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Personality Development
Major Theories of Personality Development

By Kendra Cherry
Psychology Expert
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Personality development has been a major topic of interest for some of the most prominent
thinkers in psychology. Our personalities make us unique, but how does personality develop?
How exactly do we become who we are today?

In order to answer this question, many prominent theorists developed theories to describe various
steps and stages that occur on the road of personality development. The following theories focus
on various aspects of personality development, including cognitive, social and moral
development.

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development remains one of the most frequently cited in
psychology, despite being subject to considerable criticism. While many aspects of his theory
have not stood the test of time, the central idea remains important today: children think
differently than adults. Learn more about Piaget’s groundbreaking theory and the important
contributions it made to our understanding of personality development.

Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual Development

In addition to being one of the best-known thinkers in the area of personality development,
Sigmund Freud remains one of the most controversial. In his well-known stage theory of
psychosexual development, Freud suggested that personality develops in stages that are related
to specific erogenous zones. Failure to successfully complete these stages, he suggested, would
lead to personality problems in adulthood.

Freud’s Structural Model of Personality

Freud's concept of the id, ego and superego has gained prominence in popular culture, despite a
lack of support and considerable skepticism from many researchers. According to Freud, three
elements of personality—known as the id, the ego, and the superego—work together to create
complex human behaviors.
Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development

Erik Erikson’s eight-stage theory of human development is one of the best known theories in
psychology. While the theory builds on Freud’s stages of psychosexual development, Erikson
chose to focus on how social relationships impact personality development. The theory also
extends beyond childhood to look at development across the entire lifespan.

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

Lawrence Kohlberg developed a theory of personality development that focused on the growth
of moral thought. Building on a two-stage process proposed by Piaget, Kohlberg expanded the
theory to include six different stages. While the theory has been criticized for a number of
different reasons, including the possibility that it does not accommodate different genders and
cultures equally, Kohlberg’s theory remains important in our understanding of how personality
develops.

Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development

Background and Key Concepts of Piaget's Theory

Blend Images - JGI/Jamie Grill / Getty Images

According to psychologist Jean Piaget, children progress through a series of four key stages of
cognitive development. Each stage is marked by shifts in how kids understand the world. Piaget
believed that children are like "little scientists" and that they actively try to explore and make
sense of the world around them.

Through his observations of his own children, Piaget developed a stage theory of intellectual
development that included four distinct stages: the sensorimotor stage, from birth to age 2; the
preoperational stage, from age 2 to about age 7; the concrete operational stage, from age 7 to 11;
and the formal operational stage, which begins in adolescence and spans into adulthood.

Jean Piaget's Background

Jean Piaget was born in Switzerland in 1896. He published his first scientific paper at the tender
age of 10 – a 100 word description of an albino sparrow in a naturalist magazine. Between the
ages of 15 and 19 he published numerous papers on mollusks and was even offered a job as a
curator at a museum, although he had to decline the offer since he still had two years of high
school to complete.

While he developed an interest early on in how people come to know the world around them, he
didn't receive any formal training in psychology until after he had completed his doctoral degree
at the University of Neuchatel. After receiving his Ph.D. degree at age 22 in natural history,
Piaget formally began a career that would have a profound impact on both psychology and
education. After studying briefly with Carl Jung, he happened to meet Theodore Simon, one of
Alfred Binet's colleagues and collaborators. Simon offered Piaget a position supervising the
standardization of the intelligence tests developed by Binet and Simon.
Piaget developed an interest in the intellectual development of children. Based upon his
observations, he concluded that children were not less intelligent than adults, they simply think
differently. Albert Einstein called Piaget's discovery "so simple only a genius could have thought
of it."

Piaget's stage theory describes the cognitive development of children. Cognitive development
involves changes in cognitive process and abilities. In Piaget's view, early cognitive development
involves processes based upon actions and later progresses into changes in mental operations.

Piaget's interest in child cognitive development was influenced by watching his 13-month-old
nephew Gerard at play. By chance, Piaget observed the toddler playing with a ball. When the
ball rolled under a table where the boy could still see it, Gerard simply retrieved the ball and
continued playing. But when it rolled under a sofa out of his sight, the child began looking for
the ball where he had last seen it, a reaction that struck Piaget as irrational. Based on this
observation, Piaget came to believe that children lack what he referred to as the object concept -
the knowledge that objects are separate and distinct from both the individual and the individual's
perception of that object.

His interest piqued, Piaget set out to study his own daughter Jacqueline as she developed through
infancy, toddlerhood, and childhood. He quickly noted that during the early months of his
daughter's life, she seemed to believe that objects ceased to exist once they were out of her sight.
At nearly a year, she started to actively search for objects that were hidden from her view
although she made mistakes similar to the one Piaget had watched Gerard make. By 21 months,
Jacqueline had become skilled at finding hidden objects and understood that objects had an
existence separate from her perception of them.

Piaget's observations of his nephew and daughter reinforced his budding hypothesis that
children's minds were not simply smaller versions of adult minds. Instead, he proposed,
intelligence is something that grows and develops through a series of stages. Older children don't
just think faster than younger children, he suggested. Instead there are both qualitative and
quantitative differences between the thinking of young children versus older children.

A Look at Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development

 The Sensorimotor Stage: During this stage, infants and toddlers acquire knowledge through
sensory experiences and manipulating objects. It was his observations of his daughter and
nephew that heavily influenced his conception of this stage. At this point in development, a
child's intelligence consists of their basic motor and sensory explorations of the world. Piaget
believed that developing is known as object permanence or object constancy, the understanding
that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, was an important element at this
point of development. By learning that objects are separate and distinct entities and that they
have an existence of their own outside of individual perception, children are then able to begin
to attach names and words to objects.

