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Spreadsheet Calculations

Chapter · May 2018

DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-75979-1_15

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2 Spreadsheet Calculations
2.1 Frequently needed equations
2.1.1 Some simple correlations
Mass flow

𝑊 =𝐴𝜌𝑉 (2.1-1)

Density
𝑃𝑠
𝜌= (2.1-2)
𝑅 𝑇𝑠
Mach number

𝑀 = √𝛾 𝑅 𝑇𝑠 (2.1-3)

Total-static temperature ratio

𝑇 𝛾−1 2
=1+ 𝑀 (2.1-4)
𝑇𝑠 2
Total-static pressure ratio
𝛾
𝑃 𝛾 − 1 2 𝛾−1 (2.1-5)
= (1 + 𝑀 )
𝑃𝑠 2
Corrected flow per area

𝑊 √𝑇 𝑅 𝑀
√ = 𝛾+1 (2.1-6)
𝐴𝑃 𝛾
𝛾−1 2(𝛾−1)
(1 + 2 𝑀2 )

Specific heat at constant pressure

𝛾
𝐶𝑃 = R (2.1-7)
𝛾−1

2.1.2 Compressor
The task: calculate specific work H1-2 and exit temperature T2 for a given compressor inlet
temperature T1, pressure ratio P2/P1 and isentropic or polytropic efficiency.
2.1.2.1 By means of the isentropic exponent  and specific heat CP
This is the method of choice for simple gas turbine performance calculation. Taking the
temperature dependence of specific heat into account requires iteration.

1
 𝛾−1
𝛾 𝑃2 𝛾
𝐻1−2,𝑖𝑠 = 𝑅 𝑇1 [( ) − 1] (2.1-8)
𝛾−1 𝑃1

Specific work for isentropic efficiency less than unity:

𝐻1−2,𝑖𝑠
𝐻1−2 = (2.1-9)
𝜂𝑖𝑠
Exit temperature
𝐻1−2
𝑇2 = 𝑇1 + (2.1-10)
𝐶𝑃
A slightly different method for calculating exit temperature is based on
𝑇2,𝑖𝑠
𝐶𝑃 (𝑇2,𝑖𝑠 − 𝑇1 ) 𝑇 −1
𝜂𝑖𝑠 = = 1 (2.1-11)
𝐶𝑃 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) 𝑇2
𝑇1 − 1
Re-written
𝛾−1⁄
𝑃 𝛾
(𝑃2 ) −1
1
𝑇2 = 𝑇1 + 1 (2.1-12)
𝜂𝑖𝑠
{ }

Correlation isentropic - polytropic efficiency

𝛾−1
𝑃 𝛾
(𝑃2 ) −1
1
𝜂𝑖𝑠 = 𝛾−1 (2.1-13)
𝑃 𝛾 𝜂𝑝𝑜𝑙
(𝑃2 ) −1
1
2.1.2.2 By means of the entropy function 
This is the method of choice for professional gas turbine performance calculation. The temperature
dependence of specific heat is taken exactly into account.
The difference in the entropy function values for T1 and T2,is equals the logarithm of the
pressure ratio:
𝑃2
Ψ(𝑇2,𝑖𝑠 ) = Ψ(𝑇1 ) + 𝑙𝑛 ( ) (2.1-14)
𝑃1
When isentropic efficiency is given:
ℎ(𝑇2,𝑖𝑠 ) − ℎ(𝑇1 )
𝐻1−2 = (2.1-15)
𝜂𝑖𝑠
Exit temperature follows from enthalpy h(T2):

ℎ(𝑇2 ) = ℎ(𝑇1 ) + 𝐻1−2 (2.1-16)

2
 Polytropic efficiency is calculated as
𝑃
𝑙𝑛 (𝑃2 )
𝜂𝑝𝑜𝑙 = 1 (2.1-17)
Ψ(𝑇2 ) − Ψ(𝑇1 )

When polytropic efficiency is given:

