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M E R R T T
Radiological Basics

INTRODUCTION
The reliance upon, and use of, radioactive material in agriculture,
industry, and medicine continues to increase. As the manufacture,
notes
use, and disposal of radioactive material has increased, so has the
need to transport it. Consequently, the potential for you as a
responder to encounter an incident involving some type of
radioactive material has increased. Having knowledge of radiological
hazards, and the terminology used to describe them, will increase
your ability to quickly recognize, safely respond, and accurately relay
information during an incident involving radioactive material.

PURPOSE
Upon completion of this module, you will have a better
understanding of the basic structure of an atom and the
fundamentals of radiation.

MODULE OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of this module, you will be able to:

1. Identify the basic components of an atom.

2. Define ionizing radiation, radioactivity, radioactive material,
and radioactive contamination.
3. Distinguish between radiation and contamination.
4. Identify some commonly transported sources of radioactive
material.

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BACKGROUND

notes Radiation is all around us and has been present since the birth of
this planet. Today, both man-made and natural radioactive material
are part of our daily lives. We use radioactive material for beneficial
purposes, such as generating electricity and diagnosing and treating
medical conditions. Radiation is used in many ways to improve our
health and the quality of our lives.

In 1895, while working in his

laboratory, Wilhelm Roentgen
discovered a previously
unknown phenomenon: rays
that could penetrate solid
objects. Roentgen called these
rays “X-rays.” The figure at right
shows Roentgen’s wife’s left
hand - the first known X-ray. The
practical uses of X-rays were
quickly recognized and, within a
few months, a medical X-ray
picture was used to locate
shotgun pellets in a man’s hand.

In 1896, Henri Becquerel reported observing a similar radiological

phenomenon caused by uranium ore. Later that year, Pierre and
Marie Curie identified the source of the radiation as a small
concentration of radium, a radioactive material, in the ore.

These discoveries set the stage for using radiation in medicine,

industry, and research. Since that time, scientist have developed a
detailed understanding of the hazards and benefits of radiation. In
fact, scientists understand radiological hazards better than hazards
associated with most other physical and chemical agents.

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BASIC RADIOLOGICAL CONCEPTS

Atomic Structure
All matter is made up of atoms. Atoms are invisible to the naked
notes
eye. The three basic components of the atom are protons, neutrons,
and electrons. The central portion of the atom is the nucleus. The
nucleus contains protons and neutrons, which are very close to each
other. Electrons orbit the nucleus.

Protons

Are located in the atom’s nucleus

Have a positive electrical charge

Determine the element’s identity

Neutrons

Are located in the atom’s nucleus

Have a neutral electrical charge

Determine the nuclear properties of the atom

Electrons

Orbit the nucleus

Have a negative electrical charge

Determine the chemical properties of an atom

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Atoms of a particular element will the same number of protons but

notes may have a different number of neutrons. These variants are called
isotopes. Isotopes of the same element have the same chemical
properties, regardless of the number of neutrons. The nuclear
properties of isotopes, however, can be quite different. For example,
the illustration below shows three isotopes of hydrogen. All three
isotopes have the same chemical properties; however, tritium is a
radioactive isotope or radioisotope.

Stable and Unstable Atoms

Only certain combinations of neutrons and protons result in stable
atoms.

If there are too many or too few neutrons for a given number of
protons, the resulting nucleus will have too much energy. This
atom will not be stable.

An unstable atom will try to become stable by giving off excess
energy in the form of radiation (particles or waves). Unstable
atoms are also known as radioactive atoms.

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IONIZING RADIATION
As an emergency responder, you may already be familiar with some
radiation terminology and with some radiological concepts. When
notes
most people think of radiation, they think of the type we are talking
about in this course—the type that comes from atoms. There are,
however, many different kinds of radiation. Visible light, heat, radio
waves, and microwaves are all examples of radiation that, as a group,
are referred to as electromagnetic radiation. The graphic below
shows the electromagnetic spectrum. As the graphic illustrates,
radiation such as radio waves and microwaves are much lower in
energy than X-rays or cosmic rays. These lower energy radiations
are referred to as non-ionizing radiation. Higher energy radiation
like X-rays or cosmic rays are referred to as ionizing radiation.

