2 - ENER512 - Thermal Comfort - 2017-18

Energy Efficient Buildings
Chapter 2
Thermal Comfort
BEng Energy Engineering · ENER 512 · Dr. T. Bader

1 Lecture Layout - Building Energy Efficiency - Dr. T. Bader - 10/01/2018
2 Thermal Comfort
2.1 Definition
2.2 Thermodynamic Basics
2.3 Psychometric Chart
2.4 Metabolism and Comfort
2.5 Models of Thermal Comfort

2.1 Definition (1)
Indoor Climate sound pressure level
frequency mix
sensed air-quality acoustic

CO2 content
particulate matter
microbial bacteria
indoor mites
olfactory/
fungus
chemical
endotoxins
Indoor
climate
daylight amount
air-temperature illumination
radiation luminance
thermal/
temperature light color
hygral visual
relative air-humidity
air velocity
turbulence rate

2.1 Definition (2)
Comfort (1)
 Thermal Comfort
= optimal condition of a human beeing
= heat balance with constant body temperature (ca. 37°C)
 Human being feels thermally only well under comfort conditions

→ best performance reserves combined with little fatigue
 Thermal comfort
≠ subjective measure
= objective biased basis measure for physical and mental performance ability

2.1 Definition (3)
Comfort (2)
 ASHRAE Standard 55
Thermal Comfort is that condition of mind that expresses
satisfaction with the thermal environment.
 Benzinger 1979 in Hensen 1990

The condition of thermal comfort is sometimes defined as a state in which there are no driving
impulses to correct the environment by behaviour.
 DIN 1946-2: 1994-01

Thermal condition is given, when the human being is sensing air temperature, air humidity, air
velocity and heat radiation in its environment as optimal and when neither warmer nor cold and
neither more dry nor more humid room conditions are desired.
 DIN EN ISO 7730:2003

Thermal Comfort defined as a feeling that expresses satisfaction with the environmental climate.

2.1 Definition (4)
Impact on Comfort (1)
Occupancy
Primary & dominant factors
Source: Frank 1975

Aditional factors
Secondary factors

2.1 Definition (5)
Impact on Comfort (2)
Air quality
Gender Daily and

Age annual
Clothing rythm
Noise only adjustable by

Type of Illumination ventilation system
activity Colour
Scheme
Room temperature
Surface temperature Adjustable by heating,
ventilation and air-
Air humidity conditioning systems
Air velocity

2.2 Thermodynamic Basics (1)
Air
 Pure Dry Air
 Thin layer of air surrounds our earth, layer variations cause changes in barometric (atmospheric) pressure
 Air = Life: e.g. an adult requires approximately 0.5 m3 per hour to breath
 Air absorbs vast amounts of water in form of vapor
 Air is a mixture of gases, vapors and contaminents
Source: Siemens Handbookd Psychometric Cart

Dry pure air exists
only theoretically and
would consist of:
 Humid Air
 Humid air = dry air + water vapour
 Humidity content of importance for heating, ventilation and air-conditioning as well as for
production and storage areas of materials and products

Temperature and Humidity
 Temperature 𝜗 °𝐶 Δ𝑇 𝐾
 characterizes the sensible, perceptible heat state of the air unsaturated air
 Absolute Humidity 𝑥 𝑔/𝑘𝑔

𝑚𝑤
 Amount of water in grams per kilogram of dry air 𝑥= saturated air
𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑟
 Relative Humidity 𝜑 %
 at a given 𝜗 and 𝑝 , air can only hold a certain maximum amount of water vapor
 the higher 𝜗 and 𝑝 , the higher the max. possible water content
 state with max water content = saturation
 relative humidity 𝝋 specifies how much water vapor is carried
by the air relative to the saturation point. at a specific temperature
 When warm humid air cools down, water codensates
𝑥
𝜑 = 𝑥 ∙ 100%
𝑠

Humidity (1)
 A comparison
Relative
Relative Relative
Humidity 75%
Humidity Humidity 50%
Absolute
Humidity
Temperature