𝑃
𝑙𝑛 (𝑃2 )
Ψ(𝑇2 ) = Ψ(𝑇1 ) + 1 (2.1-18)
𝜂𝑝𝑜𝑙
Specific work:

𝐻1−2 = ℎ(𝑇2 ) − ℎ(𝑇1 ) (2.1-19)

Isentropic efficiency:
ℎ(𝑇2,𝑖𝑠 ) − ℎ(𝑇1 )
𝜂𝑖𝑠 = (2.1-20)
𝐻1−2
2.1.2.3 Comparing compressors of different pressure ratios
Polytropic efficiency is one way of comparing compressors of different pressure ratios. However,
it does not take account of the number of stages N. The simplest approach allowing for stage count
is to compare average stage pressure ratio which is defined as:
𝑃2
( ) = 𝑂𝑃𝑅1/𝑁 (2.1-21)
𝑃1 𝑎𝑣𝑔

Fig. 2.1-1: Compressor average stage pressure ratio versus stage number
Another approach assumes that the aerodynamic loading, ΔH/U2, and polytropic efficiency
are held constant for each stage. As the mean diameter does not vary very much from inlet to exit
of a compressor, the circumferential velocity, U, is also roughly constant. The rising temperature
from front to rear leads to reducing ΔH/T or lower stage pressure ratio at the rear. Fig. 2.1-2Fig.

3
2.1-1 shows how the stage pressure ratio varies from 1.59 on stage 1 to 1.22 on stage 10 for a
compressor with overall pressure ratio 20 and 0.90 polytropic efficiency.
The pressure ratio of the first stage is called the pressure ratio parameter. The difference
between pressure ratio parameter and the average stage pressure ratio is shown in Fig. 2.1-2 for 5-
and 10-stage compressors across a range of overall pressure ratio.

Fig. 2.1-2: Pressure ratio parameter versus average stage pressure ratio
2.1.3 Turbine
The task: Find from given turbine inlet temperature T1, specific work H1-2 and efficiency the
pressure ratio P1/P2 and the exit temperature T2.

Enthalpy after expansion:

ℎ(𝑇2 ) = ℎ(𝑇1 ) − 𝐻1−2 (2.1-22)

2.1.3.1 When isentropic efficiency is given:

𝐻1−2
ℎ(𝑇2,𝑖𝑠 ) = ℎ(𝑇1 ) − (2.1-23)
𝜂𝑖𝑠
By means of the entropy function 

Pressure ratio
𝑃1
= 𝑒 𝛹(𝑇1 )−𝛹(𝑇2,𝑖𝑠 ) (2.1-24)
𝑃2
Polytropic efficiency
𝜓(𝑇1 ) − 𝜓(𝑇2 )
𝜂𝑝𝑜𝑙 = (2.1-25)
𝑃
ln (𝑃1 )
2

4
2.1.3.2 When polytropic efficiency is given:
Pressure ratio
𝑃1 )−𝛹(𝑇2,𝑖𝑠 ))/𝜂𝑝𝑜𝑙
= 𝑒 (𝛹(𝑇1 (2.1-26)
𝑃2
Entropy function for T2is

𝑃1
𝜓(𝑇2,𝑖𝑠 ) = 𝛹(𝑇1 ) − ln ( ) (2.1-27)
𝑃2
Isentropic efficiency
ℎ(𝑇1 ) − ℎ(𝑇2 )
𝜂𝑖𝑠 = (2.1-28)
ℎ(𝑇1 ) − ℎ(𝑇2,𝑖𝑠 )
A slightly different method for calculating exit pressure P2 assumes constant specific heat:

𝑇 𝑇
𝐶𝑃 (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ) 1 − 𝑇2 1 − 𝑇2
1 1
𝜂𝑖𝑠 = = = 𝛾−1⁄ (2.1-29)
𝐶𝑃 (𝑇1 − 𝑇2,𝑖𝑠 ) 𝑇
1 − 𝑇2,𝑖𝑠 𝑃
1 − (𝑃2 )
𝛾
1
1
Re-written

𝛾
⁄𝛾−1
1 𝑇2
𝑃2 = 𝑃1 [1 − (1 − )] (2.1-30)
𝜂𝑖𝑠 𝑇1

2.1.4 Isentropic and polytropic efficiency

In their book “Gas Turbine Performance”, P. P. Walsh and P. Fletcher define polytropic efficiency
as the isentropic efficiency of an infinitesimally small step in a compression, such that its
magnitude would be constant throughout. It accounts for the fact that the inlet temperature to a
back stage of a compressor is higher, and hence more work input is required for the same pressure
rise.

5
 Fig. 2.1-3: Polytropic and isentropic efficiency (Tentry=288K)
Polytropic efficiency enables compressors and turbines of different pressure ratio to be
compared on an ‘apples to apples’ basis. Those of the same technology level, average stage loading
and geometric design freedom will have the same polytropic efficiency regardless of pressure ratio.
Fig. 2.1-3 makes it understandable why compressor people prefer quoting polytropic
efficiency and turbine designers like to present isentropic efficiency numbers.
2.1.5 Combustor
How much heat is added in the combustion chamber depends on the chemical composition of the
liquid or gaseous fuel. The higher fuel heating value is determined experimentally in a bomb
calorimeter. The combustion of a stoichiometric mixture of fuel and oxidizer in a steel container
at 25 °C is initiated by an ignition device and the reactions allowed to complete. When hydrogen
and oxygen react during combustion, water vapor is produced. The vessel and its contents are then
cooled to the original 25°C and the higher heating value HHV is determined as the heat released
between identical initial and final temperatures. (Ref. Wikipedia).
Any water produced during the test will be in liquid form after the bomb calorimeter has
been cooled down to 25°C. The lower fuel heating FHV value is calculated from the higher heating
value for the water being in vapor form. FHV is the quantity of interest for gas turbines.
If the bomb calorimeter test had been done at a different temperature, i.e. not at 25°C, we
would measure a different FHV value.
The energy balance through a combustor is
𝑊𝐴 [ℎ𝐴 (𝑇1 ) − ℎ𝐴 (𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓 )] + 𝑊𝐹 [ℎ𝐹 (𝑇𝐹 ) − ℎ𝐹 (𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓 )] + 𝑊𝐹 𝐹𝐻𝑉𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓
(2.1-31)
= (𝑊𝐴 + 𝑊𝐹 )[ℎ𝐺 (𝑇2 ) − ℎ𝐺 (𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓 )]
In this equation stands A for air, F for fuel and G for combustion gases. The reference
temperature is the temperature for which the fuel heating value is valid.
We can re-write this equation, employing mean values for specific heat:

6
 𝑊𝐴 𝐶𝑃,𝐴 (𝑇1 − 𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓 ) + 𝑊𝐹 𝐶𝐹 (𝑇𝐹 − 𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓 ) + 𝑊𝐹 𝐹𝐻𝑉𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓
(2.1-32)
= (𝑊𝐴 + 𝑊𝐹 )𝐶𝑃,𝐺 (𝑇2 − 𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓 )
Let us assume that the fuel temperature is TF=Tref and we introduce the fuel-air-mass ratio
far=WF/WA. The equation changes to

𝐶𝑃,𝐴 (𝑇1 − 𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓 ) + 𝑓𝑎𝑟 𝐹𝐻𝑉𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓 = (1 + 𝑓𝑎𝑟) 𝐶𝑃,𝐺 (𝑇2 − 𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓 ) (2.1-33)

We can solve the equation for far:

𝐶𝑃,𝐺 (𝑇2 − 𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓 ) − 𝐶𝑃,𝐴 (𝑇1 − 𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓 )
𝑓𝑎𝑟 = (2.1-34)
𝐹𝐻𝑉 − 𝐶𝑃,𝐺 (𝑇2 − 𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓 )
2.1.6 Nozzle
Critical temperature ratio
𝑇 𝛾+1
= (2.1-35)
𝑇𝑠 2
Critical pressure ratio
𝛾
𝑃 𝛾 + 1 𝛾−1 (2.1-36)
=( )
𝑃𝑠 2
2.2 Cycle calculation for a turbojet engine
2.2.1 Requirement
To calculate the thrust and specific fuel consumption for a turbojet engine flying at an altitude of
8,000 m at Mach 0.7 and ISA temperature
2.2.1.1 Data Available
The engine has a mass flow rate of 30 kg/s
Overall pressure ratio = 20.0
The isentropic efficiency of the compressor = 0.85
Combustor efficiency = 0.99
The maximum allowable turbine entry temperature (T4) = 1700 K
The isentropic efficiency of the turbine = 0.89
Zero overboard bleed flow and power extraction
2.2.1.2 Assumptions
Inlet isentropic efficiency = 0.965
Combustor pressure loss = 4%
Heating value of the fuel at 25°C, FHV = 43.124 MJ/kg
Uncooled turbine
The expansion in the convergent exhaust nozzle is isentropic
Mechanical efficiency, m = 0.99
2.2.2 Solution:
2.2.2.1 Sketch the engine and identify the calculation planes.

7
 Fig. 2.2-1: Thermodynamic stations (calculation planes)
2.2.2.2 Consult the “US Standard Atmosphere” tables to obtain ambient conditions.
The ambient conditions at an altitude of 8,000 m are Tamb = 236.15 K and Pamb = 35.60 kPa. Note
that any inaccuracy in these values (introduced by rounding the numbers, for example) propagates
to all the following calculations.
2.2.2.3 Calculate conditions at the compressor face.
The inlet is essentially an isentropic duct, where no work is done or heat is transferred. Ratio of
specific heats, γ = CP/CV = 1.4 for air at prevailing temperature. The total temperature, T2, at flight
Mach number, M0, is obtained from
𝛾−1 2
𝑇2 = 𝑇𝑎𝑚𝑏 (1 + 𝑀0 ) = 236.15 × (1 + 0.2 × 0.72 ) = 259.35 𝐾 (2.2-1)
2
In this example, the stagnation pressure at the compressor face is defined by isentropic efficiency

𝑃2 = 35.60 (1 + 0.965 × 0.2 × 0.72 )3.5 = 48.84 𝑘𝑃𝑎 (2.2-2)

2.2.2.4 Calculate conditions at the compressor delivery.

The compressor overall pressure ratio OPR is given by
𝑃3
𝑂𝑃𝑅 = = 20 (2.2-3)
𝑃2
The total pressure at compressor delivery then becomes

𝑃3 = 48.84 × 20 = 976.80 𝑘𝑃𝑎 (2.2-4)

In the absence of turbine cooling flow and overboard bleed flow the mass flow at
compressor delivery is the same as at the compressor inlet, thus W3 = W2.
The equation for compressor isentropic efficiency, ηis,2-3 can be used to obtain the exit total
temperature through the isentropic relationship between the ideal temperature ratio and actual
pressure ratio
⁄𝛾 𝛾−1
𝑇3,𝑖𝑠 𝑃3
𝐼𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑇3𝑖𝑠 − 𝑇2 − 1 ( ) −1
𝑇2 𝑃2 (2.2-5)
𝜂𝑖𝑠,2−3 = = = =
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑇3 − 𝑇2 𝑇3 𝑇3
− 1
𝑇2 𝑇2 − 1

8
 For a meaningful value of , we need the average compressor total temperature, so initially
let us assume a mean value of 1.4 for  through the compressor and use that to get us a first value
of T3. Equation (2.1-12) gives us
𝛾−1
⁄𝛾
𝑃3
(𝑃 ) −1
2
𝑇3 = 𝑇2 + 1 (2.2-6)
𝜂𝑖𝑠,2−3
{ }