 The Preoperational Stage: At this stage, kids learn through pretend play but still struggle with
logic and taking the point of view of other people. They also often struggle with understanding
the ideal of constancy. For example, a researcher might take a lump of clay, divide it into two
equal pieces, and then give a child the option of choosing two pieces of clay to play with. One
piece of clay is rolled into a compact ball while the other is smashed into a flat pancake-shape.
Since the flat shape looks larger, the preoperational child will likely choose that piece even
though the two pieces are exactly the same size.

 The Concrete Operational Stage: Kids at this point of development begin to think more logically,
but their thinking can also be very rigid. They tend to struggle with abstract and hypothetical
concepts. At this point, children also become less egocentric and begin to think about how other
people might think and feel. Kids in the concrete operational stage also begin to understand that
 their thoughts are unique to them and that not everyone else necessarily shares their thoughts,
feelings, and opinions.

 The Formal Operational Stage: The final stage of Piaget's theory involves an increase in logic, the
ability to use deductive reasoning, and an understanding of abstract ideas. At this point, people
become capable of seeing multiple potential solutions to problems and think more scientifically
about the world around them.

It is important to note that Piaget did not view children's intellectual development at a
quantitative process; that is, kids do not just add more information and knowledge to their
existing knowledge as they get older. Instead, Piaget suggested that there is a qualitative change
in how children think as they gradually process through these four stages. A child at age 7
doesn't just have more information about the world than he did at age 2; there is a fundamental
change in how he thinks about the world.

In order to better understand some of the things that happen during cognitive development, it is
important to first examine a few of the important ideas and concepts introduced by Piaget. The
following are some of the factors that influence how children learn and grow:

Key Concepts

Schemas - A schema describes both the mental and physical actions involved in understanding
and knowing. Schemas are categories of knowledge that help us to interpret and understand the
world.

In Piaget's view, a schema includes both a category of knowledge and the process of obtaining
that knowledge. As experiences happen, this new information is used to modify, add to, or
change previously existing schemas.

For example, a child may have a schema about a type of animal, such as a dog. If the child's sole
experience has been with small dogs, a child might believe that all dogs are small, furry, and
have four legs. Suppose then that the child encounters a very large dog. The child will take in
this new information, modifying the previously existing schema to include these new
observations.

Assimilation - The process of taking in new information into our previously existing schemas is
known as assimilation. The process is somewhat subjective, because we tend to modify
experiences and information somewhat to fit in with our preexisting beliefs. In the example
above, seeing a dog and labeling it "dog" is an example of assimilating the animal into the child's
dog schema.

Accommodation - Another part of adaptation involves changing or altering our existing schemas
in light of new information, a process known as accommodation. Accommodation involves
altering existing schemas, or ideas, as a result of new information or new experiences. New
schemas may also be developed during this process.

Equilibration - Piaget believed that all children try to strike a balance between assimilation and
accommodation, which is achieved through a mechanism Piaget called equilibration. As children
progress through the stages of cognitive development, it is important to maintain a balance
between applying previous knowledge (assimilation) and changing behavior to account for new
knowledge (accommodation). Equilibration helps explain how children are able to move from
one stage of thought into the next.

Final Thoughts

One of the most important elements to remember of Piaget's theory is that it takes the view that
the creation of knowledge and intelligence is an inherently active process. "I find myself opposed
to the view of knowledge as a passive copy of reality," Piaget explained. "I believe that knowing
an object means acting upon it, constructing the systems of transformations that can on or with
this object. Knowing reality means constructing systems of transformations that correspond,
more or less adequately, to reality."

More About Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development

 The Sensorimotor Stage

 The Preoperational Stage

 The Concrete Operational Stage

 The Formal Operational Stage

 Support and Criticism of Piaget

References
Fancher, R. E. (1996). Pioneers of Psychology, 3rd edition. New York: Norton.
Santrock, John W. (2008). A topical approach to life-span development (4 ed.). New York City: McGraw-Hill.
Piaget, J. (1970). Genetic Epistemology. New York: Norton.
Piaget, J. (1977). Gruber, H.E.; Voneche, J.J. eds. The essential Piaget. New York: Basic Books.
Piaget, J. (1983). Piaget's theory. In P. Mussen (ed). Handbook of Child Psychology. 4th edition. Vol. 1. New York: Wiley.

Sensorimotor Stage of Cognitive Development

The sensorimotor stage occurs during early childhood between birth and approximately age two. 
Image by Justyna Furmanczyk

Characteristics of the Sensorimotor Stage:

The first stage of Piaget's theory lasts from birth to approximately age two and is centered on the
infant trying to make sense of the world. During the sensorimotor stage, an infant's knowledge of
the world is limited to his or her sensory perceptions and motor activities. Behaviors are limited
to simple motor responses caused by sensory stimuli. Children utilize skills and abilities they
were born with (such as looking, sucking, grasping, and listening) to learn more about the
environment.

Object Permanence:

According to Piaget, the development of object permanence is one of the most important
accomplishments at the sensorimotor stage of development. Object permanence is a child's
understanding that objects continue to exist even though they cannot be seen or heard.

Imagine a game of peek-a-boo, for example. A very young infant will believe that the other
person or object has actually vanished and will act shocked or startled when the object reappears.
Older infants who understand object permanence will realize that the person or object continues
to exist even when unseen.

Substages of the Sensorimotor Stage:

The sensorimotor stage can be divided into six separate substages that are characterized by the
development of a new skill.

Reflexes (0-1 month):

During this substage, the child understands the environment purely through inborn reflexes such
as sucking and looking.

Primary Circular Reactions (1-4 months):

This substage involves coordinating sensation and new schemas. For example, a child may such
his or her thumb by accident and then later intentionally repeat the action. These actions are
repeated because the infant finds them pleasurable.

Secondary Circular Reactions (4-8 months):

During this substage, the child becomes more focused on the world and begins to intentionally
repeat an action in order to trigger a response in the environment. For example, a child will
purposefully pick up a toy in order to put it in his or her mouth.