Humidity (2)
 Relative humidity content of air in dependence of temperature
Relative Humidity
100%
Humidity 𝒈/𝒎𝟑
Relative Humidity
50%
Source: Prof. P. Jochum as cited by Prof. Schrag

Air Temperature 𝝑 °𝑪

Density and Specific Heat
 Density 𝜌 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
 At 0°C and sea level humid air dry air
humid dry
air air
with
air
 Specific Heat 𝑐 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔𝐾
 Amount of heat required to heat up a mass of 1kg of the material by 1K
 Specific heat increases with increasing 𝜗, and for gases also with increasing 𝑝
 for gases differentiation of
𝑐𝑃 : specific heat at a constan pressure
𝑐𝑉 : specific heat at a constant volume
 Specific heat increases with increasing 𝜗, and for gases also with increaing 𝑝
 Tables typically specify the values for 𝑐𝑃
at 𝜗 = 20°𝐶 and p = 1,013 𝑚𝑏𝑎𝑟

Wasser = water
Specific Enthalpy Dampf = vapour
Luft = air
 Specific Enthalpy ℎ 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔
 Describes heat content of 1kg air
 ℎ = 0 for absolutely dry air of 𝜗 = 0°𝐶

and a theoretical water content of 𝑥 = 0 𝑔/𝑘𝑔
Definition
1. dry air 3. saturated humid air
water in form of water vapour
2. unsaturated humid air
water in form of water vapour 4. saturated humid air + liquid water

Pressure and Material Flow
 Pressure 𝑝 𝑃𝑎
 atmospheric pressure: weight of the the air on the surface of the air
 sea level: 𝑝 = 1.013 bar
 Material Flow
𝑚=𝜌𝑉

Conversion Tables
 Energy, work and heat quantity
 Power and Heat Flow (Thermal Output)
 Pressure

2.3 Psychometric chart (1)
 Psychometric Carrier Diagram  Mollier Diagram
Using psychometric charts for humid air, you

can graphically represent and easily calculate
air states and state changes associated with
air-conditioning
Source: Siemens Handbookd Psychometric Cart

Absolute Humidity [kg]
2.3 Psychometric chart (2)
Temperature [°C]
Mollier Diagram (1)
• Temperature T [°C]
• Enthalpy h [kJ/kg]
Source: Siemens Handbookd Psychometric Cart, SRH Presentation h,x diagram

• Absolute Humidity x [kg/kg]
• Relative Humidity φ [-]

• Wet bulb temperature T [°C]
• Partial Pressure pD [mbar]

2.3 Psychometric Chart (3)
Mollier Diagram (2)
 Temperature
 Absolute Humidity
Source: Siemens Handbookd Psychometric Cart, page 8

Mollier Diagram (3)
 Partial pressure
Unsaturated Air

 Saturation pressure
Saturated Air

Mollier Diagram (4)
 Dew Point Temperature
 Relative Humidity

Mollier Diagram (5)
 Enthalpy

Mollier Diagram (6)
 Defining Variables for a given air state

2.4 Metabolism & Comfort (1)
Effective Temperature Scale
…correlated to
comfort, physical
reactions & health
Source: Bradshaw, The Building Environment, Wiley

Comfort Perception
Sense of beeing warm or cool is a result of interactions between:
• Temperature → determines convective heat dissipation
• Air movement/velocity
→ accelerates convection
→ alters skins/clothings
heat transfer coefficient
→ increases evaporation from skin
Body Temperature regulated through:
• Humidity • Skin
→ high humidities restrict evaporation
• Clothing

• Thermal radiation • Building
• Clothing
• Personal activity level
• Season
24 Lecture Layout - Building Energy Efficiency - Dr. T. Bader -