Substituting known values into equation (2.1-12), we obtain

1.4−1⁄
(20) 1.4 −1
𝑇3 = 259.35 { + 1}=672.31K (2.2-7)
0.85

A better value for  can now be obtained by considering the inlet and exit temperatures,
and then
259.35 + 672.31
̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑇2−3 = = 465.83 𝐾 (2.2-8)
2

Fig. 2.2-2: Isentropic exponent of air and combustion products from a generic hydrocarbon fuel

9
 Fig. 2.2-3: Specific heat of air and combustion products from a generic hydrocarbon fuel

From the γ vs. temperature chart in Fig. 2.2-2, at far = 0,

𝛾2−3 = 1.39
̅̅̅̅̅̅ (2.2-9)

and for later use from Fig. 2.2-3

𝑐𝑝2−3 = 1024 𝐽⁄𝑘𝑔. 𝐾

̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ (2.2-10)

Substituting once more in the compressor efficiency equation (2.2-6), the new value of
compressor delivery temperature is found to be

𝑇3 = 661.37 𝐾 (2.2-11)

The temperature value has changed by only 1.6%, so further iteration is unnecessary. By
the way, GasTurb uses the entropy function for getting the exact result T3=662K. For later use, we
calculate the total temperature rise through the compressor as being

𝑇3−2 = 661.37 − 259.35 = 402.02 𝐾 (2.2-12)

2.2.2.5 Calculate combustor exit conditions and fuel flow rate.

Combustor calculations could be delayed, but now is a good time to calculate the fuel flow rate so
it can be included in the turbine mass flow used in the subsequent energy balance calculations.
The compressor delivery total temperature was obtained above (T3 = 661.37 K), and the
maximum turbine entry total temperature has been given in the input (T4 = 1700 K). The fuel
heating value of FHV=43.124 MJ/kg is valid for the temperature of Tref = 25°C.

10
 𝐶𝑃,𝐺 (𝑇4 − 𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓 ) − 𝐶𝑃,𝐴 (𝑇3 − 𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓 )
𝑓𝑎𝑟 = (2.2-13)
𝐹𝐻𝑉 − 𝐶𝑃,𝐺 (𝑇4 − 𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓 )
Initially, let us assume a fuel-air-ratio of 0.05 and make adjustments later. For this far, the
specific heat of the combustion gases CP,G=1347 J/kg.K at 1700K and 1045J/kg.K at the reference
temperature of 298K. Mean CP,G, of the combustion gases is 1196 J/kg.K. The respective values
for the air are CP,A=1066 J/kg.K at 661K and 1005J/kg.K for298K, which yields the mean value
CP,A of 1035.5J/kg.K. Inserting these values into the equation above yields far=0.03137.
With the new fuel-air-ratio we get improved values for CP,G and from re-evaluation of the
equation we get far=0.03034. Fuel flow is

𝑊𝐹,𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 = 𝑓𝑎𝑟 ∗ 𝑊3 = 0.03034 × 30 = 0.91 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑠 (2.2-14)

But this is the ideal value. The actual fuel burn is calculated by considering the combustor
efficiency, 3-4. Then
𝑊𝐹 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 0.91
𝑊𝐹 = = = 0.92 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑠 (2.2-15)
𝜂3−4 0.99
This value is 2.4% lower than the value calculated by GasTurb which reads tables with
data that were generated by the NASA CEA Program. One reason for the difference is dissociation,
which under the prevailing conditions reduces the equilibrium temperature by 5K. Working with
mean specific heat over the big temperature range from 298K to 1700K is responsible for the main
part of the difference.
In the absence of turbine cooling air, the mass flow rate through the turbine is

