settle at the same rate as the smaller, heavy
ones and a mixed fraction is obtained.
 Sedimentation

Separation of a suspension or a slurry into a supernatant

clear liquid and a thick sludge containing a higher
concentration of solid.

It is thus a process of phase separation.

The sedimentor is called thickener if concentrated sludge is

primary desired product.
Clarifier if objective is to remove the clear liquid from the
suspension.
 Sedimentation Test:

A = Clear zone C = Transition Zone

B = Thickening zone D = Compression zone
 The Kynch theory of sedimentation

The behavior of concentrated suspensions during sedimentation has been

analyzed by KYNCH. The basic assumptions which are made are as
follows:
 Particle concentration is uniform across any horizontal layer.
 Wall effects can be ignored.
 There is no differential settling of particles as a result of differences in
shape, size, or composition.
 The velocity of fall of particles depends only on the local concentration
of particles.
 The initial concentration is either uniform or increases towards the
bottom of the suspension.
 The sedimentation velocity tends to zero as the concentration approaches
a limiting value corresponding to that of the sediment layer deposited at
the bottom of the vessel.
 Rate of settling in given condition in a sedimentation is a function of
concentration.
 Sedimentor function

It has two primary functions:

 Produce clarified liquid free from particles

 Produce a thick sludge with maximum solid

concentration
 Critical sedimentation time

 The time at which the thickening zone disappears

and the two interface (1. between thickening zone
and clear liquid zone; 2. thickening zone and
compression zone) merge with each other is known
as critical sedimentation time, tc.
• Let, F = volumetric feed rate (m3/s) of the slurry/feed
• Lu = rate of discharge of underflow sludge,
• Vo = overflow rate of clear liquid

𝐹𝐶𝐹 = 𝐿𝑢 𝐶𝑢
Where, CF and Cu = conc. of solids in feed and underflow sludge.
Overall liquid balance,
𝐶𝐹 𝐶𝑢
𝐹 1− − 𝐿𝑢 1 − = 𝑉𝑜
𝜌𝑠 𝜌𝑠
ρs = density of solids.

𝐹𝐶𝐹 𝑄 𝑣
= =
𝐴 𝐴 1 1
−
𝐶𝐹 𝐶𝑢
Where, Q = FCF = feed rate of slurry on dry basis (kg/s)
 Centrifugal sedimentors or classifiers are commonly called
centrifuges.
 Used in separating fine solid suspension from liquid, and
 Separate liquid of different densities.
 Tubular bowl centrifuge
 Disk bowl centrifuge
 Ultracentrifuges
Clarifier/thickener