Coordination of Reactions (8-12 months):

During this substage, the child starts to show clearly intentional actions. The child may also
combine schemas in order to achieve a desired effect. Children begin exploring the environment
around them and will often imitate the observed behavior of others. The understanding of objects
also begins during this time and children begin to recognize certain objects as having specific
qualities. For example, a child might realize that a rattle will make a sound when shaken.

Tertiary Circular Reactions (12-18 months):

Children begin a period of trial-and-error experimentation during the fifth substage. For example,
a child may try out different sounds or actions as a way of getting attention from a caregiver.

Early Representational Thought (18-24 months):

Children begin to develop symbols to represent events or objects in the world in the final
sensorimotor substage. During this time, children begin to move towards understanding the
world through mental operations rather than purely through actions.

References
Santrock, John W. (2008). A topical approach to life-span development (4 ed.). New York City: McGraw-Hill.
Piaget, J. (1977). Gruber, H.E.; Voneche, J.J. eds. The essential Piaget. New York: Basic Books.
Piaget, J. (1983). Piaget's theory. In P. Mussen (ed). Handbook of Child Psychology. 4th edition. Vol. 1. New York: Wiley.

Preoperational Stage of Cognitive Development

The preoperational stage lasts from approximately the ages of 2 to 7.  Image: Jeremy Doorten

The preoperational stage is the second stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development.

Characteristics of the Preoperational Stage:

The preoperational stage occurs roughly between the ages two and seven. Language
development is one of the hallmarks of this period. Piaget noted that children in this stage do not
yet understand concrete logic, cannot mentally manipulate information, and are unable to take
the point of view of other people, which he termed egocentrism.

During the preoperational stage, children also become increasingly adept at using symbols, as
evidenced by the increase in playing and pretending. For example, a child is able to use an object
to represent something else, such as pretending a broom is a horse. Role playing also becomes
important during the preoperational stage. Children often play the roles of "mommy," "daddy,"
"doctor" and many other characters.

Egocentrism:

Piaget used a number of creative and clever techniques to study the mental abilities of children.
One of the famous techniques to demonstrate egocentrism involved using a three-dimensional
display of a mountain scene. Often referred to as the "Three Mountain Task," children are asked
to choose a picture that showed the scene they had observed. Most children are able to do this
with little difficulty. Next, children are asked to select a picture showing what someone else
would have observed when looking at the mountain from a different viewpoint.

Invariably, children almost always choose the scene showing their own view of the mountain
scene. According to Piaget, children experience this difficulty because they are unable to take on
another person's perspective.

Conservation:

Another well-known experiment involves demonstrating a child's understanding of

conservation. In one conservation experiment, equal amounts of liquid are poured into two
identical containers. The liquid in one container is then poured into a different shaped cup, such
as a tall and thin cup or a short and wide cup. Children are then asked which cup holds the most
liquid. Despite seeing that the liquid amounts were equal, children almost always choose the cup
that appears fuller.

Piaget conducted a number of similar experiments on conservation of number, length, mass,

weight, volume, and quantity. He found that few children showed any understanding of
conservation prior to the age of five.

Piaget's Thoughts on the Preoperational Stage:

As you might have noticed, much of Piaget's focus at this stage of development focused on what
children could not yet do. The concepts of egocentrism and conservation are both centered on
abilities that children have not yet developed; they lack the understanding that things look
different to other people and that objects can change in appearance while still maintaining the
same properties.

However, not everyone agrees with Piaget's assessment of children's abilities. Researcher Martin
Hughes, for example, argued that the reason that children failed at the three mountains task was
simply because they did not understand it. In an experiment that involved utilizing dolls, Hughes
demonstrated that children as young as age four were able to understand situations from multiple
points of view, suggesting that children become less egocentric at and earlier age than Piaget
believed.

References

Hughes , M. (1975). Egocentrism in preschool children. Unpublished doctoral dissertation.

Edinburgh University.

Rathus, S. A. (2011). Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development. Belmont, CA:

Wadsworth, Cengage Learning.

Santrock, J. W. (2004). Life-Span Development (9th Ed.). Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill College.
Sigelman, C. K., & Rider, E. A. (2012). Life-Span Human Development. Belmont, CA:
Wadsworth, Cengage Learning.

Concrete Operational Stage of Cognitive Development

Nick David/Taxi/Getty Images

Characteristics of Concrete Operations:

 The concrete operational stage begins around age seven and continues until approximately age
eleven. During this time, children gain a better understanding of mental operations. Children
begin thinking logically about concrete events, but have difficulty understanding abstract or
hypothetical concepts.

 Logic:

Piaget determined that children in the concrete operational stage were fairly good at the use of
inductive logic. Inductive logic involves going from a specific experience to a general principle.
On the other hand, children at this age have difficulty using deductive logic, which involves
using a general principle to determine the outcome of a specific event.

Reversibility:

One of the most important developments in this stage is an understanding of reversibility, or

awareness that actions can be reversed. An example of this is being able to reverse the order of
relationships between mental categories. For example, a child might be able to recognize that his
or her dog is a Labrador, that a Labrador is a dog, and that a dog is an animal.