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Ionizing radiation has enough energy to remove electrons from

notes atoms. The process of removing electrons from atoms is called

ionization. Ionizing radiation’s ability to remove electrons from
atoms is what makes it potentially hazardous. In this course, when
we speak of radiation, we’re talking about ionizing radiation. The
ionization process is illustrated in the graphic below:

Radioactive Material and Radioactivity

Radioactive material is any material that spontaneously emits
ionizing radiation. The process of an unstable atom emitting
radiation is called radioactivity. Radioactive atoms can be generated
through nuclear processes but they also exist naturally in material
such as uranium ore, thorium rock, and some forms of potassium.
When a radioactive atom goes through the process of radioactivity,
also called radioactive decay, it will change to another type of atom.
In fact, a radioactive atom may change from one element to another
element during the decay process. For example, the element
uranium will eventually change through radioactive decay to lead.
This stabilizing process may take from a fraction of a second to
billions of years, depending on the isotope.

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The rate of radioactive decay is unique to each type of radioactive

atom and is measured in half-lives, the time it takes for half of the
radioactive atoms in a sample to decay to another form. Different
notes
radioactive materials have different half-lives. For example, some
radioactive pharmaceutical products (called radiopharmaceuticals)
have half-lives that range from a few hours to a few months. It is
important to note that radioactivity, regardless of the material, is
constantly decreasing. After seven half-lives, the material will be at
<1% of its original activity. The table below lists some common
radioisotopes and their approximate half-life.

Radioisotope Half-life
Nitrogen-1 6 7 s econds

Technetium-99m 6 hours

Thallium-201 73 hours

Cobalt-60 5 years

Ces ium-1 37 30 years

Americium-247 432 years

Uranium-238 4. 5 billion years

Radioactive Contamination
Any material that spontaneously emits ionizing radiation is a
radioactive material. If radioactive material is in a place where we
don’t want it (e.g., deposited on the surfaces of or inside structures,
areas, objects, or people) it is called radioactive contamination. The
photo below illustrates contamination by showing a
radiopharmaceutical package broken open with the contents spilled
on the ground.

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When radioactive material is properly used and controlled, there

notes are many beneficial applications. Most smoke detectors, for

instance, use radioactive material, as do certain medical diagnostic
tools and treatment procedures. It is only when radioactive material
is where it is not wanted (e.g., on the ground, in water, or on you)
that we refer to it as contamination.

RADIATION VERSUS CONTAMINATION

One of the most important concepts for
the responder to understand is the
difference between radiation and
contamination. Radiation is energy
emitted by radioactive material (as
illustrated by arrows). Contamination
is radioactive material in a location
where it is not wanted.

A person can be exposed to radiation and not become contaminated.

On the other hand, radioactive contamination emits radiation. If a
person is contaminated with radioactive material, the person
continues to be exposed to radiation until the contamination is
removed.

Put another way, radiation exposure is like being in front of a heat

lamp. When the lamp is on, you can feel the heat. When you turn
the lamp off, the heat is no longer felt. The heat is similar to
exposure. The source of the energy is not in or on you and the
exposure stops when you turn off the lamp. Contamination of a
person happens when the source of radiation (radioactive material)
gets on or in the person. You can be exposed to radiation and not
be contaminated. However, if you become contaminated, you will
continue to be exposed to radiation until the contamination is
removed.

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Exposure to Radioactive Material

If you encounter radioactive material at an incident scene, you may
be exposed to radiation. Even with the tightest package and the
notes
best protection, low levels of radiation can pass through the package.
This radiation is at a level that is (based on numerous scientific
studies by a variety of industry, scientific, and government
organizations) considered safe for people working near the packages.
If the packages are intact, you should not expect unsafe exposure.

You should remember that we are exposed to radiation every day

from common sources such as cosmic rays, X-rays, and even the
bricks used to make buildings. Being exposed to radiation at these
controlled levels is a very low hazard and should not prevent you
from taking normal emergency actions. Exposure to radiation alone
will not contaminate you.

Radioactive Contamination Types

A more serious concern is the possibility of radioactive
contamination. The probability of radioactive material being
released during an incident is extremely low. If radioactive material
is released (as illustrated in the photo below), it is possible for
responders, victims, and onlookers to become contaminated. This
is especially true where the material is in the form of a liquid or
powder.

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There are two basic types of radioactive contamination: external or

notes internal. Radioactive contamination is serious because as long as

the material is on you, your clothing, or inside your body, you are
still being exposed. While a short exposure to these materials may
be safe, prolonged or very close exposure may not be.

External Contamination Internal Contamination

A special concern is the possibility of internal contamination. This

happens when a radioactive material—usually a liquid, powder, or
gas—is accidentally ingested or inhaled or otherwise gets inside
the body. Once inside the body, it can be difficult to remove.

Radioactive material that might not be very dangerous outside the

body may be dangerous if allowed to enter the body. For this reason,
throughout this training, we will emphasize the use of personal
protective equipment (PPE) and the importance of not eating,
drinking, smoking, or chewing while on the scene of a radioactive
material incident.