𝑊4 = 𝑊3 + 𝑊𝐹 = 30 + 0.92 = 30.92 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑠 (2.2-16)

The total pressure at the combustor exit is obtained from the combustor pressure loss
provided. Therefore

𝑃4 = 𝑃3 × 0.96 = 976.80 × 0.96 = 937.73 𝑘𝑃𝑎 (2.2-17)

2.2.2.6 Do an energy balance calculation for the spool and find the conditions at the turbine exit.
In general terms, the work balance on an engine spool may be stated as turbine work*mechanical
efficiency equals compressor work plus power offtake. The mechanical inefficiency is caused by
power extraction for engine accessories (fuel and oil pumps), in addition to bearing and disk
windage losses. In this example power offtake is zero. Expressed more specifically, the energy
balance becomes

𝑊𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 × ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐶𝑃 4−5 × 𝑇4−5 × 𝜂𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ = 𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑟 × ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐶𝑃 2−3 × 𝑇2−3 (2.2-18)

from which the temperature drop across the turbine may be expressed as
1 𝑊2 𝐶 ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑃 2−3
𝑇4−5 = × × × 𝑇2−3 (2.2-19)
𝜂𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ 𝑊4 𝐶𝑃 4−5̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅

11
 To be accurate, the mass flow rate through the turbine must include the fuel added to the
gas stream, and that is why we have already calculated it. As for the compressor, we need an
average value of temperature across the turbine to evaluate the corresponding average value of CP.
We guess a value of the turbine exit temperature (T5) to be 1400 K, and since we already know
that T4 = 1700 K, the initial average value of the temperature through the turbine becomes 1550K.
From Fig. 2.2-3, at far =0.03034, we obtain

̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐶 𝑃 4−5 = 1284.4 𝐽⁄𝑘𝑔. 𝐾 (2.2-20)

Then, substituting in equation (2.2-19), we obtain

1 30.00 1024
𝑇4−5 = × × × 402.02 = 314.22 𝐾 (2.2-21)
0.99 30.92 1284.4
This provides a better value of turbine exit temperature (T5 = 1700 – 314.22= 1385.8 K), a
better value of average temperature across the turbine (1542.9 K) and improved values of average
specific heat through the turbine. From Fig. 2.2-3 at far = 0.03034

̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐶 𝑃 4−5 = 1283.4 𝐽⁄𝑘𝑔. 𝐾 (2.2-22)

Inserting the new value of CP 4-5 into the power balance equation (2.2-19) results in a
temperature drop through the turbine of
1 30.00 1024
𝑇4−5 = × × × 402.02 = 314.36 𝐾 (2.2-23)
0.99 30.92 1283.4
Compared with our previous estimate, the change in the value of the temperature drop is
only 0.14 K, from which it may be deemed that the solution has converged. The turbine exit
temperature is then

𝑇5 = 1700 − 314.36 = 1385.64 𝐾 (2.2-24)

This value deviates less than 1K from the GasTurb result which is T5=1384.73K.

We now use the expression for turbine isentropic efficiency, which incorporates the
isentropic relationship between ideal temperature ratio and actual pressure ratio, to calculate the
exit total pressure.
𝑇 𝑇
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑇4 − 𝑇5 1 − 𝑇5 1 − 𝑇5
4 4
𝜂4−5 = = = = 𝛾−1⁄ (2.2-25)
𝐼𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑇4 − 𝑇5𝑖𝑠 𝑇
1 − 5𝑖𝑠 𝑃5 𝛾
𝑇4 1 − (𝑃 )
4

The isentropic exponent at the mean turbine temperature is 1.289 (Fig. 2.2-2).