Observations About the Concrete Operational Stage:

 "Compared with preoperational children, who can focus on only one dimension of a
problem at a time, concrete-operational children can engage in decentration. That is, they
can focus on multiple parts of a problem at once. Decentration has implications for
conservation and other intellectual undertakings."
(Rathus, 2008)

 "The concrete operational period in Piaget's theory represents a transition between the
preoperational and formal operational stages. Whereas the preoperational child does not
yet possess the structures necessary to reverse operations, the concrete operational child's
logic allows him or her to do such operations, but only on a concrete level. The child is
now a sociocentric (as opposed to egocentric) being who is aware that others have their
own perspectives on the world and that those perspectives are different from the child's
own. The concrete operational child may not be aware, however, of the content of others'
perspectives (this awareness comes during the next stage of cognitive development)."
(Salkind, 2004)
References
Piaget, J. (1977). Gruber, H.E.; Voneche, J.J. eds. The essential Piaget. New York: Basic Books.
Piaget, J. (1983). Piaget's theory. In P. Mussen (ed). Handbook of Child Psychology. 4th edition. Vol. 1. New York: Wiley.
Rathus, S. A. (2008). Children and adolescense: Voyages in Development Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth.
Salkind, N. J. (2004). An introduction to theories of human development. Thousand oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.
Santrock, John W. (2008). A topical approach to life-span development (4 ed.). New York City: McGraw-Hill.

Formal Operational Stage of Cognitive Development

The formal operational stage begins at the onset of adolescence and lasts through adulthood. 
Image: Sanja Gjenero

The formal operational stage is the fourth and final stage of Piaget's theory of cognitive
development.

Characteristics of the Formal Operational Stage:

The formal operational stage begins at approximately age twelve to and lasts into adulthood.
During this time, people develop the ability to think about abstract concepts. Skills such as
logical thought, deductive reasoning, and systematic planning also emerge during this stage.

Logic:

Piaget believed that deductive logic becomes important during the formal operational stage.
Deductive logic requires the ability to use a general principle to determine a specific outcome.
This type of thinking involves hypothetical situations and is often required in science and
mathematics.

Abstract Thought:

While children tend to think very concretely and specifically in earlier stages, the ability to think
about abstract concepts emerges during the formal operational stage. Instead of relying solely on
previous experiences, children begin to consider possible outcomes and consequences of actions.
This type of thinking is important in long-term planning.

Problem-Solving:

In earlier stages, children used trial-and-error to solve problems. During the formal operational
stage, the ability to systematically solve a problem in a logical and methodical way emerges.
Children at the formal operational stage of cognitive development are often able to quickly plan
an organized approach to solving a problem.

Observations About the Formal Operational Stage:

 "The formal operational thinker has the ability to consider many different solutions to a
problem before acting. This greatly increases efficiency, because the individual can avoid
potentially unsuccessful attempts at solving a problem. The formal operational person
considers past experiences, present demands, and future consequences in attempting to
maximize the success of his or her adaptation to the world."
(Salkind, 2004)
  "In the formal operational stage, actual (concrete) objects are no longer required and
mental operations can be undertaken 'in the head' using abstract terms. For example,
children at this stage can answer questions such as: 'if you can imagine something made
up of two quantities, and the whole thing remains the same when one quantity is
increased, what happens to the second quantity?' This type of reasoning can be done
without thinking about actual objects."
(Brain & Mukherji, 2005)

References
Brain, C., & Mukherji, P. (2005). Understanding child psychology. United Kingdom: Nelson Thornes.
Piaget, J. (1977). Gruber, H.E.; Voneche, J.J. eds. The essential Piaget. New York: Basic Books.
Piaget, J. (1983). Piaget's theory. In P. Mussen (ed). Handbook of Child Psychology. 4th edition. Vol. 1. New York: Wiley.
Salkind, N. J. (2004). An introduction to theories of human development. Thousand oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.
Santrock, John W. (2008). A topical approach to life-span development (4 ed.). New York City: McGraw-Hill.

Support and Criticism of Piaget's Stage Theory

Piaget's theory of cognitive develop is well-known within the fields of psychology and
education, but it has also been the subject of considerable criticism. While presented in a series
of progressive stages, even Piaget believed that development does not always follow such a
smooth and predictable path. In spite of the criticism, the theory has had a considerable impact
on our understanding of child development. Piaget's observation that kids actually think
differently than adults helped usher in a new era of research on the mental development of
children.

Support for Piaget's Theory:

The Theory's Impact on Education

Piaget's focus on qualitative development had an important impact on education. While Piaget
did not specifically apply his theory in this way, many educational programs are now built upon
the belief that children should be taught at the level for which they are developmentally prepared.

In addition to this, a number of instructional strategies have been derived from Piaget's work.
These strategies include providing a supportive environment, utilizing social interactions and
peer teaching, and helping children see fallacies and inconsistencies in their thinking (Driscoll,
1994).

Criticisms of Piaget:

Problems With Research Methods

Much of the criticism of Piaget's work is in regards to his research methods. A major source of
inspiration for the theory was Piaget's observations of his own three children. In addition to this,
the other children in Piaget's small research sample were all from well-educated professionals of
high socioeconomic status. Because of this unrepresentative sample, it is difficult to generalize
his findings to a larger population.

Problems With Formal Operations

Research has disputed Piaget's argument that all children will automatically move to the next
stage of development as they mature. Some data suggests that environmental factors may play a
role in the development of formal operations.
Underestimates Children's Abilities

Most researchers agree that children possess many of the abilities at an earlier age than Piaget
suspected. Recent theory of mind research has found that 4- and 5-year-old children have a rather
sophisticated understanding of their own mental processes as well as those of other people. For
example, children of this age have some ability to take the perspective of another person,
meaning they are far less egocentric than Piaget believed.

Piaget’s Legacy:

While there are few strict Piagetians around today, most people can appreciate Piaget's influence
and legacy. His work generated interest in child development and had an enormous impact on the
future of education and developmental psychology.

References

Santrock, John W. (2008). A topical approach to life-span development (4 ed.). New York City:
McGraw-Hill.

Piaget, J. (1977). Gruber, H.E.; Voneche, J.J. eds. The essential Piaget. New York: Basic Books.

Piaget, J. (1983). Piaget's theory. In P. Mussen (ed). Handbook of Child Psychology. 4th edition.
Vol. 1. New York: Wiley.

Freud's Stages of Psychosexual Development

By Kendra Cherry
Psychology Expert
Share this
What is Psychosexual Development?

Psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud in his office in Vienna, Austria circa 1937.

The theory of psychosexual development was proposed by the famous psychoanalyst Sigmund
Freud and described how personality developed over the course of childhood. While the theory is
well-known in psychology, it is also one of the most controversial. 

So how exactly does this psychosexual theory work? Freud believed that personality developed
through a series of childhood stages in which the pleasure-seeking energies of the id become
focused on certain erogenous areas. This psychosexual energy, or libido, was described as the
driving force behind behavior.

Psychoanalytic theory suggested that personality is mostly established by the age of five. Early
experiences play a large role in personality development and continue to influence behavior later
in life.

So what happens during each stage? What if a person fails to progress through a stage
completely or favorably? If these psychosexual stages are completed successfully, a healthy
personality is the result. If certain issues are not resolved at the appropriate stage, fixations can
occur. A fixation is a persistent focus on an earlier psychosexual stage. Until this conflict is
resolved, the individual will remain "stuck" in this stage. For example, a person who is fixated at
the oral stage may be over-dependent on others and may seek oral stimulation through smoking,
drinking, or eating.

The Oral Stage

During the oral stage, activities such as chewing and eating are important.

Age Range: Birth to 1 Year

Erogenous Zone: Mouth

During the oral stage, the infant's primary source of interaction occurs through the mouth, so the
rooting and sucking reflex is especially important. The mouth is vital for eating and the infant
derives pleasure from oral stimulation through gratifying activities such as tasting and sucking.
Because the infant is entirely dependent upon caretakers (who are responsible for feeding the
child), the infant also develops a sense of trust and comfort through this oral stimulation.
The primary conflict at this stage is the weaning process--the child must become less dependent
upon caretakers. If fixation occurs at this stage, Freud believed the individual would have issues
with dependency or aggression. Oral fixation can result in problems with drinking, eating,
smoking, or nail biting.

The Anal Stage

Freud believed that potty training played an important role during the anal stage of development.

Age Range: 1 to 3 years

Erogenous Zone: Bowel and Bladder Control

During the anal stage, Freud believed that the primary focus of the libido was on controlling
bladder and bowel movements. The major conflict at this stage is toilet training--the child has to
learn to control his or her bodily needs. Developing this control leads to a sense of
accomplishment and independence.

According to Freud, success at this stage is dependent upon the way in which parents approach
toilet training. Parents who utilize praise and rewards for using the toilet at the appropriate time
encourage positive outcomes and help children feel capable and productive. Freud believed that
positive experiences during this stage served as the basis for people to become competent,
productive, and creative adults.

However, not all parents provide the support and encouragement that children need during this
stage. Some parents instead punish, ridicule or shame a child for accidents.

According to Freud, inappropriate parental responses can result in negative outcomes. If parents
take an approach that is too lenient, Freud suggested that an anal-expulsive personality could
develop in which the individual has a messy, wasteful, or destructive personality. If parents are
too strict or begin toilet training too early, Freud believed that an anal-retentive personality
develops in which the individual is stringent, orderly, rigid, and obsessive.

The Phallic Stage

Age Range: 3 to 6 Years

Erogenous Zone: Genitals

During the phallic stage, the primary focus of the libido is on the genitals. At this age, children
also begin to discover the differences between males and females.

Freud also believed that boys begin to view their fathers as a rival for the mother’s affections.
The Oedipus complex describes these feelings of wanting to possess the mother and the desire to
replace the father. However, the child also fears that he will be punished by the father for these
feelings, a fear Freud termed castration anxiety.

The term Electra complex has been used to described a similar set of feelings experienced by
young girls. Freud, however, believed that girls instead experience penis envy.

Eventually, the child begins to identify with the same-sex parent as a means of vicariously
possessing the other parent. For girls, however, Freud believed that penis envy was never fully
resolved and that all women remain somewhat fixated on this stage. Psychologists such as Karen
Horney disputed this theory, calling it both inaccurate and demeaning to women. Instead, Horney
proposed that men experience feelings of inferiority because they cannot give birth to children, a
concept she referred to as womb envy.

The Latent Period

Age Range: 6 to Puberty

Erogenous Zone: Sexual Feelings Are Inactive

During the latent period, the libido interests are suppressed. The development of the ego and
superego contribute to this period of calm. The stage begins around the time that children enter
into school and become more concerned with peer relationships, hobbies, and other interests.

The latent period is a time of exploration in which the sexual energy is still present, but it is
directed into other areas such as intellectual pursuits and social interactions. This stage is
important in the development of social and communication skills and self-confidence.

The Genital Stage

Age Range: Puberty to Death

Erogenous Zone: Maturing Sexual Interests

During the final stage of psychosexual development, the individual develops a strong sexual
interest in the opposite sex. This stage begins during puberty but last throughout the rest of a
person's life.

Where in earlier stages the focus was solely on individual needs, interest in the welfare of others
grows during this stage. If the other stages have been completed successfully, the individual
should now be well-balanced, warm, and caring. The goal of this stage is to establish a balance
between the various life areas.

Evaluating Freud's Psychosexual Stage Theory

Freud's theory is still considered controversial today, but imagine how audacious it seemed
during the late 1800s and early 1900s. There have been a number of observations and criticisms
of Freud's psychosexual theory on a number of grounds, including scientific and feminist
critiques:

 The theory is focused almost entirely on male development with little mention of female
psychosexual development.
 His theories are difficult to test scientifically. Concepts such as the libido are impossible
to measure, and therefore cannot be tested. The research that has been conducted tends to
discredit Freud's theory.

 Future predictions are too vague. How can we know that a current behavior was caused
specifically by a childhood experience? The length of time between the cause and the
effect is too long to assume that there is a relationship between the two variables.

