Module2 PDF

Control of
Mobile Robots
Module 2
Dr. Magnus Egerstedt
Professor
School of Electrical and
Mobile Robots
Computer Engineering
How make mobile robots move in effective, safe,

predictable, and collaborative ways using modern
control theory?
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering

Lecture 2.1 – Driving Robots Around?
•  What does it take to drive a robot from point A to point B?
?
controller
robot model sensors
Magnus Egerstedt, Control of Mobile Robots, Georgia Ins<tute of Technology
2.1.1
Divide and Conquer
•  The world is dynamic and fundamentally unknown
•  The controller must be able to respond to environmental
conditions
•  Instead of building one complicated controller – divide and
conquer: Behaviors
–  Go-to-goal
–  Avoid-obstacles
–  Follow-wall
–  Track-target
…
2.1.2
Behaviors
2.1.3
Behaviors
2.1.4
Lecture 2.2 – Differential Drive Robots
•  In order to control mobile robots, we need models
•  Differential drive wheeled robots – a very common type
2.2.1
Model 1.0
v� vr
R
φ
(x, y)
L  R

 ẋ = 2 (vr + v� ) cos φ



R
ẏ = 2 (vr + v� ) sin φ




 R
φ̇ = L (vr − v� )
2.2.2
The “Unicycle” Model
•  But it is not very natural to “think” in terms of wheel velocities
•  Go directly for translational and angular velocities
•  Inputs:
v
ω
φ •  Dynamics:

 ẋ = v cos φ
(x, y) ẏ = v sin φ

φ̇ = ω
2.2.3
Model 2.0

 ẋ = v cos φ R 2v
ẏ = v sin φ v = (vr + v� ) ⇒ = vr + v�
 2 R
φ̇ = ω R ωL
Design for this model! ω = (vr − v� ) ⇒ = vr − v�
L R
 R

 ẋ = 2 (vr + v� ) cos φ 2v + ωL

 vr =
 2R
R
ẏ = 2 (vr + v� ) sin φ 2v − ωL

 v� =


 R 2R
φ̇ = L (vr − v� )
Implement this model!
2.2.4
Lecture 2.3 – Odometry
•  The state of the robot is (x, y, φ)
•  How do we obtain this state information?
•  Two possibilities:
–  External sensors
–  Internal sensors
•  Orientation: Compass, …
•  Position: Accelerometers, Gyroscopes, …
•  Wheel Encoders
2.3.1
Wheel Encoders
•  Wheel encoders give the distance moved by each wheel
•  Assume the wheels are following an arc (short time scale)
Dr D� + Dr
Dc =
Dc
2
D!
x� = x + Dc cos(φ)
y � = y + Dc sin(φ)
� Dr − D�
φ =φ+
L
2.3.2
Wheel Encoders
•  But how do we know how far each wheel has moved?
Dr •  Assume each wheel has N

Dc “ticks” per revolution
D! •  Most wheel encoders give the
total tick count since the
beginning
•  For both wheels:
∆tick = tick� − tick
∆tick
D = 2πR
N
2.3.3
A Major Disclaimer
DRIFT!!!
2.3.4
2.3.5
Lecture 2.4 – Sensors
•  Robots need to know what the world around them looks like
•  The standard sensor suite includes a “skirt” of range sensors:
–  IR, Ultra-Sound, LIDAR,…
•  Other standard external sensors include
–  Vision
–  Tactile
–  “GPS”
2.4.1
Range-Sensor Skirts
•  We will mainly deal with range-sensors
2.4.2
The Disk Abstraction
•  Instead of worrying about the resolution of the sensors, assume
we know the distance and direction to all obstacles around us
(that are close enough)
(d2 , φ2 ) Angles are relative to

the robot’s heading
(d1 , φ1 )
2.4.3
The Disk Abstraction
•  Instead of worrying about the resolution of the sensors, assume
we know the distance and direction to all obstacles around us
(that are close enough)
•  If we know our own pose

(d2 , φ2 ) (position and orientation):
x1 = x + d1 cos(φ1 + φ)
y1 = y + d1 sin(φ1 + φ)
(d1 , φ1 )
2.4.3
Example: Rendezvous
2.4.4
Example: Rendezvous
2.4.4
Lecture 2.5 – Behavior-Based Robotics
•  The world is fundamentally

unknown and changing
•  Does not make sense to over-plan
•  Key idea: Develop a library of
useful controllers (=behaviors)
•  Switch among controllers in
response to environmental
changes
2.5.1
Building a Behavior v.1
•  Assume we have a differential-drive, wheeled mobile robot
driving at a constant speed