𝛾
⁄𝛾−1
1 𝑇5
𝑃5 = 𝑃4 [1 − (1 − )] (2.2-26)
𝜂4−5 𝑇4

12
 1.289⁄
1 1385.64 0.289
(2.2-27)
𝑃5 = 937.73 [1 − (1 − )]
0.89 1700

From which

𝑃5 = 331.84 𝑘𝑃𝑎 (2.2-28)

This value deviates only 0.7% from the GasTurb result which is 329.55kPa
2.2.2.7 Calculate the thrust from the exhaust nozzle.
Net thrust is determined from the rate of change of momentum between engine inlet (the ram drag)
and nozzle exit combined with the effect of any excess (static) pressure acting on the nozzle exit
area. This is expressed as

𝐹𝑁 = 𝑊8 (𝑉8 − 𝑉0 ) + 𝐴8 (𝑃𝑠8 − 𝑃𝑎𝑚𝑏 ) (2.2-29)

where W8 is the exhaust mass flow rate and A8 is the nozzle throat area. (The exit and throat are
coincident for a simple convergent nozzle.)
The pressure term only appears if the nozzle is choked, otherwise the flow expands to
ambient pressure at the exit and the pressure term in equation (2.2-29) disappears. We must
calculate the pressure ratio through the nozzle and determine if choking occurs.
The nozzle is isentropic, no pressure is lost between the turbine exit and the nozzle exit,
and P8 = P5. The temperature and pressure at entry to the nozzle are T8 = T5 = 1385.64K and P8 =
331.84kPa respectively.
The nozzle pressure ratio is given by
𝑃8 331.84
= = 9.32 (2.2-30)
𝑃𝑎𝑚𝑏 35.6

The nozzle pressure ratio for choking conditions is expressed as

𝛾
𝑃8 𝛾 + 1 𝛾−1
=( ) (2.2-31)
𝑃𝑠8 2

where Ps8 is the static pressure in the choked nozzle throat plane and the value of 
corresponds to the gas temperature at that location.

The nozzle throat static temperature is given by

2
𝑇𝑠8 = 𝑇𝑠,𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 = (𝛾+1) 𝑇8 (2.2-32)

We know that far8 is 0.03034, so from Fig. 2.2-2

𝛾𝑇8 = 1.295 (2.2-33)

13
 We use this value for estimating the static temperature in the nozzle throat using equation
(2.2-32) as

𝑇𝑠8 = 0.87 × 𝑇8 = 0.87 × 1385.64𝐾 = 1205𝐾 (2.2-34)

From Fig. 2.2-2 we get an improved estimate for the isentropic exponent

𝛾𝑇𝑠8 = 1.304 (2.2-35)

Using Equation (2.1-36), the critical pressure ratio at which the nozzle chokes is given by
1.304⁄
𝑃8 1.304 + 1 0.304
( ) =( ) = 1.835 (2.2-36)
𝑃𝑠8 𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 2

Therefore
𝑃8 𝑃
>> 𝑃 8 (2.2-37)
𝑃𝑎𝑚𝑏 𝑠8

and the nozzle is severely choked.

Now we calculate the nozzle throat area A8. For the choked nozzle, the exit static
temperature at its exit is given by
2
𝑇𝑠8 = 𝑇𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 = (𝛾+1) 𝑇8 (2.2-38)

So
2
𝑇𝑠8 = ( ) 1385.64 = 1202.8 𝐾 (2.2-39)
2.304

The corresponding static pressure is

𝑃8 331.84
𝑃𝑠8 = = = 180.84 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑃8 1.835 (2.2-40)
(𝑃 )
𝑠8 𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐

Note:
We are interested in static values of temperature and density because static temperature determines
the speed of sound in a gas and static density is used in the continuity equation to determine the
mass flow rate and the speed at which it travels through an orifice or duct. Both properties are
evaluated by moving with the gas!
The density of the gas, based on known static values of pressure and temperature, is
calculated from the equation of state
𝑃𝑠8 180.84 × 1000
𝜌𝑠8 = = = 0.5238 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3 (2.2-41)
𝑅𝑇𝑠8 287.05 × 1202.8