Human Temperature Control (1)
• Human beeing has a constant body temperature

→ Body(core)temperature „independent“ of ambient temperature
• The retention of the body temperature is to be regarded as control loop
→ Variance comparison with regulator control elements for harmonization
target value
prostaglandin
zytokins etc. Controller in CNS
heat development
correcting
heat absorption
variables
heat dissipation
heat resitance
disturbance heat development

performance value
variables ambient temperatur
control path
Source: EnBS Grundlagen

control measure
core body temperature
disturbance feedward

Ambient air
temperature

Temperature distribution in human body in dependance of
ambient air temperature
Impact of the ambient temperature

on the heat balance of the human body
Low ambient Increased ambient

temperature… temperature…
…leads to heat loss in body …leads to excess heat in body
Body reactions Body reactions
 increased Oxygen intake  sweat evaporation

→ increased heat production in → extraction of heat through water
the body evaporatoin
 reduction of heart frequency  increase of heart frequency

→ reduction of the blood circulation → increase of the blood circulation
velocity, and thus reduction of heat velocity, and thus increase of heat
dissipation of the body core to the dissipation via skin and respiratory
environment system

Human heat dissipation (1)
Heat dissipation of
Heat dissipation [W]
a normal clothed
non-active
human beeing
Evaporation
Convection
Radiation
Air temperature [°C]

Dissipation of sensible heat and water vapour of a human beeing in

sitting position and a relative ambient air humidity of 50%
Room air- Heat dissipation in W Water vapour

temperature dissipation in
[°C] total dry humid g/h
Source: Prof. Manfred Casties, Hochschule Coburg

HEAVY Calorie
Total heat Water vapor
WORK, consumption
SPORT
Type of activity dissipation dissipation
per day
in W in g/h
in kJ
Sleeping,
Calm laying
Sitting activity
MIDDLE z.B. reading, writing
HEAVY
WORK Sitting activity
z.B. reading, writing

LIGHT middle heavy body activity
ACTIVITY
Heavy body activity,
RESTING sporty activity
Dissipation of heat and water vapour as well as calorie consumptoin

of an adult with regard to various actions
(approximate values based on diverse sources)

Human heat balance
 Individual parameter  Room climate

→ clothing parameter
→ activity degree → air temperature
→ radiation temperature
radiation → air velocity
Source: Prof Müller, RWTH Aachen as cited by Prof. Schrag TH Ingolstadt

→ air humidity
respiration sweating
reflected
clothing radiation
convection activity
Infrared
radiation heat conduction

Clothing
Clothing according to DIN EN ISO 7730:2006
• Individua
1 clo = 1 clothing = 0.155 m2K/W

Activity Degree (1)
• Individuaaccording to DIN EN ISO 7730:2006

Metabolism 0.8
met
1 met = 1 metabolism = 100 W/person = 58 W/m2
8
met
1
met
4
met

Comfortable room temperature in dependance of activity and clothing
Temperature
tolerances in
±5K which boundaries
the condition
Specific heat dissipation
Operating
„90% of persons
Theatre
are satisfied with
room condition“ is
true (PPD <10%)

±4K
±3K
Office
±2K ±2.5K
Bathroom ±1K
Heat resistance of clothing

Other Factors
Floor Vertical air

temperature temperature
differences
Draught Radiation
asymetry

Radiant temperature asymetry
Predicted Percentage Dissatisfied PPD

cold ceiling
warm ceiling
cold wall
warm wall
 Stay between opposing room

surfaces of severly different
temperature may lead to a one-sided
cooling or warming
→ thermal discomfort, even if overall
room heat is balanced. e.g. cold
EnBS Grundlagen
window and warm opposing wall
Source:Fanger, Glpck
 Radiation asymetry is dependent on
Source:
direction Radiant temperature asymetry

Vertical Air-Temperature Differences
• Individua
EN ISO 7730
Predicted Percentage Dissatisfied PPD
Vertical air temperature difference between head

and feed in K
2.5 Models of Thermal Comfort (1)
Overview on Comfort Models

Fangers Predicted Mean Vote (1)
Main parameters of heat balance
Activity
Clothing
Air-temp.
Radiation temp.
Air movement