 ẋ = v0 cos φ
ẏ = v0 sin φ

φ̇ = ω
φd •  Want to drive in a desired heading

ω =???
φ
2.5.2
Building a Behavior v.1
•  We have a reference, a model, a control input, and a tracking
error:
r = φd , e = φd − φ, φ̇ = ω
•  We not use PID?
�
ω = KP e + KI edτ + KD ė
2.5.3
Dealing with Angles
•  This typically will not work since we are dealing with angles:
φd = 0, φ = 100π ⇒ e = −100π
•  Solution: Ensure that e ∈ [−π, π]

•  Standard trick is to use atan2!
e� = atan2(sin(e), cos(e)) ∈ [−π, π]
2.5.4
Example: Navigation
•  Problem: Go to a goal location without bumping in to
obstacles:
•  At a minimum, we need two behaviors: Go-to-goal and Avoid-

obstacles!
2.5.5
Lecture 2.6 – Go-To-Goal
•  How drive a robot to a goal location?

 ẋ = v0 cos φ
ẏ = v0 sin φ e = φd − φ, ω = PID(e)

φ̇ = ω
(xg , yg )
� �
yg − y
φd = arctan
xg − x
(x, y)
2.6.1
Attempt 1
ω = K(φd − φ)
ANGLES!!!
2.6.2
Attempt 2
“ω = K(φd − φ)”
GAIN TOO LOW!!!
2.6.3
Attempt 3
“ω = Kbig (φd − φ)”
JUST RIGHT!!!
2.6.4
2.6.5
Lecture 2.7 – The GRITS Robot Simulator
•  A MATLAB-based
simulator
•  Simulates Khepera III
differential drive mobile
robot(-s) with IR range-
sensors and wheel-encoders
in cluttered environments
•  Available at
http://gritslab.gatech.edu/projects/robot-simulator/
as stand-alone executable and MATLAB package
2.7.1
Lecture 2.8 – Obstacle-Avoidance
•  How avoid driving into obstacles?
•  We can use the same idea by defining a desired heading
(xo , yo )
(x, y) There is no obvious

“correct” answer
2.8.1
Where to Go?
Choice depends on direction to goal.
Not “pure” but “blended”
π
φ2 = φobst ±
2
φ3 = φgoal
Pure go-to-goal
φ4 = F (φobst , φgoal )
Blended
φ1 = φobst + π
This is “pure” avoidance
2.8.2
Arbitration Mechanisms
•  This example illustrate two fundamentally different
“arbitration mechanisms”
–  Winner takes all = Hard switches
–  Blending = Combined behaviors
•  Both approaches have merit in different situations

–  Performance?
–  Analysis?
•  We will see how to design systematic behaviors and
arbitration mechanisms
2.8.3
Module 2: Mobile Robots
•  Module 2: Mobile robots
•  Module 3: Enough chit-chat! Let’s start over in a more

systematic and formal manner!
–  Linear Systems
2.8.4

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Control of

How make mobile robots move in effective, safe,

School of Electrical and Computer Engineering

robot model sensors

Dr •  Assume each wheel has N

(d2 , φ2 ) Angles are relative to

•  If we know our own pose

•  The world is fundamentally

φd •  Want to drive in a desired heading

•  Solution: Ensure that e ∈ [−π, π]

e� = atan2(sin(e), cos(e)) ∈ [−π, π]

•  At a minimum, we need two behaviors: Go-to-goal and Avoid-

GAIN TOO LOW!!!

(x, y) There is no obvious

•  Both approaches have merit in different situations

•  Module 2: Mobile robots

•  Module 3: Enough chit-chat! Let’s start over in a more

You might also like

Module2 PDF

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Copyright

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Module2 PDF

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Control of

How make mobile robots move in effective, safe,

School of Electrical and Computer Engineering

robot model sensors

Dr • Assume each wheel has N

(d2 , φ2 ) Angles are relative to

• If we know our own pose

• The world is fundamentally

φd • Want to drive in a desired heading

• Solution: Ensure that e ∈ [−π, π]

e� = atan2(sin(e), cos(e)) ∈ [−π, π]

• At a minimum, we need two behaviors: Go-to-goal and Avoid-

GAIN TOO LOW!!!

(x, y) There is no obvious

• Both approaches have merit in different situations

• Module 2: Mobile robots

• Module 3: Enough chit-chat! Let’s start over in a more

You might also like

Dr •  Assume each wheel has N

•  If we know our own pose

•  The world is fundamentally

φd •  Want to drive in a desired heading

•  Solution: Ensure that e ∈ [−π, π]

•  At a minimum, we need two behaviors: Go-to-goal and Avoid-

•  Both approaches have merit in different situations

•  Module 2: Mobile robots

•  Module 3: Enough chit-chat! Let’s start over in a more