14
 Since the nozzle is choked, the speed of the exit exhaust gas is the same as the speed of
sound, and is found from

𝑉8 = √𝛾𝑅𝑇𝑠8 = √1.304 × 287.05 × 1202.8 = 671.0 𝑚⁄𝑠 (2.2-42)

The exit area of the hot nozzle is found from the continuity equation, as follows:
𝑊8 30.92
𝐴8 = = = 0.0880 𝑚2 (2.2-43)
𝜌8 𝑉8 0.5238 ∗ 671.0

At a flight speed of Mach 0.7 and an altitude of 8,000 m, U.S. Standard Atmosphere tables
tell us that the speed of sound at that altitude is 308.15 m/s, so the aircraft is flying at V0 = 215.70
m/s. We can now substitute values into equation (2.2-29) to get
30.92 × 671.0 − 30.00 × 215.70
𝐹𝑁 = + 0.088 × (180.84 − 35.6) (2.2-44)
1000
that is

𝐹𝑁 = 14.276 + 12.78 = 27.06 𝑘𝑁 (2.2-45)

This value agrees perfectly with the GasTurb result.

2.2.2.8 Calculate the specific fuel consumption
Specific fuel consumption is defined by
𝑊𝐹
𝑆𝐹𝐶 = 𝑔⁄𝑘𝑁. 𝑠 (2.2-46)
𝐹𝑁
So
0.92 × 1000
𝑆𝐹𝐶 = = 34.0 𝑔⁄𝑘𝑁. 𝑠 (2.2-47)
27.06
This value deviates by 2.3% from the GasTurb result; The reason is the difference in fuel
flow.
2.2.2.9 GasTurb output
Fig. 2.2-4 shows the cycle overview output of GasTurb. Compare the numbers with those from the
hand calculation results to see differences. By far the biggest deviation between the hand
calculation and GasTurb is in the fuel flow. GasTurb does not calculate a fuel-air-ratio for the
combustion chamber, it reads tables which have been created with the NASA CEA program. This
approach describes in effect the chemical equilibrium as the ideal case for a combustor. It is not
feasible to describe the heat addition in the combustion chamber accurately with mean values for
specific heat. The influence of pressure and water content in the air on the chemical equilibrium
cannot be described with the half-ideal gas model which is employed in GasTurb.

15
 Fig. 2.2-4: Cycle overview page of GasTurb

Fig. 2.2-5: Properties at stations

2.2.3 Summary

First sketch the engine and number the calculation planes.

Consult the “US Standard Atmosphere” tables to obtain ambient conditions.

Calculate conditions at the compressor face. Note the inlet efficiency!

Calculate compressor delivery conditions. Calculations are iterative

Find P3 from OPR
Use efficiency to get to delivery temperature

Calculate fuel flow rate from an energy balance and combustor exit conditions.
Fuel flow contributes to turbine flow
Burner efficiency is important
Turbine entry pressure, P4, is needed

16
Do an energy balance calculation for the spool and find the conditions at the turbine exit.
Note the mechanical efficiency
Use correct mass flows
Need to guess a mean turbine temperature & then iterate, using efficiency equation

Calculate the thrust from the exhaust nozzle.

First check for choking to determine if there is a pressure term in the thrust equation.

Calculate the specific fuel consumption.

17
 List of Figures

Fig. 2.1-1: Compressor average stage pressure ratio versus stage number
Fig. 2.1-2: Pressure ratio parameter versus average stage pressure ratio
Fig. 2.1-3: Polytropic and isentropic efficiency (Tentry=288K)
Fig. 2.2-1: Thermodynamic stations (calculation planes)
Fig. 2.2-2: Isentropic exponent of air and combustion products from a generic hydrocarbon
fuel
Fig. 2.2-3: Specific heat of air and combustion products from a generic hydrocarbon fuel
Fig. 2.2-4: Cycle overview page of GasTurb
Fig. 2.2-5: Properties at stations

18

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