Air humidity
Complete comfort equation according to Fanger

Fangers Predicted Mean Vote (2)
• The PMV/PPD model was developed by P.O. Fanger using heat-balance equations and
empirical studies about skin temperature to define comfort.
• Standard thermal comfort surveys ask subjects about their thermal sensation on a seven-point
scale from cold (-3) to hot (+3).
• Fanger’s equations are used to calculate the Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) of a large group of
subjects for a particular combination of air temperature, mean radiant temperature, relative
humidity, air speed, metabolic rate, and clothing insulation
• Zero is the ideal value, representing thermal neutrality, and the comfort zone is defined by the
combinations of the six parameters for which the PMV is within the recommended limits
(-0.5<PMV<+0.5).
• Although predicting the thermal sensation of a population is an important step in determining
what conditions are comfortable, it is more useful to consider whether or not people will be
satisfied.
• Fanger developed another equation to relate the PMV to the Predicted Percentage of
Dissatisfied (PPD). This relation was based on studies that surveyed subjects in a chamber
where the indoor conditions could be precisely controlled.

Air Velocity (1)
 The air velocity in a room constantly changes its value and direction
 The degree of turbulence (𝑻𝒖) characterizes this characteristic
 If 𝑇𝑢 increases or the 𝑇𝑎𝑖𝑟 decreases, a human being reacts more sensitive
 𝑇𝑢 is a measure for the velocity fluctuations (𝒗𝒊 − 𝒗) of the streaming air
𝑛
𝜎 1 1
𝑇𝑢 = ∙ 100 = ∙ ∙ (𝑣𝑖 − 𝑣)2 ∙ 100
𝑣 𝑣 𝑛−1

𝑖=1
𝑇𝑢: degree of turbulence [%]

𝜎: standard variation of the current air velocity
𝑛: number of measurements
𝑣𝑖 : current air velocity
𝑣: average air velocity

Air Velocity (2)
 DR (Draught Risk): Percentage of Dissatisfied because of draught air

 planning criteria for air velocity according to DIN EN 13779
 limit PD to 15%

Air Velocity (3)

Comfort Zoning (1)
hot
comfort zone
humid
air temperature
Source: Dr . Bader, World Energy Council, 2014

Thermal Comfort according to DIN 1946
φ < 30%  dust formation, electrostatic charge (risk for ESD)  >30%
enthalpy
φ > 70%  moisture precipitation, combined with mould formation  <65%
Water vapor content >11.9g/kg = sticky limit: sweating  <11.5g/kg
22°C<T<26°C
absolute air humidity

Comfort Zoning (2)
Relative air humidity φ [%]

uncomfortable
Comfortable
still comfortable
Air temperature T_air [°C]

Comfort Zoning (3)
Comfort Band according to DIN 1946 (2)
Operative room temperature [°C]
temperorary allowed
recommended

allowed system
independently
Ambient air temperature [°C]

Comfort Zoning (4)
Room air temperature and temperature of room boundary areas
 Thermal comfort regarding temperature predominantly influenced by room air temperature 𝑇𝑅,𝑎𝑖𝑟 and
temperature of rooms boundary surface areas 𝑇𝑅,𝑠
 Both are summarized as operative room temperature 𝑇𝑅,𝑜 (sensed room temperature)
 Operative room temperature for only minor differences:
1 Measurement
𝑇𝑅,𝑜 = 2 (𝑇𝑅,𝑎𝑖𝑟 + 𝑇𝑅,𝑠 ) with globe Uncomfortable
thermometer warm
Room air temperature 𝑻𝑹,𝒂𝒊𝒓

Correaltion between
𝑻𝑹,𝒂𝒊𝒓 and 𝑻𝑹,𝒔

Comfortable
Still comfortable
Uncomortable
cold
Room air temperature 𝑻𝑹,𝒂𝒊𝒓

Comfort Zoning (5)
Air temperature in relation to inner Wall temperature
Inner wall temperature T_w,i [°C]
Air temperature T_air [°C]

Correlation between Temperature and Human Performance

Bioclimatic assessment (1)