Another concern is that people who are contaminated externally

may contaminate others, either directly or by secondary
contamination. Secondary contamination occurs when a
contaminated person or object touches something, that is then
touched by another, who then becomes contaminated.

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The following example describes how contamination is often spread.

Imagine chalk on a blackboard as being radioactive material. If the
chalk dust is transferred to your hands, you are considered
notes
contaminated. From your hand, the chalk dust can then be
transferred to your shirt. The transfer of contamination from your
hands to your shirt is an example of secondar y or cross
contamination.

COMMON SOURCES OF RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL

Everything is exposed to background ionizing radiation from
naturally occurring sources. Radiation comes from many sources:
the earth’s crust, water, the air, and cosmic rays and particles. A
portion of the world’s population is also exposed to man-made
sources of radiation through medical procedures that use
radioactive material and X-rays. Even our bodies contain naturally
occurring radioactive material.

What does radioactive material look like? As with other hazardous

material, radioactive material exists in all physical forms–solids,
liquids, and gases. The following are some commonly used and
transported radioactive materials that you may be likely to
encounter as a first responder.

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Radiopharmaceuticals -

notes are radioactive drugs used

for medical diagnoses
and in radiation therapy.
Radiopharmaceuticals are
the most commonly
transported radioactive
material in the U.S. Most
radiopharmaceuticals have
very short half-lives and are
typically transported by air
and express delivery services.
These materials can be in
liquid, gas, powdered, or solid
form.

Consumer products - smoke detectors are an example of a commonly

transported consumer product.
The amount of radioactivity in the
household smoke detector falls
below regulator y limits and
therefore these materials will not
be marked or labeled as
“radioactive material” during
transport.

Industrial sources - are specially designed and sealed sources of

radiation used in construction and other industrial applications to
check welds and metal for flaws, to check concrete and asphalt,
and to test the density of soil. Soil density gauges are one example
of a commonly transported industrial source. They usually contain
a cesium-137 and/or americium-241:beryllium source. These types
of gauges do not typically contain life-endangering amounts of
radioactive material. Radiography sources, on the other hand, often
contain a very high level source (commonly iridium-192 or cobalt-
60) that could pose a high exposure risk if the source were outside
of its packaging. When these sources are transported, they are
shipped in very robust shipping packages.

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Pictured below from top to bottom are: a soil density gauge sitting
outside of its shipping/carrying case; a radiography camera outside
its shipping/carrying case; and an example of a radiography source
notes
(commonly referred to as a “pigtail”). The pigtail is secured inside
the radiography camera.

Radiography camera and overpack

Source of radiation

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Nuclear fuels - nuclear fuel may be either new fuel being transported

notes to a nuclear power station or spent (used) fuel being transported

for reprocessing, storage, or disposal. These materials are solid in
form and transported in specially designed packages called shipping
casks. Pictured below is a spent fuel shipping cask being surveyed
by radiological control personnel.

Radioactive waste - waste material comes from nuclear power

generating facilities, nuclear processing plants, research institutions,
medical facilities, or other locations. Radioactive waste is commonly
transported by highway and rail. Pictured below are 55-gallon drums
of radioactive waste (typically containing items such as
contaminated protective clothing, rags, etc.) and, on the following
page, a railcar loaded with contaminated soil from cleanup
operations at a DOE facility.

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notes

Radioactive material is one of the most highly regulated hazardous

materials transported. The U.S. Department of Transportation
regulates domestic shipments of radioactive material. Both the U.S.
Nuclear Regulatory Commission and the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency have a role in assisting with development of the
hazardous material shipping regulations. The philosophy for
managing the transport of radioactive material is highly proactive.
Radioactive material has been moved across this country for more
than 50 years and, to date, there has never been a death or injury
resulting from exposure to this material during transport.

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 Check Your
Understanding
1. Atoms are made up of _______, ________, and _________.

2. The process of removing __________ from atoms is called ionization.

3. Radioactive material is any material that spontaneously emits

________ __________.

4. The process of an unstable atom emitting radiation is called

_____________.

5. Radioactive material in an unwanted location is called ____________.

6. _________ can pass through the body; ____________ can be deposited

in or on the surface of the body.

7. One commonly transported source of radioactive material is (pick

one):
a) Radio waves
b) Visible light
c) Radiopharmaceuticals
d) Microwaves

ANSWERS
7. c
contamination
6. radiation
5. contamination
4. radioactivity
radiation
3. ionizing M E R R T T
2. electrons
electrons
neutrons
1. protons

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