 Freud's theory is based upon case studies and not empirical research. Also, Freud based
his theory on the recollections of his adult patients, not on actual observation and study of
children.

The Id, Ego and Superego

The Structural Model of Personality

By Kendra Cherry

Psychology Expert

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According to Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory of personality, personality is composed of

three elements. These three elements of personality - known as the id, the ego and the superego -
work together to create complex human behaviors.

The Id

 The id is the only component of personality that is present from birth.

 This aspect of personality is entirely unconscious and includes of the instinctive and primitive
behaviors.

 According to Freud, the id is the source of all psychic energy, making it the primary component
of personality.

The id is driven by the pleasure principle, which strives for immediate gratification of all desires,
wants, and needs. If these needs are not satisfied immediately, the result is a state anxiety or
tension. For example, an increase in hunger or thirst should produce an immediate attempt to eat
or drink. The id is very important early in life, because it ensures that an infant's needs are met. If
the infant is hungry or uncomfortable, he or she will cry until the demands of the id are met.

However, immediately satisfying these needs is not always realistic or even possible. If we were
ruled entirely by the pleasure principle, we might find ourselves grabbing things we want out of
other people's hands to satisfy our own cravings. This sort of behavior would be both disruptive
and socially unacceptable. According to Freud, the id tries to resolve the tension created by the
pleasure principle through the primary process, which involves forming a mental image of the
desired object as a way of satisfying the need.

The Ego

 The ego is the component of personality that is responsible for dealing with reality.
 According to Freud, the ego develops from the id and ensures that the impulses of the id can be
expressed in a manner acceptable in the real world.

 The ego functions in both the conscious, preconscious, and unconscious mind.
The ego operates based on the reality principle, which strives to satisfy the id's desires in realistic
and socially appropriate ways. The reality principle weighs the costs and benefits of an action
before deciding to act upon or abandon impulses. In many cases, the id's impulses can be
satisfied through a process of delayed gratification--the ego will eventually allow the behavior,
but only in the appropriate time and place.

The ego also discharges tension created by unmet impulses through the secondary process, in
which the ego tries to find an object in the real world that matches the mental image created by
the id's primary process.

The Superego

The last component of personality to develop is the superego.

 The superego is the aspect of personality that holds all of our internalized moral standards and
ideals that we acquire from both parents and society - our sense of right and wrong.
 The superego provides guidelines for making judgments.

 According to Freud, the superego begins to emerge at around age five.

There are two parts of the superego:

1. The ego ideal includes the rules and standards for good behaviors. These behaviors include
those which are approved of by parental and other authority figures. Obeying these rules leads
to feelings of pride, value and accomplishment.

2. The conscience includes information about things that are viewed as bad by parents and society.
These behaviors are often forbidden and lead to bad consequences, punishments or feelings of
guilt and remorse.

The superego acts to perfect and civilize our behavior. It works to suppress all unacceptable
urges of the id and struggles to make the ego act upon idealistic standards rather that upon
realistic principles. The superego is present in the conscious, preconscious and unconscious.

The Interaction of the Id, Ego and Superego

With so many competing forces, it is easy to see how conflict might arise between the id, ego
and superego. Freud used the term ego strength to refer to the ego's ability to function despite
these dueling forces. A person with good ego strength is able to effectively manage these
pressures, while those with too much or too little ego strength can become too unyielding or too
disrupting.

According to Freud, the key to a healthy personality is a balance between the id, the ego, and the
superego.

Observations

 "In discussing the id, ego, and superego, we must keep in mind that these are not three separate
entities with sharply defined boundaries, but rather that they represent a variety of different
processes, functions, and dynamics within the person... Moreover, in his writings Freud uses the
German personal pronouns, das Es, Das Ich, and das uber-Ich. Literally translated they mean
"the it," "the I," and "the above-I." The Strachey translation into Latin pronouns has made them
less personal, raising the issue of the desirability of attempting a new translation."
(Engler, 2009)

 "With the ego placed in the middle, and if all demands are met, the system maintains its balance
of psychic power and the outcome is an adjusted personality. If there is imbalance, the outcome
is a maladaptive personality. For example, with a dominant id, the outcome could be an
impulsive and uncontrollable individual (e.g., a criminal). With an overactive superego, the
outcome might be an extremely moralistic individual (e.g., a television evangelist). An
overpowering ego could create an individual who is caught up in reality (e.g., extremely rigid
 and unable to stray from rules or structure), is unable to be spontaneous (e.g., express id
impulses), or lacks a personal sense of what is right and wrong (e.g., somebody who goes by the
book)."
(Carducci, 2009)

References
Carducci, B. (2009). The psychology of personality: Viewpoints, research, and applications. John Wiley & Sons.
Engler, B. (2009). Personality theories. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing.

Erik Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development

The Eight Stages of Psychosocial Development
 By Kendra Cherry

Psychology Expert

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Erik Erikson proposed a theory of psychosocial development that looked at development through
the whole lifespan.  Blend Images / Getty Images

Erik Erikson was an ego psychologists who developed one of the most popular and influential
theories of development. While his theory was influenced by psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud's
work, Erikson's theory centered on psychosocial development rather than psychosexual
development.

What is Psychosocial Development?

Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development is one of the best-known theories of

personality in psychology. Much like Sigmund Freud, Erikson believed that personality develops
in a series of stages. Unlike Freud's theory of psychosexual stages, Erikson's theory describes the
impact of social experience across the whole lifespan.

One of the main elements of Erikson's psychosocial stage theory is the development of ego
identity. Ego identity is the conscious sense of self that we develop through social interaction.
According to Erikson, our ego identity is constantly changing due to new experiences and
information we acquire in our daily interactions with others. As we face each new stage of
development, we face a new challenge that can help further develop or hinder the development
of identity.