Bioclimatic assessment (2)
Comfort Zone

Guidelines for Room Temperatures


2 - ENER512 - Thermal Comfort - 2017-18

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Energy Efficient Buildings

BEng Energy Engineering · ENER 512 · Dr. T. Bader

2 Lecture Layout - Building Energy Efficiency - Dr. T. Bader - 10/01/2018

sensed air-quality acoustic

3 Lecture Layout - Building Energy Efficiency - Dr. T. Bader - 10/01/2018

 Human being feels thermally only well under comfort conditions

4 Lecture Layout - Building Energy Efficiency - Dr. T. Bader - 10/01/2018

 Benzinger 1979 in Hensen 1990

 DIN 1946-2: 1994-01

 DIN EN ISO 7730:2003

5 Lecture Layout - Building Energy Efficiency - Dr. T. Bader - 10/01/2018

Primary & dominant factors

Source: Frank 1975

6 Lecture Layout - Building Energy Efficiency - Dr. T. Bader - 10/01/2018

Gender Daily and

Noise only adjustable by

7 Lecture Layout - Building Energy Efficiency - Dr. T. Bader - 10/01/2018

Source: Siemens Handbookd Psychometric Cart

8 Lecture Layout - Building Energy Efficiency - Dr. T. Bader - 10/01/2018

 Absolute Humidity 𝑥 𝑔/𝑘𝑔

9 Lecture Layout - Building Energy Efficiency - Dr. T. Bader - 10/01/2018

10 Lecture Layout - Building Energy Efficiency - Dr. T. Bader - 10/01/2018

Source: Prof. P. Jochum as cited by Prof. Schrag

11 Lecture Layout - Building Energy Efficiency - Dr. T. Bader - 10/01/2018

12 Lecture Layout - Building Energy Efficiency - Dr. T. Bader - 10/01/2018

 ℎ = 0 for absolutely dry air of 𝜗 = 0°𝐶

1. dry air 3. saturated humid air

water in form of water vapour

2. unsaturated humid air

water in form of water vapour 4. saturated humid air + liquid water

13 Lecture Layout - Building Energy Efficiency - Dr. T. Bader - 10/01/2018

14 Lecture Layout - Building Energy Efficiency - Dr. T. Bader - 10/01/2018

 Power and Heat Flow (Thermal Output)

15 Lecture Layout - Building Energy Efficiency - Dr. T. Bader - 10/01/2018

Using psychometric charts for humid air, you

Source: Siemens Handbookd Psychometric Cart

2.3 Psychometric chart (2)

Source: Siemens Handbookd Psychometric Cart, SRH Presentation h,x diagram

• Relative Humidity φ [-]

17 Lecture Layout - Building Energy Efficiency - Dr. T. Bader - 10/01/2018

Source: Siemens Handbookd Psychometric Cart, page 8

Source: Siemens Handbookd Psychometric Cart, page 9

19 Lecture Layout - Building Energy Efficiency - Dr. T. Bader - 10/01/2018

Source: Siemens Handbookd Psychometric Cart, page 9

Source: Siemens Handbookd Psychometric Cart, page 9

Source: Siemens Handbookd Psychometric Cart, page 9

Source: Bradshaw, The Building Environment, Wiley

Source: Bradshaw, The Building Environment, Wiley

24 Lecture Layout - Building Energy Efficiency - Dr. T. Bader -

• Human beeing has a constant body temperature

disturbance heat development

Source: EnBS Grundlagen

25 Lecture Layout - Building Energy Efficiency - Dr. T. Bader - 10/01/2018

Source: EnBS Grundlagen

Impact of the ambient temperature

Low ambient Increased ambient

…leads to heat loss in body …leads to excess heat in body

Body reactions Body reactions

 increased Oxygen intake  sweat evaporation

 reduction of heart frequency  increase of heart frequency

Source: EnBS Grundlagen

27 Lecture Layout - Building Energy Efficiency - Dr. T. Bader - 10/01/2018

Air temperature [°C]