When psychologists talk about identity, they are referring to all of the beliefs, ideals, and values
that help shape and guide a person's behavior. The formation of identity is something that begins
in childhood and becomes particularly important during adolescence, but Erikson believed that it
is a process that continues throughout life. Our personal identity gives each of us an integrated
and cohesive sense of self that endures and continues to grow as we age.

In addition to ego identity, Erikson also believed that a sense of competence motivates behaviors
and actions. Each stage in Erikson's theory is concerned with becoming competent in an area of
life. If the stage is handled well, the person will feel a sense of mastery, which is sometimes
referred to as ego strength or ego quality. If the stage is managed poorly, the person will
emerge with a sense of inadequacy.

In each stage, Erikson believed people experience a conflict that serves as a turning point in
development. In Erikson's view, these conflicts are centered on either developing a psychological
quality or failing to develop that quality. During these times, the potential for personal growth is
high, but so is the potential for failure. If people successfully deal with the conflict, they emerge
from the stage with psychological strengths that will serve them well for the rest of their life. If
they fail to deal effectively with these conflict, they may not develop the essential skills needed
for a strong sense of identity and self.

Psychosocial Stage 1 - Trust vs. Mistrust

 The first stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development occurs between birth and one
year of age and is the most fundamental stage in life.
 Because an infant is utterly dependent, the development of trust is based on the dependability
and quality of the child's caregivers. At this point in development, the child is utterly depending
upon adult caregiver for everything - food. love, warmth, safety, nurturing. Everything. If a
caregiver fails to provide adequate care and love, the child will come to feel that he or she
cannot trust or depend upon the adults in his or her life.

 If a child successfully develops trust, he or she will feel safe and secure in the world. Caregivers
who are inconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or rejecting contribute to feelings of mistrust in
the children they care for. Failure to develop trust will result in fear and a belief that the world is
inconsistent and unpredictable.

 Of course, no child is going to develop a sense of 100 percent trust or 100 percent doubt.
Erikson believed that successful development was all about striking a balance between the two
opposing sides. When this happens, children acquire hope, which Erikson described as an
openness to experience tempered by some wariness that danger may be present.

Psychosocial Stage 2 - Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

 The second stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development takes place during early
childhood and is focused on children developing a greater sense of personal control. At this
point in development, children are just starting to gain a little bit of independence. They are
starting to perform basic actions on their own and making simple decisions about what they
prefer. By allowing kids to make choices and gain control, parents and caregivers can help
children develop a sense of autonomy.
 Like Freud, Erikson believed that toilet training was a vital part of this process. However,
Erikson's reasoning was quite different then that of Freud's. Erikson believe that learning to
control one's bodily functions leads to a feeling of control and a sense of independence.

 Other important events include gaining more control over food choices, toy preferences, and
clothing selection.

 Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident, while those who do not
are left with a sense of inadequacy and self-doubt.

 Erikson believed that achieving a balance between autonomy and shame and doubt would lead
to will, which is the belief that children can act with intention, within reason and limits.

Next: Preschool, Middle Childhood, and Adolescence - Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development
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< Continued from page 1

Psychosocial Stage 3 - Initiative vs. Guilt

 During the preschool years, children begin to assert their power and control over the world
through directing play and other social interactions.
 Children who are successful at this stage feel capable and able to lead others. Those who fail to
acquire these skills are left with a sense of guilt, self-doubt, and lack of initiative.

 When an ideal balance of individual initiative and a willingness to work with others is achieved,
the ego quality known as purpose emerges.

Psychosocial Stage 4 - Industry vs. Inferiority

 This stage covers the early school years from approximately age 5 to 11.
  Through social interactions, children begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments
and abilities.

 Children who are encouraged and commended by parents and teachers develop a feeling of
competence and belief in their skills. Those who receive little or no encouragement from
parents, teachers, or peers will doubt their abilities to be successful.

 Successfully finding a balance at this stage of psychosocial development leads to the strength
known as competence or a belief our own abilities to handle the tasks set before us.

Psychosocial Stage 5 - Identity vs. Confusion

 During adolescence, children explore their independence and develop a sense of self.
 Those who receive proper encouragement and reinforcement through personal exploration will
emerge from this stage with a strong sense of self and a feeling of independence and control.
Those who remain unsure of their beliefs and desires will feel insecure and confused about
themselves and the future.

 Completing this stage successfully leads to fidelity, which Erikson described as an ability to live
by society's standards and expectations.

Next: Young Adulthood, Middle Age, and Old Age - Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development
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< Continued from page 2

Psychosocial Stage 6 - Intimacy vs. Isolation

 This stage covers the period of early adulthood when people are exploring personal
relationships.
 Erikson believed it was vital that people develop close, committed relationships with other
people. Those who are successful at this step will form relationships that are committed and
secure.

 Remember that each step builds on skills learned in previous steps. Erikson believed that a
strong sense of personal identity was important for developing intimate relationships. Studies
have demonstrated that those with a poor sense of self tend to have less committed
relationships and are more likely to suffer emotional isolation, loneliness, and depression.

 Successful resolution of this stage results in the virtue known as love. It is marked by the ability
to form lasting, meaningful relationships with other people.

Psychosocial Stage 7 - Generativity vs. Stagnation

 During adulthood, we continue to build our lives, focusing on our career and family.
 Those who are successful during this phase will feel that they are contributing to the world by
being active in their home and community. Those who fail to attain this skill will feel
unproductive and uninvolved in the world.

 Care is the virtue achieved when this stage is handled successfully. Being proud of your
accomplishments, watching your children grow into adults, and developing a sense of unity with
your life partner are important accomplishments of this stage.

Psychosocial Stage 8 - Integrity vs. Despair

 This phase occurs during old age and is focused on reflecting back on life.
 Those who are unsuccessful during this stage will feel that their life has been wasted and will
experience many regrets. The individual will be left with feelings of bitterness and despair.

 Those who feel proud of their accomplishments will feel a sense of integrity. Successfully
completing this phase means looking back with few regrets and a general feeling of satisfaction.
These individuals will attain wisdom, even when confronting death.
The Strengths of Erikson's Theory

One of the strengths of psychosocial theory is that it provides a broad framework from which to
view development throughout the entire lifespan. It also allows us to emphasize the social nature
of human beings and the important influence that social relationships have on development.
Researchers have found evidence supporting Erikson's ideas about identity and have further
identified different sub-stages of identity formation. Some research also suggests that people
who form strong personal identities during adolescence are better capable of forming intimate
relationships during early adulthood.

Limitations of Psychosocial Theory

What kinds of experiences are necessary to successfully complete each stage? How does a
person move from one stage to the next? One major weakness of psychosocial theory is that the
exact mechanisms for resolving conflicts and moving from one stage to the next are not well
described or developed. The theory fails to detail exactly what type of experiences are necessary
at each stage in order to successfully resolve the conflicts and move to the next stage.

How to Cite This Article:

Cherry, K. A. (2005). Erikson's stages of psychosocial development. Retrieved from

http://psychology.about.com/od/psychosocialtheories/a/psychosocial.htm

References:

1
Erikson, E.H. (1968). Identity: Youth and Crisis. New York: Norton.

2
Erikson, E.H. (1963). Childhood and Society. (2nd ed.). New York: Norton.

3
Carver, C.S. & Scheir, M.F. (2000). Perspectives on Personality. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development
Stages of Moral Development

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How exactly do children develop morality? This question has fascinated parents, religious
leaders, and philosophers for ages, but moral development has also become a hot-button issue in
both psychology and education. Do parental or societal influences play a greater role in moral
development? Do all kids develop morality in similar ways? One of the best known theories
exploring some of these basic questions was developed by a psychologist named Lawrence
Kohlberg. His work modified and expanded upon Jean Piaget's previous work to form a theory
that explained how children develop moral reasoning.

Piaget described a two-stage process of moral development, while Kohlberg's theory of moral
development outlined six stages within three different levels. Kohlberg extended Piaget's theory,
proposing that moral development is a continual process that occurs throughout the lifespan.

"The Heinz Dilemma"

Kohlberg based his theory upon research and interviews with groups of young children. A series
of moral dilemmas were presented to these participants and they were also interviewed to
determine the reasoning behind their judgments of each scenario.

The following is one example of the dilemmas Kohlberg presented"

Heinz Steals the Drug

"In Europe, a woman was near death from a special kind of cancer. There was one
drug that the doctors thought might save her. It was a form of radium that a druggist
in the same town had recently discovered. The drug was expensive to make, but the
druggist was charging ten times what the drug cost him to make. He paid $200 for the
radium and charged $2,000 for a small dose of the drug.

The sick woman's husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the money,
but he could only get together about $ 1,000 which is half of what it cost. He told the
druggist that his wife was dying and asked him to sell it cheaper or let him pay later.
But the druggist said: "No, I discovered the drug and I'm going to make money from
it." So Heinz got desperate and broke into the man's store to steal the drug-for his
wife. Should the husband have done that?" (Kohlberg, 1963).

Kohlberg was not interested so much in the answer to the question of whether Heinz was wrong
or right, but in the reasoning for each participant's decision. The responses were then classified
into various stages of reasoning in his theory of moral development.

Level 1. Preconventional Morality

 Stage 1 - Obedience and Punishment

The earliest stage of moral development is especially common in young children, but adults are
also capable of expressing this type of reasoning. At this stage, children see rules as fixed and
absolute. Obeying the rules is important because it is a means to avoid punishment.
  Stage 2 - Individualism and Exchange
At this stage of moral development, children account for individual points of view and judge
actions based on how they serve individual needs. In the Heinz dilemma, children argued that
the best course of action was the choice that best-served Heinz’s needs. Reciprocity is possible
at this point in moral development, but only if it serves one's own interests.

Level 2. Conventional Morality

 Stage 3 - Interpersonal Relationships

Often referred to as the "good boy-good girl" orientation, this stage of moral development is
focused on living up to social expectations and roles. There is an emphasis on conformity, being
"nice," and consideration of how choices influence relationships.
 Stage 4 - Maintaining Social Order
At this stage of moral development, people begin to consider society as a whole when making
judgments. The focus is on maintaining law and order by following the rules, doing one’s duty
and respecting authority.

Level 3. Postconventional Morality

 Stage 5 - Social Contract and Individual Rights

At this stage, people begin to account for the differing values, opinions, and beliefs of other
people. Rules of law are important for maintaining a society, but members of the society should
agree upon these standards.
 Stage 6 - Universal Principles
Kohlberg’s final level of moral reasoning is based upon universal ethical principles and abstract
reasoning. At this stage, people follow these internalized principles of justice, even if they
conflict with laws and rules.

Criticisms of Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development:

 Does moral reasoning necessarily lead to moral behavior? Kohlberg's theory is concerned with
moral thinking, but there is a big difference between knowing what we ought to do versus our
actual actions.
 Is justice the only aspect of moral reasoning we should consider? Critics have pointed out that
Kohlberg's theory of moral development overemphasizes the concept as justice when making
moral choices. Factors such as compassion, caring, and other interpersonal feelings may play an
important part in moral reasoning.

 Does Kohlberg's theory overemphasize Western philosophy? Individualist cultures emphasize

personal rights while collectivist cultures stress the importance of society and community.
Eastern, collectivist cultures may have different moral outlooks that Kohlberg's theory does not
account for.

References

Gilligan, Carol (1982). In a Different Voice: Women's Conceptions of Self and Morality. Harvard Educational Review 47 (4).

Kohlberg, L. (1973). The Claim to Moral Adequacy of a Highest Stage of Moral Judgment. Journal of Philosophy, 70(18), 630–646.

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